Physics Lab-II

Experiment No. 1
Object: To determine the band gap in a semiconductor using its p-n junction diode.

Apparatus required: p-n junction diode kit, electrical oven, and thermometer.

Formula used: The reverse biased current Is (saturated value) is the function of
temperature (T) of the junction diode. For a small range of temperature, the relation is
expressed as,
Log10 Is = constant – 5.036 ΔE (103/T)
where, temperature T is in Kelvin, ΔE is the band gap in electron volts (eV).

Theory:
In a semiconductor, there is an energy gap between its conduction and valence band. For
the conduction of electricity a certain amount of energy is to be given to the electron so
that it goes from the valence band to the conduction band. The energy so needed is the
measure of the energy gap (ΔE) between two bands. When PN junction is placed in
reverse bias, the current flows through the junction due to minority charge carriers. The
concentration of these charge carriers depends on band gap (∆E). The saturation value of
reverse current (Is) depends on the temperature of junction diode and it is given by
equation,
− ΔE
I s = Constant x T 3 / 2 e kT

where, k=1.38 x 10-23 J/K is Boltzman’s constant and T is absolute temperature of

junction.
Taking log of both sides of above equation,
ΔE
( )
2.3026 log10 I s = 2.3026 log10 Constant x T 3 / 2 −
kT
ΔE
log10 I s = C −
2.3026kT
where C is a constant which is equal to the first term of RHS of above equation (for small
changes in temperature, log T can be treated as constant). On substituting the value of k
and converting the unit of ΔE , we get

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 Physics Lab-II

10 3
log10 I s = C + (−5.036ΔE )
T
This represents a straight line (y=mx+c) having a negative slope (5.036 ΔE ). Therefore,
by knowing the slope of the line, ΔE can be determined through following formula
Slope= 5.036 ΔE
ΔE = [(slope of the line)/5.036] eV
Procedure:
1. Plug the mains lead to the nearest mains socket carrying 230V at 50 Hz A.C.
2. Fix a thermometer on p-n junction kit to measure the temperature.
3. Keep the temperature switch at OFF position.
4. Switch ON the instrument using ON/OFF toggle switch provided on front panel.
5. Adjust the voltage (e.g. 5Volt) and note down the reverse current.
6. Select the temperature control switch at ON position. Temperature starts
increasing and the reading of micrometer also starts increasing.
7. As temperature reaches about 78°C, switch off the oven. The temperature will rise
further, say about 80°C and will become stable for Ge diode. Note down the
maximum reading shown by the micro ammeter (μA).
8. Now temperature will begin to fall. Take values of current (in μA) in the interval
of 2°C.
9. Plot a graph between Log10 Is and (103/T) and find the slope.

Fig.1. Schematic diagram of the set-up

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 Physics Lab-II

Observations:
Least count of thermometer =……..
Least count of microammeter =…….
Constant voltage applied to the diode =………
(a) Table for the variation of reverse biased saturated current with temperature:
S. No. Temperature (°C) Current Is (μA) Temperature (K) (103/T) K-1 Log10 Is

Calculations: Plot a graph between Log10 Is and (103/T) and find the slope. Now
calculate the band gap by using the relation,
ΔE = [(slope of the line)/5.036] eV

Result: The band gap of the given semiconductor p-n junction diode =……………….eV.

Standard results: ΔE = 0.7 eV for Ge

Percentage error =……………….%

Sources of error and precautions:

1. Maximum temperature should not exceed 80°C in case of Ge diode.

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 Physics Lab-II

Viva-Voice:
Q.1: Explain the formation of energy bands in solids.
Q.2: What is energy band gap?
Q.3: Define valence band, conduction band and Fermi level.
Q.4: Classify the solid materials on the basis of energy gap.
Q.5: Define conductors, insulators and semi conductors.
Q.6: How many types of semi conductors are there?
Q.7: Define intrinsic and extrinsic semi conductor?
Q.8: Define doping and dopant?
Q.9: Why P-type (N-type) semi conductor is called Acceptor (Donor)?
Q.10: What is P-N junction diode?
Q.11: How does depletion region form at the junction in p-n junction diode?
Q.12: What do you mean by forward biasing?
Q.13: What do you mean by reverse biasing?
Q.14: Plot the I-V characteristics of p-n junction diode?
Q.15: The p-n junction is operating under reverse bias in this experiment, why?
Q.16: What is breakdown voltage?
Q.17: Why does current increase with increase in T without changing voltage?
Q.18: How does resistance vary with temperature T in metals and semiconductors?

References:
1. Semiconductor Physics and Devices: Basic Principles (Donald A. Neamen).
2. Principle of Electronics (V. K. Mehta).
3. Introduction of Solid State Physics (C. S. Kittle).

Department of PMSE, JIIT 62, Noida

 Experiment 1(b)
I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell
Aim: To draw the I-V characteristic of Solar cell and find maximum power and
fill factor.

Apparatus used:

 A Photovoltaic panel
 A bulb as solar source
 Two multimeters (or an ammeter and a voltmeter)
 Insulated wires with alligator clips or other cables
 A resistor panel

Theory:

Solar cell is a p-n junction. We know that a built-in voltage exists across a p-n
junction, but this voltage can’t deliver current in a external circuit. However, if
light is incident on the junction, it gets converted into electricity by photovoltaic
conversion. A solar panel consists of individual cells that are large-are
semiconductor diodes, constructed so that light can penetrate into the region of the
p-n junction. The junction formed between the n-type silicon wafer and the p-type
surface layer governs the diode characteristics as well as the photovoltaic effect.
Light is absorbed in the silicon, generating both excess holes and electrons. These
excess charges can flow through an external circuit to produce power.

Figure 1 shows the equivalent circuit to describe a solar cell. The diode current
comes from the standard I-V equation for a diode, and is also illustrated in the
Figure. It is clear that the current I that flows to the external circuit is

where Isc is short circuit current, I0 is the reverse saturation current of the diode,
and A is temperature –dependent constant, A=q/kT. Given q=1.602Х10-19 C, and
k= 1.381Х10-23 J/K. If the solar cell is open circuited, then all of the ISC flows
through the diode and produces an open circuit voltage V OC of about 0.5-0.6 V. If
the solar cell is short-circuited, then no current flows through the diode, and all of
the short-circuit current ISC flows through the short circuit.
FF (fill factor)-The fill factor is the relationship between the maximum power that
the array can actually provide under normal operating conditions and the product
of the open-circuit voltage times the short-circuit current, (VOCХ ISC). This fill
factor value gives an idea of the quality of the array and the closer the fill factor is
to 1 (unity), the more power the array can provide.

MPP (maximum power point) - This relates to the point where the power supplied
by the array that is connected to the load (batteries, inverters) is at its maximum
value, where MPP= (Imp, Vmp). The maximum power of a photovoltaic array is
determined using formulae Wp=Imp Х Vmp, measured in Watts (W).

Figure 2 illustrates the I-V curve and power output of a solar panel. If no load is
connected with solar panel which is sitting in the sun, an open circuit voltage V OC
will be produced but no current follows. If the terminals of the solar panel are
shorted together, the short-circuit current ISC will flow but the output voltage will
be zero. In both cases, no power is delivered by the solar panel. When a load is
connected, we need to consider the I-V curve of the panel and the I-V curve of the
load to figure out how much power can be delivered to the load. I-V curve is
varying with the temperature, insolation, and shading. Because solar power is
relatively expensive, it is important to operate panels at their maximum power
conditions.

Figure1: Equivalent Circuit of a Solar Cell

 Figure2: I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell

Procedure:

1. Keep the solar cell in sunlight for 15-20 minutes so that it gets activated.

2. Complete the circuit connection. Then place the light source at a distance of
15 cm from solar cell.

3. Now find out open circuit voltage VOC.

4. Select short circuit (S.C.) position using switch and note the reading in
ammeter. This maximum current is called ISC.

5. Now introduce different load resistances using switch and note down the
voltage and current readings.

6. Repeat the experiment with other intensities by placing the light source at
different positions.

7. Draw the graph between V and I

8. Calculate FF using formulae (VOC Х ISC )

Observations:

SET: 1

[Link]. Resistance (Ohm) Voltage (mV) Current (mA)

1. 1 K (open)
2. 180
3. 150
4. 100
5. 82
6. 68
7. 56
8. 47
9. 22
10. 10
11. S.C.

SET: 2

[Link]. Resistance (Ohm) Voltage (mV) Current (mA)

1. 1 K (open)
2. 180
3. 150
4. 100
5. 82
6. 68
7. 56
8. 47
9. 22
10. 10
11. S.C.
Result:

1. Maximum Power:

2. Fill Factor:
Precautions:

1. Photovoltaic (PV) modules generate electricity when exposed to light, even

when they are not connected in a circuit.

2. Shocks and burns can result from contacts with output wiring and module
itself. These hazards are increased when multiple modules are
interconnected to increase array output current or voltage.

3. Cover module front surfaces completely with an opaque cloth or other

opaque material before performing any operation involving the module or
electrical connections. Use appropriate safety equipment (insulated tools,
insulating gloves, etc.) and procedures.

Sources of Error:

1. The light rays should fall properly on the solar cell.

2. The distance between source and cell should be recorded.

3. Two set of readings should be taken for more accuracy.

4. The graph should be plotted with utmost care and values should be
calculated accordingly.
 Physics Lab-II

Experiment No. 2
Object: To study the Magnetostriction in metallic rod with the help of Michelson
interferometer arrangement.

Apparatus Used: He-Ne Laser with adjustable stand, Magnetostriction set-up with
mechanical and optical components to construct Michelson Arrangement,
Magnetostriction coil, Constant current source, Screen, Post mount stand.

Formula Used:
Magnetostriction effect in ferromagnetic rods is characterized by the change in its
length as magnetization increases from zero to its saturation value. The change in length
(Δl) is measured with Michelson arrangement by using the following formula:

where,
n = Change in the no. of fringes (i.e. no. of fringes appeared or disappeared)
λ = Wavelength of the light source used in Michelson arrangement (i.e. He-Ne
laser 6328 x 10-8 cm)

Theory:

Basic methodology involved:

In the Michelson interferometer (M.I.) arrangement, an interference pattern is

obtained with the help of two mirrors. A rod of ferromagnetic material is attached with
one of the mirrors and this rod is surrounded by a solenoid. The magnetic field is
produced in the solenoid when current flows through the solenoid. Due to the change in
current flowing in the solenoid, the intensity of produced magnetic field changes which in
turn changes the length of the ferromagnetic rod attached with one of the mirrors. So the
mirror attached with ferromagnetic rod moves forward or backward as length of rod
changes due to magnetostricitive effect. This change in length of rod is very small which
cannot be measured by ordinary scale. M.I. is used to measure this small change in length
as the wavelength of source used is of the order of μm in this experiment. So any change
in length of the order of wavelength can be measured by this experiment. Due to the shift
in position of one of the mirrors, the interference pattern of M.I. changes and fringes
appear or disappear at the centre of the fringe pattern.

Michelson interferometer:

In a Michelson interferometer, the light beam from a laser source splits into two
beams (amplitude splitting) by a half-silvered glass plate (beam splitter), each of these

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 Physics Lab-II

beams is reflected by a mirror, and brought to interfere on a screen placed behind the
beam splitter as shown in Fig.1.

Fig. 1: Michelson interferometer

The lens L1 is used to expand the light beam between laser and the glass plate and this
will produce the circular interference fringes. In order to see circular interference fringes,
the light beam is expanded between the laser and the glass plate by a lens L1.
The light beam travels an extra distance (say d) towards the mirror M1 w.r.t mirror
M2. In order to understand the formation of fringes, if the real mirror M2 is replaced with
its virtual image M2',which is formed by reflection by the glass plate, a point P of the real
light source appears as the points P' and P'' of the virtual light sources L1 and L2 as
shown in Fig. 2.

Detector

Detector

Fig. 2: A conceptual arrangement of Michelson interferometer showing the

formation of circular interference fringes.

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 Physics Lab-II

As a consequence of the different path lengths traversed by light from mirror M1

and M2’, the phase difference between virtual light sources is given by:

Where, λ is the wavelength of the laser light used.

Alignment of these two virtual light sources with the help of screws attached to
mirror M1 as shown in figure 1, produces an interference pattern on the screen, where
maxima occurs when δ is equal to an integer multiple of 2π or we can say that when path
difference is governed by the following relation:

The value of m is maximum for central ring and decreases when we progressively move
away from the centre towards the boundary .i.e. for fixed values of m and d, ϴ remains
constant over a conical surface and, hence circular fringes are produced on the screen.

Magnetostriction and its measurement using Michelson interferometer arrangement:

Magnetostriction and piezo-magnetism are defined as the change in dimension
(induced strain) of the ferromagnetic sample when magnetic field is applied or production
of magnetisation in the sample with applied stress.
The interaction between the magnetic moments of the atoms that produces
alignment of the moments acts as a force between the atoms. In the presence of large
external magnetic field magnetic moments are forced to become oriented in field
directions and this will influence the interaction force between the atoms and hence the
interatomic distances. The material now (usually) responds by some changes in its
dimension, this effect is called Magnetostriction.
The measurement of Magnetostriction or alteration in the length of a rod (Δl) due
to an applied magnetic field is measured by appearance or disappearance of fringes due to
shifting of mirror M2 as shown in Fig 3:

Fig 3: A solenoid with sample rod inside it attached to mirror M2 of Michelson

interferometer. Terminals are used to provide current to solenoid.

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 Physics Lab-II

In the presence of solenoid magnetic field distortion of rod shifts the position
of mirror M2 and this cause the appearance/disappearance of fringes on the screen. Hence
the distortion in the length of rod is written as:

Where
n = Change in the no. of fringes
λ = Wavelength of the laser source
Experimental set-up:

Fig 4: Michelson arrangement

Procedure:

1. Put the He-Ne Laser on stand at the fixed end side of the mini optical bench i.e. on
right hand side of the set-up. Switch ‘ON’ the laser. Align the laser such that the laser
beam falls in the middle of lens L1 which spread out the beam.

2. Align the laser beam, beam splitter and mirror M2 such that the laser beam from lens
L1 falls on the beam splitter.

3. Adjust the beam splitter such that it reflect the 50% of the incident light to the mirror
M2 which again reflected and relayed to the projection screen through beam splitter,
while the other 50% part of the incident beam is transmitted through beam splitter and

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 Physics Lab-II

fall on mirror M1 which again reflected it and also proceed through beam splitter on the
screen. Thus we get two luminous spot on the screen. Make them closer by adjusting
Magnetostriction coil. Coincide these spots by adjusting the mirror M2 (by very slightly
adjusting the screws provided at the back side of mirror M2) until as slight flickering of
the luminous spot can be seen on the screen.

4. Get the clear interference pattern on the screen by adjusting mirror M1 and
Magnetostriction coil with mirror M2.

NOTE: The mirror M2 should be in the middle of the Magnetostriction coil.

5. Connect the Magnetostriction coil with the constant current source and apply some
current say 200 mA. The rings in the interference pattern will start appearing. Note the
total number of rings appearing for a definite time (say 5 minutes) corresponds to the coil
current. Make table as shown below and record these readings in table.

6. Switch ‘OFF’ the current source, the interference ring will start disappearing. Note the
total number of rings disappear for the definite time (same as it was in the case of
counting rings appearing, say 5 minutes). Record these readings also in table.

7. Repeat the experiment for different values of coil current say 300 mA, 400 mA, 500
mA etc.

8. Calculate the change in length corresponding to different coil currents.

Observations:
(a) Table for observation of shift in fringes:

No. of rings appears in No. of rings disappears Mean

Current I (mA)
S. No. 5 mins (n1) in 5 mins (n2) n = (n1 + n2)/2

1. 200

2. 300

3. 400

4. 500

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 Physics Lab-II

(b) Table for relative change in length:

S. No. Magnetostriction Coil Relative change in length

Current I (mA) Δl/l
(l= 11.9 cm)
1.

2.

3.

4.
.
.

Calculations:

(i) For Magnetostriction coil current, I = 300 mA

The mean of no. of rings, n=
Wavelength of laser light, λ = 6328 x 10-8 cm
Therefore, the change in length, Δl = n λ / 2
(ii) Similarly we can calculate Δl for other value of coil current.

(iii) Plot a graph for fractional change in length (Δl / l) vs applied current (I).

Results: The fractional change in the length for different coil currents due to positive
Magnetostriction effect in Fe rod is shown by the curve between (Δl / l) and I.

Maximum Probable Error:

Taking log of both sides and differentiates, we get:



Where
Least count of the instrument which is used to measure the initial length of the
rod.
= Least no of fringes appearing or disappearing (i.e. 1).

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 Physics Lab-II

Sources of error and precautions:

(i) Alignment of set up should not be disturbed during this experiment.
(ii) Don’t see the laser source directly.
(iii) He-Ne laser should fall normal on lens L1.
(iv) Count the no. of rings appearing and disappearing accurately.

Viva-Voice:
Q1. What are the necessary conditions to get interference pattern?
Q2. Explain the division of amplitude method for interference.
Q3. Why circular fringes are observed in Michelson arrangement?
Q4. In the Michelson interferometer arrangement, what changes are observed in
interference pattern, when the distance between beam splitter and one of the mirror is
increased/decreased?
Q5. Give some applications of Michelson interferometer.
Q6. Define the term ferromagnetic materials and discuss the same in terms of magnetic
domain.
Q7. What is Magnetostriction?
Q8. What is Piezo-magnetism and how it’s different from Magnetostriciton?
Q9. What is the Magnetostrictive energy and also describe the Magnetostriction
phenomena in the term of this energy?
[Link] any useful application in which Magnetostriction phenomena is involved

References:
1. Optics by Ajoy Ghatak (TMH): From this reference you can learn about
Interference, Division of amplitude and Michelson Interferometer.
2. Elementary Solid State Physics by Omar Ali (Pearson): From this reference you can
learn about Ferromagnetic material, Magnetic domains, Magnetostrictive energy and
Magnetostriction.
3. Advanced Practical Physics by B. L. Worshnop and H.T. Flint (KPH).
4. Practical Physics by S. L. Gupta & V. Kumar (Pragati Prakashan).
5. Advanced Practical Physics Vol. I & II by Chauhan & Singh (Pragati Prakashan).

Department of PMSE, JIIT 62, Noida

 Physics Lab-II

Experiment No. 3
Object: (1) To measure resistivity of semiconductor at different temperatures by Four
Probe Method.
(2) To determine Band Gap of the semiconductor.

Apparatus Used: The Four Probe Set-Up (Model DEP-03 # 70) consists of the
following:
(i) Four Probes Arrangement: It has four individually spring loaded probes. The probes
are collinear and equally spaced. Whole arrangement is mounted on a suitable stand.
(ii) Sample: n-type Ge Single Crystal chip.
Thickness = 0.50mm.

(iii) Oven: For the variation of temperature from room temperature to 200˚C.
Maximum Operating Temperature for Ge: 120˚C

(iv) Thermometer (0-200˚C): For measuring temperature.

(v) Four Probe Set-Up: Consisting of

(a) Constant current Generator (0-20 mA) with 10 μA resolution
(b) Oven power supply (0-64 V)
(c) Digital voltmeter (0-200 mV & 0-2 V) and ammeter (0-20 mA).
(d) Main ON/OFF Switch.

Formula Used:
The resistivity of sample is given by
ρ = ρ0 / G7(W/S)

where, intrinsic resistivity of material ρ0 = (V / I) x 2πS and G7(W/S) is a correction

factor which depends on the distance between probes S (here S=2mm) and thickness of
the crystal (W here W=0.5mm). For Ge,
G7(W/S) = 2S/W (loge2)

The resistivity of semiconductor varies with temperature as

ρ = ρ0 exp (Eg/2kB T)
we can write,

Eg /2kB = logeρ / (1/T)

where, V= voltage, I= Current, T=Temperature of sample, Boltzmann constant kB = 8.6

x10-5 eV/deg and Eg = Energy band gap.

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 Physics Lab-II

Theory:
By Ohm’s law, the electric field intensity, at a point in a material is proportional to the
current density, that it induces at that point. The proportionality constant is called
electrical resistivity, ρ of the material. That is,
ρ

Probes

Semiconductor

Fig. 2: Circuit used for resistivity measurements

For a sample with a long wire like geometry with uniform cross-sectional area, ρ can be
measured by simply passing a known current through the sample and measuring the
voltage drop across it. This simple method has however several disadvantages. For
example, it cannot be applied to samples with non-regular shapes, there could be errors
due to contact resistance of the measuring leads, soldering the contact leads itself can be
difficult for some samples etc. Also in case of semiconductors, the soldering process may
results in injection of impurities into the sample thereby affecting its intrinsic electrical
resistivity. Some of the above difficulties can be overcome by employing a technique
called four probe method. In the four probe method, four pointed, collinear, equally
spaced probes are placed in pressure contact with the plane surface of the sample (Figure
1). A current is injected into the sample through the outer two probes (1 & 4). The
resulting electric potential distribution is measured via the two inner probes (2 & 3). The
voltage drop, V across probes 2 & 3 for a current I through probes 1 & 4, is given by a
simple expression, if certain conditions are satisfied. The surface of the sample is
assumed to be flat with no surface leakage. The diameter of the contact point between

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 Physics Lab-II

each probe and the sample should be small compared to the distance between the probes.
Also the thickness, W of the sample is assumed to be much smaller than the distance, S
between two probes. Under such conditions, resistivity of the sample is given by
ρ = ρ0 / G7(W/S) (1)
where ρ0 is computed as
(2)

and the correction factor G7(W/S) is given as,

(3)
Also the temperature variation of resistivity of a semiconductor is given by,
(4)
Taking logarithm of both sides of the above equation,
(5)
3
The factor 10 above is inserted for convenience. Thus a plot of ‘ln ρ’ as a function of
103/T is a straight line with the slope being equal to,
(6)
Therefore, the band gap of semiconductor is
(7)

Procedure:

(1) Connect the outer pair of probes leads labelled as current generally Red & Black, to
the constant current power supply and the inner pair of probes leads labelled as voltage
generally Yellow & Green, to voltage terminals.
Note: Make sure the polarity of leads are correct

(2) Switch on the AC mains of Four Probe Set-up and put the digital panel meter in the
current measuring mode through the selector switch. In this position LED facing mA
would glow. Adjust the current to a desired value (Say 1.2 mA).

(3) Now put the digital panel meter in voltage measuring mode. In this position LED
facing mV or V would glow depending upon the position of switch and the meter would
read the voltage between the probes.

(4) Connect the oven power supply. Rate of heating may be selected with the help of a
switch –Low or High as desired. Switch on the power to the Oven. The glowing LED
indicates the power to the oven is ‘ON’.
Note: Oven temperature should not exceed 120oC

(5) Measure the inner probe voltage V, for various temperatures.

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 Physics Lab-II

Observations:

Constant Current (I) = 1.2 (mA)

Distance between probes (S) = 2 mm
Thickness of the crystal (W) = 0.5 mm

(a) Table for resistivity measurement for temperature in increasing order

S. No. Temperature in Voltage ρ0 ρ = ρ0 /

increasing order (V) G7(W/S) T-1 x log e ρ
(K) (Ohm-cm) (103)
1

10

11

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 Physics Lab-II

(b) Table for resistivity measurement for temperature in decreasing order

S. No. Temperature in Voltage ρ0 ρ = ρ0 /

decreasing order (volts) G7(W/S) T-1 x log e ρ
(K) (Ohm-cm) (103)
1

10

11

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 Physics Lab-II

Calculations:
G7(W/S) = 2S/W (loge2) (For Ge)
In our case

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 Physics Lab-II

G7(W/S) = 5.54

ρ0 = (V / I) x 2πS

ρ0 = (V / I) x 1. 256

ρ = ρ0 / G7(W/S)

Eg /2kB = logeρ / (1/T) = 103 x logeρ / (103/T)

Plot graph 1 between ρ and T ; and graph 2 between logeρ and (103/T) and find the slope
from graph 2
Slope = ……….
Band gap is

Eg = ……..eV

Results: Graph 1 shows the variation of ρ vs T and the Band Gap of the given
semiconductor is found to be = .....eV

Percentage Error:

Sources of error and precautions:

(i) The probes must be gently placed otherwise Germanium crystal can break.
(ii) Temperature must be measured carefully.
(iii) An insulating sheet must be placed between the Germanium sample and base on
which it is kept.
(iv) The surface on which the probes rest should be flat with no surface leakage.
(v) The diameter of the contact point between the metallic probes and the semiconductor
crystal chip should be small compared to the distance between the probes

Viva-Voice:

1. What is the band gap of semiconductor?

2. How do you differentiate between a conductor, an insulator and a semiconductor
in relation to energy gap?
3. Why a semiconductor behaves as an insulator at zero degree Kelvin?
4. What is the advantage of Four Probe method over the other conventional
methods?
5. Can we use an ordinary millivoltmeter instead of electronic millivoltmeter or
potentiometer to measure the inner probe voltage? why?
6. Explain the behaviour of the log10 (ρ) vs.1/T curve.
7. What do you know about intrinsic and extrinsic semi-conductor?

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 Physics Lab-II

8. What are maximum operating temperature limits for Ge and Si semiconductors

and why we don’t exceed this limit?
9. What are direct and indirect band gaps of semiconductors?
10. How resistivity varies with temperature for semiconductor, insulator and
conductor?
11. What do you meant by resistivity and conductivity?
12. How resistivity varies with thickness and cross section of material?
13. What give rise to resistivity in semiconductor, insulator and conductor?
14. Difference between resistivity and specific resistance.
15. Are you a conductor or semiconductor?

References:

1. Introduction of Solid State Physics, by C. Kittel (IVth edition).

2. Fundamental of Semiconductor Devices, by J. Lindmayer and C. Y. Wriegley,
1071 East West Press.
3. Hand Book of Semiconductor Electronics, by L.P. Hunter (ed.) McGraw Hill
Book Co, Inc. NY (1962).
4. Electrons and Holes, W. Shockley, D van Nostrand NY 1950.
5. Experiments in Modern Physics, by A.C. Melissions, Academic Press NY 1966.
6. Practical Physics Book by K. K. Dey and B. N. Dutta.

Department of PMSE, JIIT 62, Noida

 EXPERIMENT NO. : 4

Susceptibility of a paramagnetic substance

Objective/Aim: To find the susceptibility of a paramagnetic substance (FeCl3) in the form

of liquid or a solution.

Apparatus:

Electromagnet, Gauss meter, power supply, wide and narrow limbed U-tube, traveling
microscope.

Formula used: The value of the susceptibility K, of liquid or the solution of a paramagnetic
substance is given by

2 ( ρ − σ ) gh ………….. (1)
K − KA =
H2

Where
K = susceptibility of the paramagnetic liquid.
KA = susceptibility of air or vacuum i.e., zero.
ρ = density of liquid or the solution i.e., 0.1 g/cc (usually prepared in this concentration. If you
have not prepared it yourself, please confirm the value from the lab instructor).
σ = density of air is around 0.0129 g/cc (note the lab temperature and then find the value of σ for
this temperature using the table given at the end of the manual)
g = acceleration due to gravity
h =height through which the column rises on switching on the field
H = maximum value of the magnetic field i.e. the field at centre of the gap between the pole
pieces

Principle:

The substances which are weakly attracted by magnetic field are called paramagnetic substances.
The repulsion of diamagnetic substances by the magnetic field is assigned to the induced
molecular current producing magnetic moment in the direction opposite to the applied field.
The force acting on a substance, either repulsive or attractive depending on the type of substance,
can be measured with the help of an accurate balance in case of solids. In case of liquids, it can
be measured with rise in level of liquid in narrow capillary tube of U-shape.

The force depends on the susceptibility (K), of the material, i.e., ratio of intensity of
magnetization to magnetizing field (M/H). If the force on the substance and field are measured,
the value of susceptibility can be calculated.

Set-Up and Procedure:

A. Experimental set-up
A schematic diagram of Quinck’s method is shown in Fig. 1. Quinck’s tube is a U-shaped glass
tube with one limb very narrow and the other one wide. The narrow limb is placed between the
pole-pieces of an electromagnet shown as N-S such that the meniscus of the liquid lies
symmetrically between N-S. The length of the limb is sufficient as to keep the other lower
extreme end of this limb well outside the field H of the magnet. The diameter of the narrow limb
is decided as per rise or fall of the required liquid. The length of the limb is about 20-30 cm and
half the length of the tube is above and half below the meniscus. The diameter of the limb is
about a mm or even less in capillary range. The rise or fall h is measured by means of a traveling
microscope of least count of the order of 10-3 cm or with a microscope fitted with a micrometer
scale.

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of experimental set up of Quinck’s Method.

Theory:
The Quinck’s method is used to determine magnetic susceptibility of diamagnetic or
paramagnetic substances in the form of a liquid or an aqueous solution. When an object is placed
in a magnetic field, a magnetic moment is induced in it. Magnetic susceptibility χ is the ratio of
the magnetization M (magnetic moment per unit volume) to the applied magnetizing field
intensity H. The magnetic moment can be measured either by force methods, which involve the
measurement of the force exerted on the sample by an inhomogeneous magnetic field or
induction methods where the voltage induced in an electrical circuit is measured by varying
magnetic moment.

Procedure:
1. Calibrate the magnetic field against magnetic current using a digital Gauss meter. Plot the
calibration data of current v/s magnetic field. Note that calibration is important for all
experiments with electromagnet. Initially we measure magnetic field for a set of values of
applied current and subsequently plot it. The plot provides magnetic field for other values of
current in the same range.
2. As shown in the Fig. 1, the apparatus is a U-shaped tube. One of the limbs of the tube is
wide and the other one is narrow. The experimental liquid or the solution is filled in the tube, so
that the meniscus of the liquid in the narrow limb is at the centre of the magnetic field.

Fig 2. Apparatus for the Measurement of Susceptibility of Paramagnetic Solution by Quinck's tube Method

The strong magnetic field is produced by an electromagnet. The electromagnet is given a suitable
current by a power supply of suitable rating to produce magnetic field in the gap of an
electromagnet
3. The level of liquid in the narrow tube, when the field is off is noted.
4. The field is then switched on and new level (raised) of column is noted.
5. The experiment is repeated at different magnetic field.

Observations:
Magnetic field in the gap of an electromagnet can be calibration according to the following
measurements:

[A] Readings for calibration of magnetic field

Current (I) Magnetic field
S. No. (Ampere) (H in Gauss)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

[B] Readings for determination of rise in level of liquid (h)

Least count of travelling microscope- ………

Magnetic Initial height (X) Final reading (Y) Rise Value of K

S. No. field (without (applying in level
(Gauss) magnetic field) magnetic field ) (cm)
(cm) (cm) h = (Y-X)

1.
. 2.
. 3.

Calculations:
Put the values of h, H, g, σ and ρ in formula (1) and calculate value for susceptibility of solution.
Maximum probable error:
2( ρ − σ ) gh
K − KA =
H2
 ⎛ 2( ρ − σ ) gh ⎞
ln( K − K A ) = ln⎜ ⎟
⎝ H2 ⎠
⎛ h ⎞
ln( K ) = ln⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝H ⎠
ln( K ) = ln(h) + 2 ln( H )
⎛ ΔK ⎞ ⎛ Δh ΔH ⎞
⎜ ⎟ × 100% = ⎜ +2 ⎟ × 100%
⎝ K ⎠ ⎝ h H ⎠
Result:
1) Plot graph between magnetic field and current.
2) Paramagnetic susceptibility of the liquid or solution used is ………… dynes per cm2 per
gauss2.

Precautions:
1) The U-shaped tube should be placed correctly between the electromagnet.
2) The value of current should not exceed 4A to avoid damage.
3) Error due to parallax should be avoided.
4) Maximum value of magnetic field should be taken.
Sources of error:
1. The U-tube is not properly placed.
2. Error may be due to parallax.
3. The proper value of magnetic field is not taken.

Questions for viva:

1) What is susceptibility?
2) What is the unit of susceptibility?
3) What solution is used in the experiment?
4) What is para-magnetism? How does its susceptibility depend on temperature?
5) What are the differences between para-magnetism and dia-magnetism?
6) Give more examples of paramagnetic substances?
7) What is the effect of magnetic field on the susceptibility?
8) What is the role of earth’s magnetic field? Is it to be considered or not?
9) What is the effect of electric field on the susceptibility?
10) What is g in the formula?
11) How does a paramagnetic substance differ from ferromagnetic substance?
12) Which type of magnetic substances are used in memory devices and why?

Table: Table for density of air at various temperatures

Temp (oC) Density (Kg/m3)
0 1.293
5 1.269
10 1.247
15 1.225
20 1.204
25 1.184
30 1.164
35 1.146
 Experiment 5(b)
Ultrasonic Interferometer
Object: To determine the velocity of ultrasonic wave in the medium of liquid using
ultrasonic interferometer and to determine the compressibility of the given liquid.
Apparatus Required:Ultrasonic interferometer (High frequency generator, measuring cell),
given liquid (simple water 12cc).
Formula used:
1) Velocity of ultrasonic wave in a given liquid,
V=𝞴×f
2) Compressibility of ultrasonic wave in a given liquid,

where
Symbols Explanation Unit

f Frequency of generator which excites the crystal. 2106 Hz

 Wavelength of ultrasonic wave. m
v Velocity of ultrasonic wave in liquid m/sec
 Density of the given liquid 996.458Kg/m3

Principle: High frequency generator, which excites the quartz crystal, generates longitudinal
ultrasonic wave in the experimental liquid. Standing waves are formed within the medium.
This results in the formation of resonance and causes a change in the potential difference at
the generator which excites the crystal. Due to this, anode current of the generator becomes
maximum. The change in the anode current can be measured from the micrometer.
Theory: Ultrasonic interferometer is a simple device which yields accurate and consistent
data, from which one can determine the velocity of ultrasonic sound in a liquid medium.
Ultrasonic: Ultrasonic sound refers to sound pressure with a frequency greater than the
human audible range (20Hz to 20 KHz). When an ultrasonic wave propagates through a
medium, the molecules in that medium vibrate over very short distance in a direction parallel
to the longitudinal wave. During this vibration, momentum is transferred among molecules.
This causes the wave to pass through the medium.

Generation of ultrasound:
Ultrasonic can be produced by different methods. The most common methods include:

1
 Mechanical method: In this, ultrasonic frequencies up to 100 KHz are produced. But this
method is rarely used due to its limited frequency range
Piezoelectric generator: This is the most common method used for the production of
ultrasound. When mechanical pressure is applied to opposite faces of certain crystals which
are cut suitably, electric fields are produced. Similarly, when subjected to an electric field,
these crystals contract or expand, depending on the direction of the field. Thus a properly
oriented rapid alternating electric field causes a piezoelectric crystal to vibrate mechanically.
This vibration, largest when the crystal is at resonance, is used to produce a longitudinal
wave, i.e., a sound wave.

Magnetostriction generator: In this method, the

magnetostriction method is used for the production
of ultrasonic. Frequencies ranging from 8000 Hz to
20,000Hz can be produced by this method.

Ultrasonic Interferometer: In an ultrasonic interferometer, the ultrasonic waves are

produced by the piezoelectric method. In a fixed frequency variable path interferometer, the
wavelength of the sound in an experimental liquid medium is measured, and from this one
can calculate its velocity through that medium. The apparatus consists of an ultrasonic cell,
which is a double walled brass cell with chromium plated surfaces having a capacity of
10ml. The double wall allows water circulation around the experimental medium to maintain
it at a known constant temperature.

The micrometer
scale is marked in units
of 0.01mm and
has an overall length of 25mm. Ultrasonic waves of known frequency are produced by a
quartz crystal which is fixed at the bottom of the cell. There is a movable metallic plate
parallel to the quartz plate, which reflects the waves. The waves interfere with their
reflections, and if the separation between the plates is exactly an integer multiple of half-
wavelengths of sound, standing waves are produced in the liquid medium. Under these
circumstances, acoustic resonance occurs. The resonant waves are a maximum in amplitude,
causing a corresponding maximum in the anode current of the piezoelectric generator. If we
increase or decrease the distance by exactly one half of the wavelength (λ/2) or an integer
multiple of one half wavelength, the anode current again becomes maximum. If d is
the separation between successive adjacent maxima of anode current, then ,

We have, the velocity (v) of a wave is related to its wavelength (λ) by the relation,

Mean wavelength λ/2 =

 V=𝞴×f
where f is the frequency of the wave.
The velocity of ultrasound is determined principally by the compressibility of the material of
the medium. For a medium with high compressibility, the velocity will be less. Adiabatic
compressibility of a fluid is a measure of the relative volume change of the fluid as a
response to a pressure change. Compressibility is the reciprocal of bulk modulus, and is
usually denoted by the Greek word beta (β).The adiabatic compressibility of the material of
the sample can be calculated using the equation,

Where ρ is the density of the material of the medium and v is the velocity of the sound wave
through that medium.

:
Diagram of ultrasonic interferometer:

Procedure:
1. Unscrew the knurled cap of cell and lift it away from double walled construction of
the cell. In the middle portion of it pour experimental liquid and screw the knurled
cap. Wipe out excess liquid overflowing from the cell.
2. Insert the cell in the heavy base socket and clamp it with the help of a screw
provided on its side.
3. Connect the high frequency generator to base by co-axial cable provided with the
instrument.
4. Keep the “Adj” (80) and “Gain” (20) knobs approx. at the middle positions and
adjust such that current meter needle is approx. at center.
5. Move the micrometer slowly in anticlockwise direction. Micrometer needle will
move either to the right or to left. Using both knobs, do adjustments such that the
turning point comes within the scale. Move the micrometer in the same direction
and do adjustments so that other turning point comes within the scale.
6. Take average of the difference (/2)
7. Once the wavelength () is known the velocity (v) in the liquid can be calculated.
Observation Table:
Least count =……….mm

3
[Link] Micro-meter reading corresponding to Difference between
maximum/minimum (in mm) consecutive
maxima/minima

Main scale Vernier scale Total Reading

1 N1

2 N2 N2 – N1 =

3 N3 N3 – N2 =

4 N4 N4 – N3 =

5 N5 N5– N4 =

6 N6 N6 – N5 =

7 N7 N7 – N6 =

8 N8 N8 – N7 =

9 N9 N9 – N8 =

10 N10 N10 – N9 =

11 N11 N11 – N10 =

12 N12 N12 – N11 =

13 N13 N13 – N12 =

14 N14 N14 – N13 =

20 N20 N20 – N19

Calculation:

Velocity of ultrasonic wave in the given liquid,

V= f λ meter/sec

Compressibility of the given liquid,

ad = meter2/Newton

Results:
The velocity of ultrasonic wave in the medium of liquid using ultrasonic interferometer is v =
.........m/s and the compressibility of the given liquid is= .......... m2/N
Source of error and Precaution:
1. Do not switch ON the generator without filling the experimental liquid in the
cell.

Mean wavelength λ/2 =

 2. Do not tilt the cell after filling the liquid to avoid flow of liquid towards
micrometer which may rust/jam the threads of micrometer head
3. Remove experimental liquid out of the cell after use. Keep it cleaned and dried
4. Keep micrometer open at 25mm after use.
5. Avoid sudden rise or fall in temperature of circulated liquid to prevent thermal
shock to the quartz crystal.
6. While cleaning the cell care should be taken not to spoil or scratch the gold
plating on the quartz crystal.
7. Give your generator 15 seconds warming up time before the observation.
Viva-Voce Questions
1. What are ultrasonic waves?
2. What are the properties of ultrasonic waves?
3. How are ultrasonic waves are formed?
4. What is piezo – electric effect?
5. What is inverse piezo- electric effect?

5
 FIBER OPTICS
EXPERIMENT NO.6

Experiment No.6 (a)

Objective/Aim: To determine the numerical aperture of a given multimode optical fiber.

Apparatus used: Laser diode with power supply, microscope objective (MO), V grooves
with fiber holder, detector, multimode plastic optical fiber, micro ammeter, post mount
stand and screen.

Formulae used:

The numerical aperture (NA) of an optical fiber is defined as,

NA = sin Ө,

where Ө is the acceptance angle and can be written as,

Ө = tan-1 (D/2d).

Here,
D = Diameter of the spot produced on the screen, and
d = Distance between the output end of the fiber and screen.
Thus,

NA = sin Ө = sin [tan-1 (D/2d)]

Theory:

Propagation of light:

An optical fiber consists of a core that is surrounded by a cladding as shown

schematically in figure 1.

Figure 1: Core and cladding with refractive index n1 and n2, respectively. Here n1>n2
to ensure total internal reflection.

The core is used for the transmission of optical signals while the cladding is used for
confining those signals within the core. In order to guide the optical signals with in the
core of the fiber, the refractive index of the core (n1) is deliberately kept higher than that
of the cladding (n2).
In order to understand the transmission process in more detail, consider figure 2.

Figure 2. Propagation of light in an optical fiber.

The light ray enters the core and then reaches the core cladding boundary where it
intersects the boundary at an incident angle greater than critical angle (Note that we are
talking about the incident angle at the core-cladding boundary and this is different from
the air to fiber incident angle) . This will lead to total internal reflection (TIR) and the
ray will be reflected back into the core. This process of TIR will be repeated till the end
of the fiber.

Before we discuss further, please note that the acceptance angle of an optical fiber is the
maximum angle of a ray (against the fiber axis) hitting the fiber core which allows the
incident light to be guided by the core (through repeated TIR). The sine of that acceptable
angle is called the numerical aperture, and it is essentially determined by the refractive
index contrast between core and cladding of the fiber, assuming that the incident beam
comes from air or vacuum.
Thus,
Acceptance angle (Ө) = sin-1 (NA)

Here
D = Diameter of the spot produced on the
screen
d = Distance between the output end of the
fiber and screen
Ө = Acceptance angle

It can be seen from above figure that acceptance angle of an optical fiber is given as,
Ө = tan-1 (D/2d)
Numerical aperture (NA)

It indicates the maximum angle at which a particular fiber can accept the light that will be
transmitted through it. The higher the NA of optical fiber, the larger will be the cone of
incident light that can be coupled into the core of the optical fiber as shown in figure 3.

Figure 3. Numerical aperture defines the maximum angle at which light can be launched
into a fiber

Multimode fibers have a large NA. This is a major advantage of the multimode fiber as it
enables them to be used with relatively low-cost optical components and light sources. In
contrast, single-mode fibers, which have small NA, typically use narrow width lasers as
power sources and carry only one mode of propagation.

Multimode fiber

Those fibers that carry more than one mode of propagation of light are known as
multimode fibers as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Illustration of multimode fiber carrying different modes of propagation of

light

From the above figure, it can be seen that there are several modes of propagation of light
that enter the fiber with different angles to the fiber axis. Rays that enter with a shallower
angle travel by a more direct path and arrive sooner than those entering at steeper angles
(which reflect many more times off the core/cladding boundaries as they travel the length
of the fiber) and this arrival of different modes of the light at different times are
called dispersion of modes or pulse dispersion.

Step index and Graded index multimode fibers

There are two types of multimode fibers. One is step index multimode fiber and the other
is graded index multimode fiber. The difference between these two multimode fibers can
be understood on the basis of their refractive index profiles as shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5: The refractive index profile difference between Step index and Graded index
multimode fiber

Due to the difference between refractive index profiles, the propagation of light will also
take place in different ways as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Light transmission in a Step index multimode fiber and a graded index
multimode fiber

Step index multimode fibers are mostly used for imaging and illumination while Graded
index multimode fibers are used for data communications and networks carrying signals
up to moderate distances, typically not more than a couple of kilometers.

Experimental Setup:

Figure 7: Experimental set up for the calculation of numerical aperture

Procedure:

This is a direct and quick estimation of numerical aperture.

1. Draw the several concentric circles on a simple graph paper and paste it on one
side of the screen by cello tape. (You can also measure the diameters directly
from the graph paper, but you need to be very careful in recognizing the diameter
in that case).
2. Replace the detector by screen placed normal to the fiber axis keeping the set-up
same as in above figure. The screen is positioned in the far field in such a way
that a line extending the axis of the fiber on the screen would have passed through
the center of these circles drawn on the graph paper.
3. Adjust the fiber end which is mounted on the XYZ stake towards or away from
the screen so that the emerging light spot fill completely one of the circles.
4. Note this diameter let us call it D1, which is measured accurately
5. Repeat the experiment for other values of d (the distance between screen and the
tip of the fiber) and calculate the corresponding diameters D2, D3, etc.
6. Calculate NA for different values of d and then calculate the mean value of NA.
Observations:

Least count (L.C.) of the scale used for measuring d = 0.5/100 mm = 0.005 mm

S. No. Distance between the screen and the tip of the Diameter of the circle(D) in
fiber (d) in mm mm
1.

2.

3.

Calculations:

NA = sin Ө = sin [tan-1 (D/2d)]

Results:

1. The numerical aperture of the given multimode fiber measured experimentally is

………..

2. The numerical aperture of the given multimode fiber, as measured by the

manufacturer is …….
Experiment no.6 (b)
Object: To measure the power loss at a splice between two multimode fibers and to
study the variation of splice loss with Longitudinal and Transverse misalignments of the
given fibers.

Apparatus used: Transverse and Longitudinal misalignment on post with all items as
given in experiment no.6 (a)
Formulae used:
Power loss in decibels = 20 log10 (I0/I) dB
Where
I0 = Maximum current at the detector end
I = Current obtained at the detector end for the subsequent misalignments

Theory:

The power loss is due to the attenuation of transmitting signal or light pulse. During
transit, light pulse loses some of its photons thus reduces the amplitude. Attenuation for a
fiber is usually specified in decibels per kilometer.

Power loss in decibels = 10 log10 (P0/P) dB

(Where P0 is the maximum power at the detector end when there is no misalignment
between the fibers and P is the reduced power when the misalignment occurs)

As power is directly proportional to the square of the current, hence power loss can also
be written as,

Power loss in decibels = 20 log10 (I0/I) dB

Experimental Setup:

Figure 8: Experimental set up for the calculation of power loss at a splice between two
multimode fibers

Procedure:
1. Set the experiment schematically as shown in Figure 8 as follows.
2. Take a second piece of multimode fiber, referred as receiving fiber.
3. Mount one end of the receiving fiber in the V groove on Transverse and
Longitudinal misalignment system and the other end of the fiber is coupled to
a detector through the V groove mounted on the other post.
4. Align output end of the transmitting fiber mounted on X-Y-Z stack to the one
end of the receiving fiber mounted on Trans and Long misalignment system
with the help of X-Y-Z stack. And align other end of the receiving fiber to
the detector with the help of X-Z stack to get maximum current in the micro-
ammeter. Note the maximum current as I0.
 5. For Longitudinal misalignment
Now the X-Y-Z stack on which the output end of the transmitting fiber is
mounted is manipulated to induce longitudinal offset.
(a) Move away the output end of the transmitting fiber by X-Y-Z stack into the
field of view of the receiving fiber gradually to couple light from the
transmitting fiber and micro ammeter through the detector.
(b) The fiber could be moved in step of 1 mm of the graduated scale of X-Y-Z
stack and measure the corresponding current in the micro ammeter for each
setting of the fiber end. Record these readings in table as given below.
Continue the measurement till the output current becomes zero.
(c) Calculate the power loss as dB= 20 log10 (I0/I)
(d) Plot a graph for Longitudinal misalignment (mm) versus Power loss (dB).

Observations for longitudinal misalignment:

Current at the minimum longitudinal misalignment I0 = ……..μA
S. No. Micrometer reading in mm Corresponding detector Coupling loss in dB
(in Horizontal direction) current(I) in μA

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
 6. For the transverse misalignment
Now the Trans and Long misalignment on which the input end of the
receiving fiber is mounted is manipulated to induce Transverse offset. In
actual practice for measuring transverse offset loss, it is recommended that the
receiving fiber be moved away from the transmitting fiber (in transverse
direction) till the micro ammeter reading reduced almost zero (i.e. register
only ambient light).
(a) Again align the system to get the maximum current in micro ammeter I0.
(b) Move the receiving input fiber’s end gradually into the field of view of the
transmitting fiber to couple light from the transmitting fiber to the micro
ammeter through the detector.
(c) The fiber could be moved in step of 0.25 mm of the graduated scale of
micrometer fitted with the Trans and Long misalignment system and measure
the corresponding current in the micro ammeter for each setting of the fiber
end. Record these readings in table as given below. Continue the
measurement till the output current becomes zero.
(d) Calculate the power loss as dB= 20 log (I0/I)
(e) Plot a graph for Transverse misalignment (mm) versus Power loss (dB).
Observations for transverse misalignment:
Current at the minimum transverse misalignment I0 = ……..μA
S. No. Micrometer reading in Corresponding detector Coupling loss in dB
mm current in (I) μA
(in Vertical direction)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Results:
1. Graph shows the splice loss with Longitudinal and Transverse offset in a given
fiber.
2. These measurements would reveal that longitudinal offset is more tolerable off-set
in terms of achieving a low loss fiber splice.

Questions for viva:

1. What are the values of optical frequencies?
2. What is the typical core diameter for single mode and multimode step index
fibers?
3. What is the wavelength of laser diode used in this experiment?
4. Distinguish between critical and acceptance angles.
5. Explain the phenomenon of total internal reflection.
6. Explain numerical aperture.
7. What is pulse dispersion?
8. Give some applications of Graded index multimode fibers.
9. List some significant losses in optical fibers.
10. Discuss the uses of optical fibers.
11. What is a wave guide? Do you think optical fiber is a wave guide? If yes, how
TIR helps you to construct this wave guide.
12. Can you tell us for which distances these types of optical fibers are used for
communication: (a) Single mode step index, (b) multi-mode step index, (c) multi-
mode graded index plastic optical fiber.
13. Why don’t we use air as cladding?
References:
1. Optics by Ajoy Ghatak, Tata Mcgraw Hill.
2. An introduction to fiber optics by Ghatak and Thyagrajan, Cambridge
University Press.

3. Optics and photonics: An introduction by Smith and King, Wiley-Blackwell.

 HALL EFFECT

AIM : To study the Hall effect in semiconductor and to determine its allied coefficients.

APPARATUS : Hall effect digital box, hall probe (germanium P type), gauss probe (made of
InAs), electromagnet, constant current supply, digital gauss meter with hall probe and a wooden
hall probe stand.

INTRODUCTION : Dr. Edwin Hall discovered the Hall effect in 1879. When a current carrying
conductor is placed in a perpendicular magnetic field, a potential difference is generated in the
conductor which is perpendicular to both magnetic field and current. This phenomenon is called
Hall Effect.

THEORY :
Hall effect is an important tool to characterize the materials especially semiconductors. It directly
determines both the sign and density of charge carriers in a given [Link] a rectangular
conductor of thickness 't' kept in XY plane. An electric field is applied in Xdirection using
Constant Current Generator (CCG), so that the current I flows through the sample. If 'w' is the
width of the sample and 't' is the thickness, the current density is given by

Jx= I/w (1)

Figure-1 CCG – Constant Current Generator, JX – current density

e-– electron, B – applied magnetic field
t – thickness, w – width VH – Hall voltage
If the magnetic field is applied along negative z axis, the Lorentz force moves the charge carriers
(say electrons) towards y direction. This results in the accumulation of charge carriers at the top
edge of the sample. This sets up a transverse electric field Ey in the sample,and hence a potential
difference is developed along y axis which is known as Hall voltage VH. This effect is called Hall
Effect.
A current is made to flow through the sample material and the voltage difference between its top
and bottom is measured using a voltmeter. When the applied magnetic field B=0,the voltage
difference should be zero.
We know that a current flows in response to an applied electric field. The application of magnetic
field results in the magnetic Lorentz force, Fm = q(vxB) which causes the carriers to curve. Since
the charges cannot escape from the material, a vertical charge imbalance builds up. This charge
imbalance produces an electric field which counteracts with the magnetic force and a steady state
is established. The vertical electric field can be measured as a transverse voltage difference using
a voltmeter.
In steady state condition, the magnetic force is balanced by the electric force. Mathematically we
can express it as
eE= evB (2)

Where 'e' is the electric charge, 'E' the hall electric field developed, 'B' is the applied magnetic
field and 'v' is the drift velocity of charge carriers. And the current 'I' can be expressed as,

I= neAv (3)

Where 'n' is the number density of electrons in the conductor of length 'l' ,breadth 'w' and
thickness 't'. Using (1) and (2) the Hall voltage VH can be written as

IB
VH = EW= vBW=
net

RH IB
VH = (4)
T

by rearranging eq(4) we get

V t
RH = H
IB

Where RH is called the Hall coefficient

1
RH =
ne

The Hall coefficient is dependant on the charge and the concentration of the carriers
involved. If RH is positve it means the crystal is P Type and if RH is negative , the crystal
is n type.
FORMULAE USED:
VH
E=
t
IB
VH= (volt)
net
V t
RH= H X 10 (m3/C), Where t is in mm, VH in mV, I in mA and B in gauss.
IB
1
n= (cm-3)
RH e
where,
E = The Hall field
n = The density of the charge carriers
B = Applied magnetic field in gauss (1 Tesla=104 gauss)
V H = Hall voltage
R H = Hall’s coefficient
t = Thickness of crystal

PROCEDURE:

PART(A)- Calibration of magnetic field w.r.t. current in solenoid :

1. Connect the constant current power supply with the electromagnet.

2. Place the gauss probe in the magnetic field.
3. Put the probe perpendicular to the magnetic field and at the centre of the electromagnets. Vary
the solenoid current in steps of 0.5 A to note the corresponding magnetic field
4. The zero current in the solenoid ideally should result in zero magnetic field. Subtract the value
of magnetic field corresponding to zero solenoid current from all the readings if any.

PART(B)-Measurment of Hall voltage:

[Link] the red colour contacts of the hall probe to the voltage terminals and green colour
contacts of the hall probe to the current terminals of the hall effect board.
2. Switch ON the hall effect board.
3. Place the hall probe in the magnetic field.
4. Adjust current to a desired value.
5. Rotate the probe till it becomes perpendicular to the magnetic field.(Hall voltage will be
maximum here).
[Link] the hall voltage for both the directions of current by interchanging the current leads.
[Link] hall voltage as a function of current keeping the magnetic field constant. Plot a graph
and determine V H / I from its slope.
[Link] change the magnetic field by varying the current to the electromagnet and repeat the above
steps.
[Link] the value of R H for each B.
OBSERVATIONS:

TABLE 1: Calibration of magnetic w.r.t. current in the solenoid

Sr. No. Current (A) Magnetic Field (Gauss)

1 0.00
2 0.50
3 1.00
4 1.50
5 2
6 2.5
7 3.0

TABLE 2: Measurement of hall voltage

[Link] Magneti Current(mA Hall Hall Hall VH Hall coefficient

. c Field ) voltage voltage voltage I R H cm 3 coulomb −1
(Gauss) V H 1 (mV V H 2 (mV V H (mV
) ) )
1 1.0
2.0
3.0
2 1.0
2.0
3.0
3 1.0
2.0
3.0

GRAPH:
Plot
VH
I
Plot the variations of R H vs. B.

CALCULATIONS:

Thickness of the hall effect chip = 0.5 mm

Find the value of Hall voltage and hall coefficient.

VH
Slope from the Plot =
I
VH t
RH = .
IB

Plot for the variations of R H vs. B

Find the value of number of charge carriers per unit volume.
1
RH =
ne
1
n=
RH e

RESULT: The Value of Hall coefficient (RH) is = cm3 coloumb-1

value of number of charge carriers per unit volume( n) = cm-3.

MAXIMUM PROBABLE ERROR:

ΔR H ΔVH ΔI ΔB
= + +
RH VH I B

PRECAUTIONS:
1. High value of current should not be applied to the electromagnet.
2. Hall probe should be placed properly in the field.
3. Hall probes should be connected to the proper terminal (as per colour code).
4. Reading should be taken carefully.
5. Do not touch exposed magnet coil contacts
6. Never suddenly interrupt or apply power to a large magnet. Large inductive
voltage surges may damage the insulation. Start with controls set for zero current
and gradually increase the current. When turning off, smoothly decrease current
to zero and then turn off.
7. Do not leave the magnet current at a high setting for any length of time beyond
the minimum needed for data acquisition.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. Hall probe may not be positioned properly between the magnetic pole pieces
2. The circuit may not be properly connected.
 REFERENCES:
1. [Link]
2. [Link]
3. [Link]

VIVA RELATED QUESTIONS:

Q1. Define Hall Effect?
Q2. What causes Hall effect?
Q3. Why the Hall voltage should be measured for both the directions of current?
Q4. What are the uses of Hall effect?
Q5. What is the effect of temperature on Hall coefficient of a lightly doped
semiconductor?
Q6. Which type of magnets is used in the experiment,temporary or permanent.
Q7. Significance of Hall coefficient .What information do we get?
Q8. If Hall coefficient is negative,What does it indicate.
Q9 What is the mobility of carriers?
Q10. What is Charge carrier concentration and its unit?
Q11. What is the material of Hall probe used in your experiment?

REFERENCES FOR SUPPLEMENTARY READING:

1. Introduction to Solid State Physics, C. Kittel; John Wiley and Sons Inc., N.Y. (1971),
4th edition.
2. M. A. Omar, Elementary Solid State Physics (Revised Printing, Addison-Wesley,
1993).
3. Solid state physics by S O Pillai.
4. Introduction to semiconductor materials and devices by M. S. Tyagi
 Study of Magnetoresistance

AIM: To study the magneto resistance of given semiconductor material.

APPARATUS: Hall probe arrangement, which is a germanium/silicon crystal N or P type with

four spring type pressure contact mounted on sunmica bakelite strip, electromagnet which is a U
shaped soft iron yoke, constant current supply from 0 to 4A, digital gauss meter with hall probe
(here the hall voltage is amplified and passes through milli voltmeter which is calibrated in
gauss) and a wooden hall probe stand.

THEORY: It is noticed that the resistance of the sample changes when the magnetic field is
turned on. The phenomenon, called magneto resistance, is due to the fact that the drift velocity of
all carriers is not same. With the magnetic field on, the Hall voltage V is given as,

V  Eyt  v  H

which compensates exactly the Lorentz force for carriers with the average velocity; slower
carriers will be over compensated and faster one under compensated, resulting in trajectories that
are not along the applied field. This results in an effective decrease of the mean free path and
hence an increase in resistivity.
Here the above referred symbols are defines as: v = drift velocity; E = applied electric field; t =
thickness of the crystal; H = Magnetic field
FORMULAE USED: Magneto resistance can be found by using formula

∆R/R = (Rm – R)/R

Where R = Sample resistance without magnetic field

Rm = Resistance at different magnetic field

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig 1: Four probe between magnetic pole pieces.

1
 Fig 2. Apparatus set-up.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the electromagnet to the power supply (See fig.2) and measure the magnetic
field at different currents with the help of gauss meter (Table 1).
2. Connect the red color contact of the four probe to the voltage terminal and green colour
contact of the four probe to the current terminal of magneto resistance board.
3. Switch ON the magneto resistance board.
4. Measure the resistance of the sample by varying the current and recording the
corresponding voltage reading by placing the four probe outside the magnetic field using
the magneto resistance board.
5. Adjust the current in magneto resistance board 3 mA. (constant for whole set of reading).
6. Put the meter selector switch towards 200mV. There may be some voltage reading even
outside the magnetic field. This is due to imperfect alignment of the four contacts of the
hall probe and is generally known as Zero field potential. If its value is comparable to the
hall voltage then it should be adjusted to the minimum value (for hall probe for
germanium only) else it should be subtracted from hall voltage reading.
7. Place the hall probe in the magnetic field.
8. Connect the constant current power supply with electromagnet.
9. Switch on the supply and adjust current to a desired value.

2
 10. Rotate the probe till it becomes perpendicular to magnetic field (Hall voltage will be
maximum here).
11. Measure voltage at different magnetic fields (Table 3).
12. Calculate the value of ∆R/R.

OBSERVATIONS:

Table 1: Calibration of Magnetic Field

L.C. of ammeter=……A and L.C. of gauss meter=………Gauss

S. No. Current (A) Magnetic Field (Gauss)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

 Sample resistance without magnetic field R [at 3 mA] = ……Ω

Table 2: Resistance without magnetic field.

[Link]. Current (mA) I Voltage V(mV) Resistance R (Ω)

𝑉
R=
𝐼

Table 3: Measurement of Magneto-resistance

Probe Current I = 3.0 mA [constant for whole set of reading].

Magnetic Rm
Current Voltage Log
S. No. Field H =Vm/I ∆R/R Log H
(Amp) Vm(mV) (∆R/R)
(Gauss) (Ω)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

3
 8
9
10

RESULTS:
Graph shows the nature of
(a) Current Vs Magnetic field (H)
(b) Log (H) Vs Log (∆R/R)

CALCULATIONS:

∆R/R = (Rm – R)/R

MAXIMUM PROBABLE ERROR

∆R (Rm − R)
=
R R
∆R (Rm−R)
ln R = 𝑙𝑛 R ,
Differentiate this and calculate maximum probable error by putting the suitable value of
variables.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Start with controls set for zero current. When turning off, smoothly decrease current to
zero and then turn off. High value of current should not be applied to the four probe and
electromagnet.
2. Never suddenly interrupt or apply power to a large magnet. Large inductive voltage
surges may damage the insulation.
3. Hall probe should be placed perpendicular to the magnetic field.
4. Hall probes should be connected to proper terminal (as per color code).
5. Do not touch exposed magnet coil contacts.
6. Do not leave the magnet current at a high setting for any length of time beyond the
minimum needed for data acquisition.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. Hall probe may not be positioned properly between the magnetic pole pieces.
2. Hall probe may not be properly mounted.
3. The circuit may not be properly connected.

VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS:

1. Define a semiconductor.
2. Name the example of different types of semiconductors.
3. Define resistivity and whether it is different from specific resistance?
4. What is the unit of magnetic field being used in present experiment?

4
 5. Which apparatus is used to measure magnetic field in this experiment?
6. Define magnetoresistance and how is it different from electrical resistance?
7. What is drift velocity and explain the relation between drift velocity and electric field?
8. How Hall voltage is associated with magnetic field mathematically?
9. Why zero field potential is calculated in this experiment?
10. What are the applications of magnetoresistance?

REFERENCES

1. Solid State Physics by S. L. Gupta and V. Kumar, K. Nath &Co. Publishers.

2. Solid State Physics by S.O. Pillai, New Age International Publishers.

5
1

Experiment 8(b)
Planck’s Constant by LED

Aim: To determine Planck‟s Constant using LEDs of known wavelength.

Apparatus Required: Voltmeter, ammeter, rheostat, blue, red, green and orange LEDs, power
supply.

Formula Used: h=eλV0/c (J-S)

Theory:

Planck‟s constant (h), a physical constant was introduced by German physicist named Max
Planck in 1900. The significance of Planck‟s constant is that „quanta‟ (small packets of energy)
can be determined by frequency of radiation and Planck‟s constant. It describes the behaviour of
particle and waves at atomic level as well as the particle nature of light. It was conceived as the
proportionality constant between the minimal increment of energy E, of a hypothetical
electrically charged oscillator in a cavity that contained black body radiation, and the frequency
ν, of its associated electromagnetic wave. In 1905, the value E, the minimal energy increment of
a hypothetical oscillator, was theoretically associated by Albert Einstein with a “quantum” or
minimal element of the energy of the electromagnetic wave itself. The light quantum behaved in
some aspects as an electrically neutral particle, as opposed to an electromagnetic wave. It was
eventually called the photon.

The Planck-Einstein relation connects the particulate photon energy E with its associated wave
frequency ν.

Visible light emitting diodes (LEDs) have been widely used as power indicators. However, after
the power is switched off, it takes a while for the LED to go off. Planck‟s constant, h=
6.626Х10-34 J-s, is one of the fundamental constants of nature relating to the quantum concepts
in modern physics. It has been previously suggested that Plank‟s constant be determined using
LEDs, where the key parameter to be determined was the voltage required to switch on LED of
known optical frequency. Of the two main methods reported, one uses a voltmeter to measure
the minimum voltage needed to activate the LED, and the other determines “turn-on” voltage
from the current-versus-voltage (I-V) curve of the LED.

An LED is a two-terminal semiconductor light source. In the unbiased condition a potential

barrier is developed across the p-n junction of the LED. When we connect the LED to an
external voltage in the forward biased direction, the height of potential barrier across the p-n
junction is reduced. At a particular voltage the height of potential barrier becomes very low and
the LED starts glowing, i.e. in the forward biased condition electrons crossing the junction are
excited, and when they return to their normal state, energy is emitted. This particular voltage is
2

called the knee voltage or the threshold voltage. Once the knee voltage is reached, the current
may increase but the voltage does not change.

The light energy emitted during forward biasing is given as,

E=hc/λ ------------------------------------------------------- (1)

Where

c= velocity of light

h= Planck‟s constant

λ= wavelength of light

If V is the forward voltage applied across the LED when it begins to emit light (the knee
voltage), the energy given to electrons crossing the junction is,

E=eV-----------------------------------------------------------(2)

Equating (1) and (2), we get

eV= hc/λ ------------------------------------------------------ (3)

The knee voltage V can be measured for LEDs with different values of λ (wavelength of light).

V=hc/e Х (1/λ) -----------------------------------------------(4)

Procedure:

Circuit connections are done as shown in below circuit diagram. Note the wavelength of given
LEDs. LED 1 is connected to the terminal P. The voltage supply is varied slowly by varying the
fine voltage knob of the regulated power supply. The voltmeter reading is noted just as LED
glows. This is turn on voltage (V0) for LED1. Repeat the same procedure for remaining LEDS
by connecting with their respective terminals. Note the turn on voltage for each case.

Plot the graph of energy (E=eV0) on Y-axis and frequency (v=c/λ) on X-axis. The slope of the
graph gives the Plank‟s constant.
3

Circuit Diagram:

Observation Table:

LED λ (nm) ν= (Hz) V0 (V) E= eV0 (Х h= eλV0/c

10-19) (J) Х10-34 (J-s)
RED 660
ORANGE 610
GREEN 525
BLUE 450
c=3Х108 m/s

e=1.6Х10-19 Coloumb

Result:

1. Calculated value of Planck‟s constant using

RED LED is

ORANGE LED is

GREEN LED is

BLUE LED is

2. Graphically Planck‟s constant value is

Precautions:

1. The just glow condition should be visualized properly.

2. Minimum voltage should be applied.

4

3. Scales of the voltmeter and ammeter should be observed.

4. While calculations units of each quality be in same system.

Sources of error:

1. Results can vary by inappropriate observation of just glow condition.

2. Voltage knob should be moved in smaller steps.

3. Experimental step should not disturb while taking readings.

4. Graph should be plotted by taking uniform axis.

 Electron specific charge (e/m) by Magnetron method

Aim- To determine the value of specific charge (e/m) of an electron by Magnetron method.
Apparatus- Diode valve, solenoid, and Magnetron setup.
Formula Used- The specific charge of an electron is given by
e 8V
 2 a 2 C/kg
m Bc ra
Bcr =µ0 n Iscr cosθ
L/2
cos 
2
 L
R  
2

2
where Va is applied voltage at anode, ra is anode radius, Bcr is critical magnetic field of
solenoid, n is number of turns/cm,  0 is permeability in vacuum, Iscr is critical current, L is
length of solenoid and R is radius of solenoid.
Theory
A magnetron (Fig. 1) may be regarded as a vacuum tube
(diode) placed inside a solenoid which can generate a magnetic

field coaxially to the tube. Electrons emitted by the cathode

travel radially to the anode (see Fig. 2a), however in presence of
an axial magnetic field the electrons path become curved (Fig.
2b). At a critical value of the magnetic field, the electrons path
just touch the anode (Fig. 2c), any further increase in magnetic
field strength will enhance the number of electrons not reaching
the anode (Fig. 2d), as a result the anode current falls to zero.
Measurement of this critical field can be used to determine e/m.
Fig. 1

Page 1 of 8
 Fig. 2: Electron trajectory path at applying different solenoid current

Experimental Section:

І. Schematic view of the measurement set-up (Fig. 3).

ε1 and ε2 – sources of a dc-current
Аa – ammeter for the estimation of the anode current Ia
Аs – ammeter for the measurement of the coil current Is
V – voltmeter
К – cathode
А – anode
R1 and R2 – rheostats

Fig. 3 Schematic view of the measurement set-up.

Page 2 of 8
Procedure:
The magnetron should be connected as shown below so that:

- a current of up to 14 mA is passed through its cathode filament

- a variable voltage of up to 100 V can be maintained between its anode (A) and cathode
(K), and the current in this circuit measured.
- the solenoid, with its own power supply, can be placed over the magnetron to provide a
variable axial magnetic field.
To emit electrons, the filament should be white-hot. Apply current until the filament glows
brightly but do not exceed 14 mA. To maximise the life of the tube, do not leave it with the
filament heated unnecessarily: turn down the filament current when not taking readings. As the
anode voltage Va is turned up, an anode current Ia will be read on the milliammeter which
increases as the anode voltage is increased. In this experiment, the anode voltage is kept fixed
while the magnetic field is varied. With the solenoid placed over the magnetron, turn up the
solenoid current Is. It will be noted that above a certain value the anode current falls to zero. The
aim of this experiment is to determine this critical magnetic field for different values of the
anode voltage.
To perform the experiment, the anode voltage Va is set to different values and for each
setting, a graph of anode current Ia against solenoid current Is plotted. In practice, the anode
current does not drop suddenly to zero at the critical current Iscr, but falls gradually: hence the
critical current must be determined graphically. This is done by extrapolating the two straight-
line segments of the curve and determining their point of intersection (see Fig. 4).

Page 3 of 8
 Fig. 4

Calculations:
In absence of magnetic field, (i.e. B = 0,) the potential difference between the heated
cathode and the anode forces all electrons to move in outer radial direction towards anode. As a
result anode current, Ia flows. The work done e by electric force between the cathode and the
anode will be equal to the increase in the kinetic energy of the electron,

--------------------------------- (1)
In order to calculate the specific electron charge e/m, it is necessary to measure the applied
voltage and to calculate the velocity . The voltage is measured by a voltmeter, while the
velocity can be determined by the electron motion in the additionally applied homogenous
magnetic field of the coil in the magnetron. The Lorentz force acting on the electron in
homogeneous magnetic field is given by

= ( )

For small values of the magnetic induction the electron trajectories become non-linear, but the
electron is still capable of reaching the anode and an anodic current is flowing, as shown in the

graph below. The anode current Ia remains almost constant. If the induction increases and

Page 4 of 8
reaches some critical value, Bcr, the trajectory curvature of some of the electrons will become
large enough and they will not be able to reach the anode, i.e. the anode current will
decrease. Taking into account that the Lorentz force is acting as a centripetal force in this
case, we can find the velocity of the electron at the critical magnetic field Bcr:

----------------------------------- (2)

(if is at right angle to )

The condition for the critical case (Fig. 2c) at Bcr, the radius of the electron orbit is half the anode
radius of the magnetron, i.e.,:

re = ra / 2 -------------------------------------- (3)

By substituting the value of v and re from Eqn. (2)and (3) respectively in Eqn. (1) we obtain
the specific charge:
e 8V
 2 a2
m Bcr ra

where e and m are the charge and mass of the electron respectively;
Bcr, the critical magnetic induction of the coil magnetic field is determined by Bcr =µ0 n Iscr ,
with Iscr being the current which corresponds to the critical value of the magnetic induction, Bcr;
n – the number of turns per meter length; μ0 is magnetic constant (permeability of vacuum).

Some Useful Parameters-

1) Radius of anode ra = 0.4 cm
2) No. of turns on the solenoid = 3000
3) Length of the solenoid L = 9 cm.
4) Diameter of wire 2R = 0.81 cm.
5) Value of permeability in vacuum  0 = 4π x 10-7 henry /m
6) Calculate No. of turns per cm on solenoid n =

Page 5 of 8
Observations –
Least count of voltmeter =
Least count of ammeter =
Least count of mili-ammeter =

[Link] Plate Potential Current in Plate Current

From Graph (Iscr )
. (volts) Solenoid (A) (mA)
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5

Plot a graph between solenoid current and plate current and then calculate the value of Iscr
from graph.

Calculation:
Left side at practical notebook.

Page 6 of 8
Results:
Calculate the value of e/m =

Maximum Probable Error:

Calculation left side at practical notebook.

Sources of error and Precautions

1. Use setup and valve with care.
2. The diode should be placed well within the solenoid symmetrically.
3. The plate voltage should be kept constant during one set of observations.

QUESTIONS
1) What is the significance of calculating e/m ratio?
2) What is magnetron valve?
3) Explain the difference between centripetal and centrifugal force?
4) What is the direction and magnitude of magnetic field inside the solenoid?
5) What is the meaning of critical magnetic field?
6) Plate current starts falling (decreasing) after a certain value of solenoid current. Why?
7) What is the magnitude of the electric force acting on an electron moving with a
velocity v at an angle θ with respect to applied magnetic field B?
8) What will be the shape of the graph between Bc2 and V?
9) Explain the trajectories of electrons inside the tube under the combined influence of
electric and magnetic fields?
10) Compare Magnetron method with Thomson method to calculate electron specific
charge?
11) What is the unit of e/m?
12) Does e/m remain constant?

Page 7 of 8
References:

I. "Fundamentals of Physics", 6th Ed., D. Halliday, R. Resnick and J. Walker, John

Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 2001.

II. Practical Physics by K.K. Dey and B.N. Dutta.

Page 8 of 8
 Experiment 9(b)

Inverse Square Law

Object: To study the photovoltaic cell and hence verify the inverse square law.

Apparatus required: Photocell, micro ammeter, uprights, lamp and wooden base, meter scale.

Formula used: If “l” be the luminous intensity of an electric lamp and E the illummance at a
point distant “d” from it, then according to the inverse square law

E = 1/d2

ϴ d2 = constant

Where ϴ is the deflection

Theory:

A Photovoltaic cell is a semiconductor which is able to convert radiant energy into voltage. In
the forms, these devices were known as barrier layer cells but now these are called solar cells as
they are generally used to convert solar energy into electrical energy.

The basic principle of these cells is that when a radiant energy is incident on semiconductor,
produces electron-hole pairs and if the radiant energy exceeds the band gap of the
semiconductor, the recombination of electron hole pair cannot take place as in this case the
electron is promoted to conduction band. If the external circuit is completed with the
semiconductor, the current starts flowing because of electron hole creation by the radiant energy.
The voltage generated depends directly on the band gap of the semiconductor.

If “l” be the luminous intensity of an electric lamp and E the illummance at a point distant “d”
from it, then according to the inverse square law

E = 1/d2

If light from the lamp be incident on the photovoltaic cell placed at a distance d from it and if ϴ
be the corresponding deflection shown by the galvanometer hen

ϴαl

ϴ α 1/d2

ϴ d2 = constant

Procedure:

1. The experiment can be performed in the laboratory but it is always good to perform it in a
dark room where stray lights falling on the photo-voltaic cell can be avoided. In the dark

1
 room mount the various parts of the apparatus on a bench provided with a meter scale.
Make the other connections as shown in figure-A.

2. Connect photocell leads directly to micro ammeter.

3. Put the photocell fitted on an upright and fix its position on ½ meter wooden base. Also
put an incandescent lamp on an upright and adjust its position so that it is at the same
level as the photocell.

4. Switch on the lamp and bring it near the photocell in very small steps and note down the
position of the lamp and the corresponding deflections in the micro ammeter.

5. Now increase the distance d between the photocell and the lamp in very small steps and
go on nothing the corresponding deflections in the meter.

6. Tabulate the various readings and plot a curve between deflection ϴ and 1/d2.

Observation: L.C of microammeter :

S. Position of Photocell Deflection 104/d2

No. from lamp d (cm) ϴ (µA)
1
2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
15

Graph: Plot a graph between 1/d2 and ϴ taking 1/d2 along X-axis and ϴ along Y-axis. The curve
will be a straight line.

Result: Hence verified the inverse square law

Precautions and Sources of Error:

1. Experiment should be performed in dark room.

2. Distance between lamp and photocell should be measured correctly.

3. Light should fall on normally on the photocell

4. The photocell should not be exposed to light for a long time continuously.
5. A Cover should be placed on the photocell to protect it.

2
Viva-Voice:
Q.1: What is photoelectric effect?

Q.2: What is the photo cell?

Q.3: Does the photo electric current depend on frequency of light and intensity of light?
How?

Q.4: Define the illuminating power, Intensity of illumination?

Q.5: Explain the construction of photo cell?

3
 EXPERIMENT NO. 10
Object: Study of dielectric (constant) behavior and determination of Curie’s temperature of
ferroelectric ceramics.
Apparatus:
Sample of barium titanate (BaTiO3), apparatus that includes probe arrangement, sample,
oven, oven controller and digital capacitance meter.

Formula used:
The value of the dielectric constant ε, of the barium titanate sample is given by
C
 (1)
C0
Where C is capacitance of the ferroelectric ceramic (BaTiO3) in between the plates with

area, A and thickness, t and C0 ( = ε0 A/t) is capacitance of vacuum placed in between the

plates.  0 is a universal constant, called permittivity of free space (vacuum) and its value is

8.85X 10-3 pF/mm.

Procedure:
1. Connect the probe leads to the capacitance meter
2. Connect the oven to main unit and put it in off position.
3. Switch on the main unit and note the value of capacitance. It should be a stable reading.
4. Switch on the temperature controller and approx adjust the set temperature. The green
LED would light up indicating the oven is ON and temperature would start rising.
5. Controller of oven would switch off or on power corresponding to set-temperature. In
case it is less then desired the set temperature may be increased or vice-versa.

Observations and Calculations:

Sample: Barium titanate

Area (A) ______ mm2

Thickness (t): mm

Permittivity of space (  0 ): 8.85X 10-3 pF/mm

[C] Readings for determination of  :
[Link]. Temperature(T) Increasing tempertaure Decreasing temperature
(°C) Capacitance(C) Dielectric Capacitance(C) Dielectric
(pF) constant (ε) (pF) constant (ε)
1. 20
2. 25
3. 30
4. 35
. .
. .
. 150

Plot the graphs between dielectric constant and temperature for increasing and decreasing
temperature. Temperature corresponding to maxima is Curie temperature.

Result:
From both graphs, Curie temperature (Tc )............. ± ΔT.°C and corresponding value of dielectric
constant ( εm) is ............. ± Δε
Precautions:
1. The spring loaded probe should be allowed to rest on the sample gently else it will
damage the surface of sample.
2. Reading near curie’s temperature should be taken at small intervals, say 1°C.
3. The reading of capacitance meter should be taken when oven is off i.e. when LED
goes off.
Sources of error:
1. There may be some pickups if reading is not taken in oven off status.
2. Reading near Curie’s temperature is taken at small intervals.
3. Due to wear and tear of the sample.

Maximum Probable error:

C0 is constant, therefore maximum probable error (using (1)):

C
   ; C  1pF
C
For Curie temperature, the maximum probable error, ΔT will be the temperature interval
near the Tc.

Theory:
Ferroelectric Phase Transitions and Curie-Weiss Behavior
All ferroelectric materials possess a characteristic transition temperature, called Curie
temperature To. At a temperature T ≥ To, they do not exhibit ferroelectricity. On decreasing
the temperature through the Curie point, a ferroelectric undergoes a phase transition from a
non-ferroelectric (paraelectric) phase to a ferroelectric phase. If there are more than one
ferroelectric phases, the temperature at which the crystal transforms from one ferroelectric
phase to another is called the transition temperature.

Fig.1 Relative permittivity measured along the a and c directions of a poled tetragonal
BaTiO3 crystal versus temperature in a ferroelectric [after, W. J. Merz, Phys. Rev. 95,
690 (1954).]
Fig. 1 shows the variation of the relative permittivity (ε r) (or dielectric constant) with
temperature for BaTiO3 ferroelectric crystal as it is cooled from its non-ferroelectric (or
paraelectric) cubic phase to the ferroelectric tetragonal, orthorhombic, and rhombohedral
phases. Near the Curie point or phase transition temperatures, thermodynamic properties
including dielectric, elastic, optical, and thermal constants show an anomalous behaviour.
This is due to a distortion in the crystal as the phase changes. The temperature dependence
of the dielectric constant above the Curie point (T>To) in most ferroelectric crystals is
governed by the Curie-Weiss law :

. ................1
C'
  o 
T  To

where ε is the permittivity of the material, ε0 is the permittivity of the vacuum, C’ the Curie
constant and T0 is the Curie-Weiss temperature.

Perovskite group
Perovskite is a family name of group of materials and the mineral name of
CaTiO3 having a structure of the type ABO3 (Fig.2). Many piezoelectric (including
ferroelectric) ceramics such as Barium Titanate (BaTiO3), Lead Titanate (PbTiO3),
Lead zirconate titanate (PZT), Lead Lanthanum Zirconate Titanate (PLZT), Lead
Magnesium Niobate (PMN), Potassium Niobate (KNbO3), Potassium sodium Niobate
and Potassium Tantalate Niobate have a perovskite type structure.

Fig. 2 Two representations of Perovskites structure.

Applications of ferroelectric materials

Ferroelectric ceramics have been found to be useful for various practical
application such as high dielectric constant capacitors, piezoelectric sonar and ultrasonic
transducers, radio and communication filters, pyroelectric devices, medical diagnostic
transducers, positive temperature coefficient sensors, ultrasonic motors and electrooptic
light valves.
Viva-voce:
1. Define dielectrics and ferroelectrics.
2. Differentiate insulator and dielectric materials.
3. Corelate the above terms with diamagnetism and ferromagnetism.
4. Define ceramics and differentiate with electro-ceramic.
5. Explain pervoskite structure.
6. At temperature greater than Curie temperature, phase of ferroelectric ceramic
is (paraelectric/ ferroelectric).
7. Define rattling space in perovskite structure.
8. How rattling of Ti-ion(+4) is related to ferroelectric phase?
9. State Curie-Weiss law.
10. From the data you have collected , can you find Curie constant. If Yes, then how?
11. What do you mean by Lead free materials?
12. What are the applications of ferroelectric materials?
13. What is the relation between piezoelectricity and ferroelectricity?
References:
1. S. O. Pillai, Solid State Physics, New Age International (P) ltd., Publishers,

Delhi (2005).

2. Charles Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics, Wiley, New York (2003).

Useful links for e-references:

[Link]/wiki/Relative permittivity
[Link]/wiki/Dielectric