MATHEMATICS II POLAR COORDINATES

POLAR COORDINATES
1.1 Polar Coordinates:

There are two ways in which the position of a point in a plane can be
represented by:

1. Cartesian coordinates
2. Polar coordinates

Definition: the polar coordinate system is a two-dimensional coordinate

system in which each point P on a plane is determined by a distance r from a
fixed-point O that is called pole (or origin) and an angle θ from a fixed direction.
The point P is represented by the ordered pair (r, θ) and (r, θ) are called polar
coordinates.

In cartesian coordinates x and y can be positive or negative number. Also,

in polar coordinates r and θ can be positive and negative values. Below is a sketch
𝜋 𝜋
of the two points (2, ) and (-2, ).
6 6
𝜋 7𝜋
The coordinates (-2, ) describes the same point as the coordinate (2, ).
6 6

This leads to an important difference between cartesian and polar coordinates. In

cartesian coordinate there is exactly one set of coordinates for any given point.
But in polar coordinate, there are an infinite number of coordinates for the same
point.

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 MATHEMATICS II POLAR COORDINATES

For example, the following four points are all coordinates for the same
𝜋 −5𝜋 4𝜋 −2𝜋
point. (5, ) = (5, ) = (-5, ) = (-5, )
3 3 3 3

In fact, the point (r, θ) can be

represented by any of the following
coordinates pairs.

(𝒓, 𝜽 + 𝟐𝒏𝝅), (−𝒓, 𝜽 + (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏)𝝅)

where n is any integer.

The relationship between the two
systems can be seen from the diagram below

x and y can be expressed in terms of r and θ as:

𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
Or r and θ can be found if the values of
x and y are known:
𝑦
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , 𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
𝑥

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 MATHEMATICS II POLAR COORDINATES

Ex 1.1: Convert each of the following points into the given coordinate system.
2𝜋
(a) (−4, ) into cartesian coordinates.
3

(b) (-1,-1) into polar coordinates.

Sol.
2𝜋 1
a) 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 = −4 cos ( ) = −4 (− ) = 2
3 2
2𝜋 √3
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 = −4 sin ( ) = −4 ( )
3 2
= −2√3
2𝜋
(−4, ) ⇒ (2, −2√3)
3
b) 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = √(−1)2 + (−1)2 = √2
𝑦 −1 𝜋
𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( ) =
𝑥 −1 4
𝜋 5𝜋
∴𝜃 = +𝜋 =
4 4
5𝜋 𝜋
(−1, −1) ⇒ (√2, ) 𝑜𝑟 (−√2, )
4 4
Ex 1.2: Express in polar coordinates the position (-5,2).
Sol. 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = √(−5)2 + (2)2 = √29 = 5.385
𝑦 2
𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( ) = −21.8
𝑥 −5
∴ 𝜃 = −21.8 + 180 = 158.2
(−5, 2) ⇒ (5.385, 158.2)𝑜𝑟(−5, −21.8)

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 MATHEMATICS II POLAR COORDINATES

Ex 1.3: Express (4,-3) in polar coordinates.

Sol. 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = √(4)2 + (−3)2 = √25 = 5
𝑦 −3
𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( ) = −36.87
𝑥 4
∴ 𝜃 = −36.87 + 180 = 143.13
(4, −3) ⇒ (5, −36.87)𝑜𝑟(−5, 143.13)

Ex 1.4: Express (5,124º) in Cartesian coordinates.

Sol. 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 = 5 ∗ cos 124° = −2.796

𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 = 5 ∗ sin 124° = 4.145

(5,124°) ⇒ (−2.796, 4.145)

Ex 1.5: Convert 2𝑥 − 5𝑥 3 = 1 + 𝑥𝑦 into polar

coordinates.

Sol. 2𝑥 − 5𝑥 3 = 1 + 𝑥𝑦

2(𝑟 cos 𝜃) − 5(𝑟 cos 𝜃)3 = 1 + (𝑟 cos 𝜃)(𝑟 sin 𝜃)

2𝑟 cos 𝜃 − 5𝑟 3 cos3 𝜃 = 1 + 𝑟 2 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃

Ex 1.6: Convert 𝑟 = −8 cos 𝜃 into cartesian

coordinates.

Sol. 𝑟 = −8 cos 𝜃

𝑟 2 = −8𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = −8𝑥
𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 𝑦 2 = 0
𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 16 + 𝑦 2 = 16
(𝑥 + 4)2 + 𝑦 2 = 16

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Ex 1.7: Show that the equations:

𝜋
1. 𝑟 = 1 − sin (𝜃 − )
3
𝜋
2. 𝑟 = 1 + cos (𝜃 + )
6
𝜋
3. 𝑟 = cos (𝜃 + ) − 1 are equivalent.
6
Sol.
𝜋
1. 𝑟 = 1 − sin (𝜃 − )
3
𝜋 𝜋
𝑟 = 1 − (sin 𝜃 cos − cos 𝜃 sin )
3 3
1 √3
𝑟 = 1 − ( sin 𝜃 − cos 𝜃)
2 2
𝜋
2. 𝑟 = 1 + cos (𝜃 + )
6
𝜋 𝜋
𝑟 = 1 + (cos 𝜃 cos − sin 𝜃 sin )
6 6
√3 1
𝑟 = 1 + ( cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃)
2 2
1 √3
𝑟 = 1 − ( sin 𝜃 − cos 𝜃)
2 2
𝜋
3. 𝑟 = cos (𝜃 + ) − 1
6
𝜋 7𝜋
−𝑟 = cos (𝜃 + 𝜋 + ) − 1 = cos (𝜃 + ) − 1
6 6
7𝜋 7𝜋
−𝑟 = (cos 𝜃 cos − sin 𝜃 sin ) − 1
6 6
−√3 1
−𝑟 = ( cos 𝜃 − (− ) sin 𝜃) − 1
2 2
1 √3
𝑟 = 1 − ( sin 𝜃 − cos 𝜃)
2 2
Ex 1.8: Show that 𝑟 2 = cos 𝜃 and 𝑟 2 = − cos 𝜃 represent the same curve.
Sol. 𝑟 2 = −cos 𝜃
(−𝑟)2 = −cos(𝜃 + 𝜋)
(−𝑟)2 = −(cos 𝜃 cos 𝜋 − sin 𝜃 sin 𝜋)
𝑟 2 = cos 𝜃

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1.2. Symmetry
One of the most important consideration in graphing is symmetry. By
analyzing symmetry, the amount of graphing can be reduced significantly.
Symmetry Tests:

1. Symmetry about x-axis: if the point (𝑟, 𝜃) lies on the graph, the point
(𝑟, −𝜃) or (−𝑟, 𝜋 − 𝜃) lies on the graph.
2. Symmetry about y-axis: if the point (𝑟, 𝜃) lies on the graph, the point
(𝑟, 𝜋 − 𝜃) or (−𝑟, −𝜃) lies on the graph.
3. Symmetry about origin: if the point (𝑟, 𝜃) lies on the graph, the point
(−𝑟, 𝜃) or (𝑟, 𝜃 + 𝜋) lies on the graph.

For example, the curve 𝑟 2 = cos 𝜃 is clearly symmetric about the x-axis
and about the origin and thus it is symmetric about the y-axis.

1.3. Polar Curves:

In cartesian coordinates, the equation of curve is given as the general
relationship between x and y, i.e. y = f(x). Similarly, in polar coordinate system,
the equation of a curve is given in the form r = f(θ). The polar curves can be
plotted as follow:
1. Take spot values for θ.
2. Calculate the corresponding values of r.
3. Plot r against θ.
4. Join the points up with a smooth curve to obtain the graph of r = f(θ).

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Common Polar Coordinates Graphs:

Let’s identify a few of the more common graphs in polar coordinates.
1.3.1. Lines
Some lines have fairly simple equations in polar coordinates.
1. θ=β
It can be seen that this is a line by converting to Cartesian coordinates as
follows:
𝜃=𝛽
𝑦
tan−1 ( ) = 𝛽
𝑥
𝑦
= tan 𝛽 ⟹ 𝑦 = 𝑥 tan 𝛽
𝑥
This is a line that goes through the origin and makes an angle of β with the
positive x-axis. Or, in other words it is a line through the origin with slope of
tanβ.
2. 𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = 𝒂
This is easy enough to convert to Cartesian coordinates to x = a. So, this is
a vertical line.
3. 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒃
Likewise, this converts to y = b and so is a horizontal line.
3𝜋
Ex 1.9: Graph 𝜃 = , 𝑟 cos 𝜃 = 4 and 𝑟 sin 𝜃 = −3 on the same axis system.
4

Sol.

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1.3.2. Circles
The equations in the following form represent circles in polar coordinates.
1. 𝒓 = 𝒂, this is a circle of radius a centered at the origin. This is also one
of the reasons why the work in polar coordinates might be wanted.
2. 𝒓 = 𝟐𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 , this is a circle of radius |𝑎| and center (a,0). Note that
a might be negative.
3. 𝒓 = 𝟐𝒃 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽, this is similar to the previous one. It is a circle of radius
|𝑏| and center (0,b) .
4. 𝒓 = 𝟐𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 + 𝟐𝒃 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽, this is a combination of the previous two and
by completing the square twice it can be shown that this is a circle of
radius √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 and center (a,b). In other words, this is the general
equation of a circle that isn’t centered at the origin.
Ex 1.10: Graph r = 7, r = 4 cos θ, and r = −7 sin θ on the same axis system.
Sol. The first one is a circle of radius 7 centered at the origin. The second is a
7
circle of radius 2 centered at (2,0). The third is a circle of radius centered at
2
7
(0, − ). Here is the graph of the three equations.
2

Note that it takes a range of 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π for a complete graph of r = a and it

only takes a range of 0 ≤ θ ≤ π to graph the other circles given here.

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1.3.3. Cardioids and Limacons

These can be broken up into the following three cases.
1. Cardioids: 𝑟 = 𝑎 ± 𝑏 cos 𝜃 and 𝑟 = 𝑎 ± 𝑏 sin 𝜃, with a = b.
These have a graph that is vaguely heart shaped and always contain the
origin.

2. Limacons with an inner loop: 𝑟 = 𝑎 ± 𝑏 cos 𝜃 and 𝑟 = 𝑎 ± 𝑏 sin 𝜃 with

a < b. These will have an inner loop and will always contain the origin.

3. Limacons without an inner loop: 𝑟 = 𝑎 ± 𝑏 cos 𝜃 and 𝑟 = 𝑎 ± 𝑏 sin 𝜃

with a > b. These do not have an inner loop and do not contain the origin.

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 MATHEMATICS II POLAR COORDINATES

Ex 1.11: Graph 𝑟 = 1 + cos 𝜃.

Sol. The curve is symmetric about x-axis, because

(r,θ) on the graph ⟹ 𝑟 = 1 + cos 𝜃
𝑟 = 1 + cos(−𝜃)
𝑟 = 1 + cos 𝜃
⟹ (r, − θ) on the graph.
θ cos θ r = 1 + cos θ
0 1 2
π/6 0.86 1.86
π/3 0.5 1.5
π/2 0 1
2π/3 − 0.5 0.5
5π/6 − 0.86 0.13
π −1 0

Ex 1.12: Graph 𝑟 = 3 + 2 cos 𝜃.

Sol. The curve is symmetric about x-axis, because

(r,θ) on the graph ⟹ 𝑟 = 3 + 2 cos 𝜃
𝑟 = 3 + 2 cos(−𝜃)
𝑟 = 3 + 2 cos 𝜃
⟹ (r,-θ) on the graph.
θ cos θ r = 3 + 2 cos θ
0 1 5
π/6 0.86 4.7
π/3 0.5 4
π/2 0 3
2π/3 − 0.5 2
5π/6 − 0.86 1.26
π −1 1

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Ex 1.13: Graph 𝑟 = −2 + 3 sin 𝜃.

Sol. The equivalent equation is:
−𝑟 = −2 + 3 sin(𝜃 + 𝜋) = −2 + 3(sin 𝜃 cos 𝜋 + cos 𝜃 sin 𝜋)
−𝑟 = −2 − 3 sin 𝜃 ⟹ 𝑟 = 2 + 3 sin 𝜃
The curve is symmetric about y-axis, because
(r,θ) on the graph ⟹ 𝑟 = −2 + 3 sin 𝜃
−𝑟 = −2 + 3 sin(−𝜃)
r = 2 + 3 sin θ ⟹ (-r,-θ) on the graph.
θ sin θ r = 2 + 3 sin θ
-π/2 -1 -1
-π/3 -0.86 -0.6
-π/6 -0.5 0.5
0 0 2
π/6 0.5 3.5
π/3 0.86 4.6
π/2 1 5

1.3.4. Roses:
The curves 𝒓 = 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏𝜽 and 𝒓 = 𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒏𝜽 , 𝒏 > 𝟏, are represent:
1. Rose of n leaves if n is an odd number.
2. Rose of 2n leaves if n is an even number.
Where n is an integer number and a is any real number, for example:

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Ex 1.14: Sketch r = 2 sin 3θ

Sol. The curve is symmetric about y-axis, because
(r,θ) on the graph ⟹ r = 2 sin 3θ
-r = 2 sin (-3θ)
-r = -2 sin 3θ
r = 2 sin 3θ
⟹ (-r,-θ) on the graph.
θ 3θ sin 3θ r = 2 sin 3θ
𝟎 0 0 0
𝝅 𝜋
1 2
𝟔 2
𝝅
𝜋 0 0
𝟑
𝝅 3𝜋
-1 -2
𝟐 2

Ex 1.15: Sketch r = cos 2θ

Sol. The curve is symmetric about x-axis, because
(r,θ) on the graph ⟹ r = cos 2θ
r = cos (-2θ)
r = cos 2θ
⟹ (r,-θ) on the graph.
θ 2θ r = cos 2θ
𝟎 0 1
𝝅 𝜋
0
𝟒 2
𝝅
𝜋 -1
𝟐
𝟑𝝅 3𝜋
0
𝟒 2
𝝅 2𝜋 1

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Ex 1.16: Sketch r2 = cos θ θ cos θ 𝒓 = ±√𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽

Sol. The curve is symmetric about x-axis, 𝟎 1 ±1
𝝅
because (r,θ) on the graph ⟹ r2 = cos θ 0.84 ±0.84
𝟒
r2 = cos (-θ) 𝝅
0 0
𝟐
r2 = cos θ
⟹ (r,-θ) on the graph.
The curve is symmetric about
origin, because
(r,θ) on the graph ⟹ r2 = cos θ
(-r)2 = cos θ
r2 = cos θ
⟹ (-r,θ) on the graph.
Together, these two symmetries
imply symmetry about the y-axis.
This graph is called Lemniscate.
Ex 1.17: Sketch r2 = 3 sin 2θ
Sol. The curve is symmetric about origin, because
(r,θ) on the graph ⟹ r2 = 3 sin 2θ
(-r)2 = 3 sin 2θ
r2 = 3 sin 2θ
⟹ (-r,θ) on the graph.

θ 2θ sin2θ 𝒓 = ±√𝟑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜽

𝟎 0 0 0
𝝅 𝜋
1 ±√3
𝟒 2
𝝅
𝜋 0 0
𝟐
𝟑𝝅 3𝜋
-1 --
𝟒 2
𝝅 2𝜋 0 0

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Ex 1.18: Sketch r = 4 cos2θ

θ cosθ r = 4 cos2θ
Sol. The curve is symmetric about x-axis, because
𝟎 1 4
(r,θ) on the graph ⟹ r = 4 cos2 θ 𝝅
0.86 3
2
r = 4 cos (-θ) 𝟔
𝝅
0.5 1
r = 4 cos2 θ 𝟑
𝝅
⟹ (r,-θ) on the graph. 0 0
𝟐
The curve is symmetric about y-axis, because
(r,θ) on the graph ⟹ 𝑟 = 4 cos 2 𝜃
𝑟 = 4 cos2 (𝜋 − 𝜃)
𝑟 = 4 (cos 𝜋 cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜋 sin 𝜃)2
𝑟 = 4 (− cos 𝜃)2
𝑟 = 4 cos2 𝜃
⟹ (-r,-θ) on the graph.
Together, these two symmetries
imply symmetry about the origin.
𝜃
Ex 1.19: Sketch 𝑟 = sin ( )
2
𝜽 𝜽
Sol. The curve is symmetric about x-axis, because θ 𝒓 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( )
𝟐 𝟐
𝜃 𝟎 0 0
(r,θ) on the graph ⟹ 𝑟 = sin ( ) 𝝅 𝜋
2
0.26
𝜃 𝟔 12
−𝑟 = sin (𝜋 − ) 𝝅 𝜋
2
0.5
𝟑 6
2𝜋 − 𝜃 −𝜃 𝝅 𝜋
−𝑟 = sin ( ) = sin ( ) 0.7
2 2 𝟐 4
𝜃 𝟐𝝅 𝜋
−𝑟 = − sin ( ) 0.86
2 𝟑 3
𝟓𝝅 5𝜋
𝜃 0.96
𝑟 = sin ( ) 𝟔 12
2 𝜋
𝝅 1
⟹ (r,-θ) on the graph. 2

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The curve is symmetric about y-

axis, because
𝜃
(r,θ) on the graph ⟹ 𝑟 = sin ( )
2

𝜃 𝜃
−𝑟 = sin (− ) = − sin ( )
2 2
𝜃
𝑟 = sin ( )
2
⟹ (-r,-θ) on the graph.
Together, these two symmetries
imply symmetry about the origin.
Ex 1.20: Sketch r = θ
Sol. The curve is symmetric about
y-axis, because
(r,θ) on the graph ⟹ r = θ
-r = -θ
r=θ
⟹ (-r,-θ) on the graph.

θ r=θ
-∞ -∞
. .
. .
−𝟐𝝅 −2𝜋
−𝝅 −𝜋
𝟎 0
𝝅 𝜋
𝟐𝝅 2𝜋
. .
. .
∞ ∞

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Ex 1.21: Sketch 𝑟 = 𝑒 𝜃
Sol. The curve is not symmetric about x-axis, y-axis and origin.

θ r = eθ
-∞ 0
. .
. .
-2π 0.002
-π 0.043
0 1
π 23
2π 535
. .
. .
∞ ∞
1
Ex 1.22: Sketch 𝑟 =
𝜃

Sol. The curve is symmetric about y-axis, because

𝟏
1 θ 𝒓=
(r,θ) on the graph ⟹ 𝑟 = 𝜽
𝜃
-∞ 0
1 . .
−𝑟 = −
𝜃 . .
1 −𝝅 -0.32
𝑟= 𝝅
𝜃
− -0.63
⟹ (-r,-θ) on the graph. 𝟐
𝟎 ∞
𝝅
0.63
𝟐
𝝅 0.32
. .
. .
∞ 0

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1.4. Tangent line

The relationship between polar and cartesian coordinates is described by:

𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃

and the polar curve is given you r = f(θ), then the above relationships can be
written as:

x = f(θ) cos θ, y = f(θ) sin θ describing x and y in terms of θ alone.

The slope of the curve at any point is dy/dx, and it can be expressed in polar
coordinates by using the chain rule as:

𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝜃
= = 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝜃) cos 𝜃 + 𝑓 ′ (𝜃) sin 𝜃

=
𝑑𝑥 −𝑓(𝜃) sin 𝜃 + 𝑓 ′ (𝜃) cos 𝜃
𝑑𝑦
Note: The angel of inclination of the tangent line is tan−1 ( ).
𝑑𝑥

Ex 1.23: Find the slope of the tangent line to the three leaves of r = sin3θ at
𝜋
θ = 0 and = .
4

Sol. A sketch of the curve r = f(θ) = sin 3θ

is shown below:
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 = sin 3𝜃 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑦
= 3 cos 3𝜃 sin 𝜃 + sin 3𝜃 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝜃
x = r cos θ = sin 3θ cos θ
𝑑𝑥
= 3 cos 3𝜃 cos 𝜃 − sin 3𝜃 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝜃

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 MATHEMATICS II POLAR COORDINATES

at 𝜃 = 0,
𝑑𝑦 3 cos 0 sin 0 + sin 0 cos 0 0
| = = =0
𝑑𝑥 𝜃=0 3 cos 0 cos 0 − sin 0 sin 0 3
𝜋
at 𝜃 = ,
4
3𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋 3 1
𝑑𝑦 3 cos sin + sin cos − +
| = 4 4 4 4= 2 2=1
𝑑𝑥 𝜃=0 3 cos 3𝜋 cos 𝜋 − sin 3𝜋 sin 𝜋 − 3 − 1 2
4 4 4 4 2 2
Ex 1.24: Find the points at which the curve r = 1 + cos θ has a vertical and
horizontal tangent lines.
Sol. The horizontal line has zero slope.
Then dy/dx must be zero.
𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝜃) cos 𝜃 + 𝑓 ′ (𝜃) sin 𝜃
= =0
𝑑𝑥 −𝑓(𝜃) sin 𝜃 + 𝑓 ′ (𝜃) cos 𝜃
𝑓 (𝜃) cos 𝜃 + 𝑓 ′ (𝜃) sin 𝜃 = 0
(1 + cos 𝜃) cos 𝜃 + (− sin 𝜃) sin 𝜃 = 0
cos 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃 = 0
cos 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃 − (1 − cos2 𝜃) = 0
2 cos2 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 − 1 = 0
−1 ± √1 − 4 × 2 1
cos 𝜃 = = −1 𝑜𝑟
2×2 2
𝜋
That means θ is π or ±
3
𝑑𝑦
The slope is a vertical line when = ∞,
𝑑𝑥
this means the denominator is zero.
−(1 + cos 𝜃) sin 𝜃 + (− sin 𝜃 ) cos 𝜃 = 0
2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃 = 0
(2 cos 𝜃 + 1) sin 𝜃 = 0
sin 𝜃 = 0 ⟹ 𝜃 = 0, 𝜋, 2𝜋
1
2 cos 𝜃 + 1 = 0 ⟹ cos 𝜃 = − ⟹ 𝜃
2
2𝜋 4𝜋
= ,
3 3

18 Lect. Dr. Raed G. Saihood

 MATHEMATICS II POLAR COORDINATES

1.5. The Angle (ψ):

Is the angle between the radius vector and

the tangent line.

𝑟
𝜓 = tan−1 ( )
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝜃

1.6. Angle Between Two Curves (α):

1. If the point of intersection does not lie on

the origin, then:

𝛼 = |𝜓1 − 𝜓2 |

2. If the point of intersection lies on the

origin, then:

𝛼 = |𝜃1 − 𝜃2 |

where θ1 and θ2 are the solution of the equation r1 and r2, r1 = r2 = 0.

𝜋
Ex 1.25: Find the angle between the curve r = 1 + cos θ and its tangent at 𝜃 = .
4

Sol.
1
1+
𝑟 1 + cos 𝜃 √2)
𝜓 = tan−1 ( )| = tan−1 ( )| = tan−1 (
𝑑𝑟 − sin 𝜃 𝜃=𝜋 1
4 −
𝑑𝜃 𝜃=𝜋 √2
4

= tan−1 (−2.414) = 112.5𝑜

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 MATHEMATICS II POLAR COORDINATES

Ex 1.26: Find the angle between the two curves r1 = 1 + sin θ and r2 = 1 + cos θ
at their intersection points.
Sol. To find intersection points let r1 = r2
1 + sin θ = 1 + cos θ
𝜋 5𝜋
tan 𝜃 = 1 ⟹ 𝜃 = ,
4 4
𝜋
At 𝜃 = ;
4

𝑟1
𝜓1 = tan−1 ( )|
𝑑𝑟1
𝑑𝜃 𝜃=𝜋
4
1
1+
1 + sin 𝜃 √2 ) = 67.5𝑜
= tan−1 ( )| 𝜋 = tan−1 (
cos 𝜃 𝜃= 1
4
√2
1
1+
𝑟2 1 + cos 𝜃 √2) = 112.5𝑜
𝜓2 = tan−1 ( )| = tan−1 ( )| 𝜋 = tan−1 (
𝑑𝑟2 − sin 𝜃 𝜃= 1
4 −
𝑑𝜃 𝜃=𝜋 √2
4
𝜋
𝛼 |𝜃=𝜋 = |𝜓1 − 𝜓2 | =
4 4
1
5𝜋 1+sin 𝜃 1−
at 𝜃 = , 𝜓1 = tan−1 ( )| 5𝜋 = tan −1
( √2
1 ) = 157.5𝑜
4 cos 𝜃 𝜃= −
4 √2
1
1−
1 + cos 𝜃 √2 ) = 22.5𝑜
𝜓2 = tan−1 ( )| 5𝜋 = tan−1 (
− sin 𝜃 𝜃= 1
4
√2
3𝜋
𝛼 | 5𝜋 = |𝜓1 − 𝜓2 | = |157.5 − 22.5| =
𝜃=
4 4
Ex 1.27: Find the angle between the two curves r1 = 2 sin θ and r2 = 1 + cos θ at
their intersection points.

Sol. To find intersection points let r1 = r2

2 sin 𝜃 = 1 + cos 𝜃

4 sin2 𝜃 = (1 + cos 𝜃)2 ⟹ 4(1 − cos2 𝜃) = 1 + 2 cos 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃

20 Lect. Dr. Raed G. Saihood

 MATHEMATICS II POLAR COORDINATES

cos2 𝜃 + 2 cos 𝜃 − 3 = 0 ⟹ (cos 𝜃 + 1)(5 cos 𝜃 − 3) = 0

𝜃 = 𝜋 or 𝜃 = 53𝑜

at 𝜃 = 𝜋 (𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛), 𝛼 = |𝜃1 − 𝜃2 | = |𝜋 − 𝜋| = 0

2 sin 𝜃
at 𝜃 = 53𝑜 , 𝜓1 = tan−1 ( )| = 53𝑜
2 cos 𝜃 𝜃=53𝑜

1 + cos 𝜃
𝜓2 = tan−1 ( )| = 108.5𝑜
− sin 𝜃 𝜃=5𝜋
4

𝛼 |53𝑜 = |𝜓1 − 𝜓2 | = |53 − 108.5| = 55.5𝑜

1.7. Arc length:

The length of arc of the polar curve r = f(θ) between θ1 and θ2 can be obtained
by:

2 2 2
𝑑𝑠 2 2 2
𝑑𝑟 2
𝑑𝑠 ≈ 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 + 𝑑𝑟 ⟹ 2 ≈ 𝑟 + ( )
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2 2
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑟
𝐼𝑓 𝑑𝜃 → 0, ( ) = 𝑟 2 + ( )
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑟
∴ = √𝑟 2 + ( )
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃

Then the arc length (L) is:

𝜃2 𝜃2
𝑑𝑟 2
𝐿 = ∫ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ √𝑟 2 + ( ) 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝜃
𝜃1 𝜃1

21 Lect. Dr. Raed G. Saihood

 MATHEMATICS II POLAR COORDINATES

Ex 1.28: Find the length of cardioid 𝑟 = 1 − cos 𝜃

Sol. The cardioid must be plotted to determine

the limits of integration, then 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
𝑑𝑟
𝑟 = 1 − cos 𝜃 ⟹ = sin 𝜃
𝑑𝜃
2𝜋

∴ 𝐿 = ∫ √(1 − cos 𝜃)2 + sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

0
2𝜋

= ∫ √1 − 2 cos 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 2 + sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

0
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝜃
= ∫ √2 − 2 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ √4 sin2 𝑑𝜃
2
0 0
2𝜋
𝜃 𝜃 2𝜋
= ∫ 2 sin 𝑑𝜃 = −4 cos ] = 8
2 20
0
𝜋
Ex 1.29: Find the length of the circle 𝑟 = cos 𝜃 from 0 to
2

Sol.
𝑑𝑟
𝑟 = cos 𝜃 ⟹ = − sin 𝜃
𝑑𝜃
𝜋⁄ 𝜋⁄
2 2
𝜋⁄
2
𝜋
∴ 𝐿 = ∫ √cos2 𝜃 + sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝑑𝜃 = 𝜃]0 =
2
0 0

Ex 1.30: Find the length of arc of the spiral 𝑟 = 𝑎𝑒 3𝜃 from 0 to 2π.

Sol.
𝑑𝑟
𝑟 = 𝑎𝑒 3𝜃 ⟹ = 3𝑎𝑒 3𝜃
𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋

∴ 𝐿 = ∫ √(𝑎𝑒 3𝜃 )2 + (3𝑎𝑒 3𝜃 )2 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ √10𝑎2 𝑒 6𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑎√10 ∫ 𝑒 3𝜃 𝑑𝜃

0 0 0
3𝜃 2𝜋
𝑒 𝑎√10 6𝜃
= 𝑎√10 ] = (𝑒 − 1)
3 0 3

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 MATHEMATICS II POLAR COORDINATES

1.8. Area in the Plane:

To find the area of the plane figure bounded by the polar curve r = f(θ) and
the radius vectors at θ1 and θ2.
Area of sector OPQ = dA
1
𝑑𝐴 ≈ 𝑟(𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟) sin 𝑑𝜃
2
𝑑𝐴 1 sin 𝑑𝜃
∴ ≈ 𝑟(𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟)
𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃
sin 𝑑𝜃
𝐼𝑓 𝑑𝜃 → 0, 𝑑𝑟 → 0, →1
𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝐴 1 1
∴ = 𝑟(𝑟 + 0) ∙ 1 = 𝑟 2
𝑑𝜃 2 2
𝜃2
1 2
∴𝐴= ∫ 𝑟 𝑑𝜃
2
𝜃1

Ex 1.31: Find the area enclosed by the curve 𝑟 = 5 sin 𝜃 and the radius vectors
at θ = 0 and θ = π/3.

Sol.
𝜃2
1 2
𝐴= ∫ 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 , 𝑟 = 5 sin 𝜃
2
𝜃1
𝜋⁄ 𝜋⁄
3 3
1 1
𝐴=∫ (5 sin 𝜃)2 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ (25 sin2 𝜃)𝑑𝜃
2 2
0 0
𝜋⁄
3 𝜋
25 25 sin 2𝜃 ⁄3
= ∫ (1 − cos 2𝜃 )𝑑𝜃 = [𝜃 − ]
4 4 2 0
0
25 𝜋 √3
= ( − ) = 3.84
4 3 4

23 Lect. Dr. Raed G. Saihood

 MATHEMATICS II POLAR COORDINATES

Ex 1.32: Find the total area enclosed by the curve 𝑟 = 2 cos 3𝜃.

Sol. The curve represents a rose with three leaves. r will become zero when
𝜋
cos 3𝜃 = 0 ⟹ 𝜃 = , then the limits of integration will be from θ = 0 and θ =
6

π/6 and multiplying the integration by 6 to find the total area.

𝜋⁄ 𝜋⁄
6 6
1
𝐴 = 6∫ (2 cos 𝜃)2 𝑑𝜃 = 12 ∫ cos2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2
0 0
𝜋⁄
6

= 6 ∫ (1 + cos 6𝜃 )𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
sin 6𝜃 ⁄6 𝜋
= 6 [𝜃 + ] = 6 ( + 0)
6 0 6
=𝜋

Ex 1.33: Let 𝑟1 = 2 sin 𝜃 , 𝑟2 = 1 + cos 𝜃

1. Find the area that is inside r1 and outside r2.
2. Find the area that is inside r2 and outside r1.
3. Find the area that is inside r1 and r2.
Sol. First, the intersection points must be found to determine the limits of
integration.
Let r1 = r2
2 sin 𝜃 = 1 + cos 𝜃
4 sin2 𝜃 = 1 + 2 cos 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃
4(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃) = 1 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 3 = 0
(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 1)(5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 3) = 0
⟹ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = −1 ⟹ 𝜃 = 𝜋
3
⟹ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = ⟹ 𝜃 = 53𝑜
5

24 Lect. Dr. Raed G. Saihood

 MATHEMATICS II POLAR COORDINATES

180
1 2
1. 𝐴 = ∫ (𝑟1 − 𝑟22 )𝑑𝜃
2
53
180
1
= ∫ (4 sin2 𝜃 − (1 + cos 𝜃)2 )𝑑𝜃
2
53
180 1
= ∫53 2 (4 sin2 𝜃 − (1 + cos 𝜃)2 )𝑑𝜃
180
1
= ∫ (4 sin2 𝜃 − 1 − 2 cos 𝜃 − cos2 𝜃)𝑑𝜃
2
53
180
1 4 1
= ∫ [ (1 − cos 2𝜃) − 1 − 2 cos 𝜃 − (1 + cos 2𝜃)] 𝑑𝜃
2 2 2
53
180
1 1 5
= ∫ [ − 2 cos 𝜃 − cos 2𝜃] 𝑑𝜃
2 2 2
53
180
1 𝜃 5
= [ − 2 sin 𝜃 − sin 2𝜃] = 1.95
2 2 4 53

53 2𝜋
1 1
2. 𝐴 = ∫ (𝑟22 − 𝑟12 )𝑑𝜃 + ∫ 𝑟22 𝑑𝜃
2 2
0 𝜋
53 2𝜋
1 1
= ∫ ((1 + cos 𝜃)2 − 4 sin2 𝜃)𝑑𝜃 + ∫ (1 + cos 𝜃 )2 𝑑𝜃
2 2
0 𝜋
53 2𝜋
1 1
= ∫ (1 + 2 cos 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 − 4 sin2 𝜃)𝑑𝜃 + ∫ (1+2 cos 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃)𝑑𝜃
2 2
0 𝜋
53
1 1 4
=∫ [1 + 2 cos 𝜃 + (1 + cos 2𝜃) − (1 − cos 2𝜃)] 𝑑𝜃
2 2 2
0
2𝜋
1 1
+∫ (1 + 2 cos 𝜃 + (1 + cos 2𝜃)) 𝑑𝜃
2 2
𝜋
53 2𝜋
1 5 1 1 3 1
= ∫ [2 cos 𝜃 + cos 2𝜃 − ] 𝑑𝜃 + ∫ ( + 2 cos 𝜃 + cos 2𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 𝜋
53 2𝜋
1 5 𝜃 1 3𝜃 1
= [2 sin 𝜃 + sin 2𝜃 − ] + [ + 2 sin 𝜃 + sin 2𝜃] = 2.73
2 4 2 0 2 2 4 𝜋

25 Lect. Dr. Raed G. Saihood

 MATHEMATICS II POLAR COORDINATES

53 𝜋
1 1
3. 𝐴 = ∫ 𝑟12 𝑑𝜃 + ∫ 𝑟22 𝑑𝜃
2 2
0 53
53 𝜋
1 1
= ∫ (4 sin2 𝜃)𝑑𝜃 + ∫ (1 + cos 𝜃)2 𝑑𝜃
2 2
0 53
53

= ∫ (1 − cos 2𝜃)𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
1
+ ∫ (1 + 2 cos 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃)𝑑𝜃
2
53
53 𝜋
1 3 1
𝐴 = ∫ (1 − cos 2𝜃 )𝑑𝜃 + ∫ ( + 2 cos 𝜃 + cos 2𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
2 2 2
0 53
53 𝜋
sin 2𝜃 1 3𝜃 1
= [𝜃 − ] + [ + 2 sin 𝜃 + sin 2𝜃] = 1.193
2 0 2 2 4 53
Ex 1.34: A cylindrical oil tank with a radius of 2m is lying on its side. A
measuring stick shows that the oil is 1.8m deep. What percentage of a full tank is
left.
Sol. r=2
0.2
sin 𝛼 = = 0.1 ⟹ 𝛼 = 5.74
2
The limits of integration will be from (π + α) to (2π – α).
2𝜋−𝛼 2𝜋−𝛼
2𝜋−𝛼
1 2 1 2𝜃
∴ 𝐴𝑜𝑖𝑙 = ∫ 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 − 0.4 = ∫ 4𝑑𝜃 − 0.4 = ] − 0.4
2 2 𝜋+𝛼
𝜋+𝛼 𝜋+𝛼
= 2(2𝜋 − 𝛼 − (𝜋 + 𝛼 )) − 0.4 = 5.48𝑚2
𝐴𝑜𝑖𝑙 5.48
%𝑜𝑖𝑙 = = = 43.6%
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑡 4𝜋

26 Lect. Dr. Raed G. Saihood

 MATHEMATICS II POLAR COORDINATES

1.9. Area of a surface of revolution:

If r = f(θ) has a continuous first derivative for θ1 ≤ θ ≤ θ2 and if the point P(r,θ)
traces the curve r = f(𝜃) exactly once as θ runs from θ1 to θ2, then the areas of the
surfaces generated by revolving the curve about the x and y-axes are given by the
following formulas:

1. About x-axis
𝜃2
𝑑𝑟 2
𝑆 = ∫ 2𝜋𝑟 sin 𝜃 √𝑟 2 + ( ) 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝜃
𝜃1
2. About y-axis
𝜃2
𝑑𝑟 2
𝑆= ∫ 2𝜋𝑟 cos 𝜃 √𝑟 2 + ( ) 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝜃
𝜃1
Ex 1.35: Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the right-hand loop
of the lemniscate 𝑟 2 = cos 2𝜃 about y-axis.

Sol.
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 sin 2𝜃
𝑟 2 = cos 2𝜃 ⟹ 2𝑟 = −2 sin 2𝜃 ⟹ =−
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 √cos 2𝜃
𝜋/4
2
sin 2𝜃
𝑆 = ∫ 2𝜋√cos 2𝜃 cos 𝜃 √(cos 2𝜃)2 + (− ) 𝑑𝜃
√cos 2𝜃
−𝜋/4
𝜋
4
cos 2 2𝜃 + sin2 2𝜃 𝜋/4
𝑆 = ∫ 2𝜋√cos 2𝜃 cos 𝜃 √ 𝑑𝜃 = 2𝜋 sin 𝜃]−𝜋/4 = 2√2𝜋
cos 2𝜃
𝜋
−
4

27 Lect. Dr. Raed G. Saihood

 MATHEMATICS II POLAR COORDINATES

1.10. Volume of Revolution:

If the elementary sector OPQ is approximately equal to the ∆OPQ, then the
2
centroid (C) is distance 𝑟 from O.
3

1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑂𝑃𝑄 ≈ 𝑟(𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟) sin 𝑑𝜃
2

Volume generated when OPQ rotates about x-axis:

dV = Area OPQ × Distance travelled by its centroid

1 2
= 𝑟(𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟) sin 𝑑𝜃 × 2𝜋 × 𝑟 sin 𝜃
2 3

𝑑𝑉 1 sin 𝑑𝜃
= 𝑟(𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟) × 2𝜋
𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃
2
× 𝑟 sin 𝜃
3

𝑑𝑉 2 2 sin 𝑑𝜃
= 𝜋𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟) sin 𝜃
𝑑𝜃 3 𝑑𝜃

sin 𝑑𝜃
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝜃 → 0, → 1, 𝑑𝑟 → 0
𝑑𝜃
2
∴ 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 3 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
3
𝜃2
2 3
∴𝑉= ∫ 𝜋𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
3
𝜃1

Same thing for the volume generated when the curve plane rotates about y-axis:

𝜃2
2 3
∴𝑉= ∫ 𝜋𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
3
𝜃1

28 Lect. Dr. Raed G. Saihood

 MATHEMATICS II POLAR COORDINATES

Ex 1.36: Find the weight of an apple if its view like to the cardioid
𝑟 = 3 − 3 sin 𝜃, r in cm, and its density is 760 kg/m3.

Sol.

𝜋 ⁄2 𝜋 ⁄2
2 3 2
𝑉= ∫ 𝜋𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝜋(3 − 3 sin 𝜃)3 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
3 3
−𝜋⁄2 −𝜋⁄2
𝜋 ⁄2 𝜋⁄2
(1 − sin 𝜃)4
= ∫ 18𝜋(1 − sin 𝜃)3 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = − 18𝜋 ]
4
−𝜋⁄2 −𝜋⁄2

18𝜋
=− [(1 − 1) − (1 + 1)] = 72𝜋 𝑐𝑚3
4

Weight = Volume × Density

𝑊 = 72𝜋 × 760 × 10−6 = 0.172 𝑘𝑔

29 Lect. Dr. Raed G. Saihood

 MATHEMATICS II POLAR COORDINATES

Exercises 1.1
Plot the following curves in polar coordinates.
5𝜃
1. 𝑟 = 2 + cos ( )
2
5𝜃
2. 𝑟 = sin 𝜃 + sin3 ( )
2
3. 𝑟 = θsin 𝜃
𝜃
4. 𝑟 = sin ( )
4
5. 𝑟 = 1 + cos 5𝜃
6. 𝑟 2 = − sin 𝜃
7. 𝑟 = 3 + 2 cos 𝜃
8. 𝑟 = √𝜃
9. 𝑟 = 9 sin 𝜃
3
10. 𝑟 =
2 cos 𝜃

30 Lect. Dr. Raed G. Saihood