St.

MARY’S UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF BASIC COURSES

PRE- UNIVERSITY PROGRAMME FOR ESSLCE EXAMINEES

HISTORY MODULE FOR REMEDIAL

PREPARED BY: HAILEMARIAM T/GIORGIES

OCTOBER, 2024

ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIA

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Descriptions
This module intends to identify core areas of knowledge that will be imparted to
students who aspire to join higher education institutions in Ethiopia. Focus area of
the material is according to national outline and curriculum prepared by the
Ministry of Education. Accordingly, students will be dealing with ancient, medieval
and modern history of different parts of the world. Historically relevant themes are
part of the module and standard review questions are also incorporated. This
module will be a base for ESSLE.
This module is prepared for Students, Library and course instructors.

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GENERAL OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE
• Discuss the main components and objectives of studying history.
• Explain the major ancient world civilization with their major achievements.
• Analyze the major achievements of the Pre Aksumite and Aksumite kingdom.
• Evaluate the main political-economic, social and cultural features of peoples and states of
Ethiopia to since the ancient time.
• Outline the nature of African and European relations in pre-colonial and colonial periods.
• Explain the factors that led to the development and decline of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade
• Explain the historical relationship between the Muslim states and the Christian kingdom
• Explain the causes and consequences of population movements in Ethiopia and the Horn.
• Assess the political, economic and social transformations brought by colonial rule in
Africa.
• Describe the causes of external aggression and its consequences in Ethiopia
• Identify the causes and consequences of the WWI and WWII
• Explain how and why the UN was established

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COURSE CONTENTS PAGE NO.

UNIT 1. INTRODUCTION. 1

1.1. Definition and uses of History 1

1.2. Key elements in the study of history 1
1.3. Features, interdependence and achievements of major civilizations 6
1.4. Unit Summary 11

UNIT 2. STATE FORMATION AND POPULATION MOVEMENTS IN THE HORN

OF AFRICA TILL THE SEVENTIETH CENTURY 16
[Link]; -Punt, Da’amat, Aksum, and Zagwe 16
2.2. South and Southwest; Bizamo, Damot, Enarya and Gafat 21
2.3. Muslim sultanates; Shoa, Hadya, Fatagar, Bali, Ifat, and Dawaro 23
2.4. Inter-state relations: Causes of the conflicts 26
2.5. International dimensions of the conflict 28
2.6. Population movements of the Oromo 30
2.7. Unit Summary 33

UNIT 3. THE MODERN WORLD SINCE 1500. 41

[Link] 41
3.2. Exploration and Discoveries 42
3.3. The English bourgeois revolution 43
3.4. The French bourgeois revolution 48
3.5. America war of independence 57
3.6. Industrial revolution and its consequences 58
[Link] Summary 60
UNIT 4. THE GONDERIAN PERIOD and SOCIO-POLITICAL DEVELOPMNTS
IN THE REST OF ETHIOPIAN REGION 66
4.1. The establishment and socio-economic and political developments of Gonder
66
4.2. The Jesuits and their evangelization in Ethiopia 68
4.3. The ascendency of the Yejju dynasty 73
4.4. Decadence within the ruling house and the subsequent era of the lords 74
4.5. Polities of Shoa, Omo and the Gibe regions, the Emirate of Harrar and
sheikdoms of Assosa 76
4.6. Unit Summary 84
UNIT 5. AFRICA AND THE OUTSIDE WORLD TO 1900 88
[Link], development and consequence of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade 88
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 5.2. Scramble for Africa 91
5.3. Colonial rule 93
5.4. Unit Summary 94

UNIT 6. FORMATION OF THE MODERN STATE OF

ETHIOPIA: 1855-1941. 97
[Link] unification and expansion 97
6.2. New Approach to Building Imperial Power, 1872-1889 101
6.3. Imperial Expansion to the South, South-West and South-East 103
6.4. Modernization attempts from the Post-Adwa Period, up to 1935 106
6.5. Lij Iyasu 1913-1916: Reforms and the Coup de’etat against Him 115
6.6. The Diarchy Rule (1917 – 30) 117
6.7. The Emergence of the Absolutist State, 1930-35 120
6.8. Defending sovereignty and territorial integrity 122
6.9. Unit Summary 136
UNIT 7. MAJOR GLOBAL DEVELOPMENTS 145
[Link] two world wars 145
7.2. Formation of UNO 173
7.3. Division of the World into East and West and the Cold War 177
7.4. Unit Summary 182
UNIT 8. AFRICAN MOVE TOWARDS INDEPENDENCE 188
[Link] and revolts 188
8.2. Pan Africanism 189
8.3. Organization of African Unity 191
8.4. Decolonization and Liberation Struggles 195
[Link] Summary 202
UNIT 9. ETHIOPIA FROM LIBERATION TO REVOLUTION 206
[Link] and American eras 206
9.2. The Eritrean problem 210
9.3. Opposition against the imperial regime 213
9.4. The Military Dictatorship (1974 - 91) Consolidation of
Military Dictatorship 228
9.5. Unit Summary 233

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 UNITT ONE
INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit students will be able to:
- Examine the relevance of studying history
- Examine the uses of sources in the writings of history
- Understand the achievements and interactions of ancient and classical civilizations
1.1 The Meaning and Use of History
History is a branch of knowledge that deals with all that had been done by people who
lived in the past. It is concerned with the political, economic, social and cultural activities
of human past. History beyond the knowledge of the past, systematically records and
explains what man has thought, said and done. It also describes man’s interaction with
surrounding environment, and efforts to improve his world.
▪ History helps us to learn about what people did in the past. By learning about their
deeds we try not to repeat the mistakes of the past.
▪ History helps us to understand today’s world problems by connecting with relevant
past events.
▪ History enables us to enhance our ability to differentiate facts from opinion,
analyze problems, gather and evaluate evidence and reached at conclusion.
▪ History enables us to know the past, understand the present and forecast future
development.
1.1.1. Key Elements in the Study of History
The study of history bases on evidences which are authentic, unbiased and systematically
evaluated.
A. Sources: In the study of history, sources are the decisive ones. No one can write
history without sources. Historical evidence is obtained from different types of
sources.
Historical sources are classified into two major groups:
i. Primary Sources
They have direct relations to the events they describe. Primary sources come directly
from the period under study. They are nearer in time and place to the events they
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 describe. Seen as a whole, primary sources are historians’ raw materials that give
them first- hand information about the selected period they want to examine.
The most important primary sources are:
➢ Eyewitness accounts by direct participants or observers.
➢ Chronicles and documents written by contemporary.
➢ Letters, diaries and memoirs.
➢ Monuments, inscriptions, coin, artworks, tools cave-paintings etc...
of the period understudy.

ii. Secondary Sources:

These sources do not have direct relation or closeness to the events they describe. Most
of them are historical reconstructions. Mostly secondary sources are articles, history
books, unpublished materials, etc. which are produced looking back at primary sources.
They are materials that give us second-hand information about the selected period we
want to examine.
Primary sources are more reliable than secondary sources of history. However, critical evaluation
of both sources is very important. Otherwise, there is the possibility of mis- representation or
wrong interpretation of historical evidences.
Oral Traditions: Before writing history, it is necessary to have clear understanding of the
meaning of the collected evidence. Oral tradition could be considered as both primary and
secondary because of the nature the information we obtained from. For instance, the information
we collect testimony from living witnesses could be taken as primary, whereas recounting
information obtained from other sources are secondary.

iii. Presentation/Writing History:

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After clear understanding of historical evidences, the next step is presentation of the facts on
paper. The quality of historical writing is highly affected by the manner of presentation. Writing
history is different from writing fictions. Presenting historical information based on evidence in
a simple, readable and attractive way is very important.
iv. Objectivity
Objectivity depends not only on getting the facts right but also distinguishing between the real or
significant facts. Historical presentation and interpretation should be free from omission and
exaggeration facts, and anachronism as much as possible
1.1.2. Periodization in History
Time is an important factor in the study of history. The past events could not be understood
properly unless they are presented in time framework. Otherwise, disorder of events may occur
and confuse the audiences. Historians used different approaches in the periodization of history by
dividing the whole history of mankind into different periods owing to varieties of criteria.
A. Pre-historic Period
This period refers to the long period of time before people invented system of writing. Pre-
historic people had no cities, countries, organized central governments, or complex inventions.
All events that took place prior to 6000 B.P are studied under pre-history. This period coincided
with a period known as the Stone Age (2,000,000 B.P up to 5000 B.P). There had been a slow
progress in the technique of producing stone tools during the period of the Stone Age. Based on
this technique of progress, the Stone Age is subdivided into Old Stone Age, Middle Stone Age
and New Stone Age. But many scholars avoided the division of Stone Age into three and use the
one that divides it into two major periods of Old Stone Age (2,000,000 – 8000 B.P) and New
Stone Age (8000 – 5000 B.P)
B. Historic Period
This period of history began about 6000 B.P with the beginning of a writing system. This period
is further divided into three minor periods: Ancient, Medieval and Modern. But there is no
uniform and fixed time gaps for the subdivisions throughout the world.
1. Periodization in European History
→ The Ancient period of European history started from the rise of civilization in Ancient
Greece about 2500 B.C. and lasted up to the 5 th Century A.D.
→ The Medieval period of European history lasted from the 5 th C A.D. up to the 16th Century.
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→ Modern European history dates from the 16 th Century A.D. up to the present.
2. Periodization of African History
African history has developed a unique feature as a result of European Colonization.
→ Pre – colonial period
→ Colonial period
→ Post – colonial period
3. Periodization of Ethiopian History
The timeline shows you when and where events happened during the period in discussion. ecause
of the length of time, historians organize the human past into separate periods after identifying
significant developments and giving a label to each period. This is what we call periodization in
history. Accordingly, history is conventionally divided into ancient, medieval and modern history.
The periodization in Ethiopian history is different from the rest of African countries. Ethiopia is
the only African country which succeeded in keeping its independence.
→ Ancient history of Ethiopia started from 1000 B.C., the time when the process of state
formation began, and ended in 1270 A.D.
→ The Medieval Period lasted from1270 A.D. to 1855 A.D.
→ The Modern Period is from 1855 up to the present.
Dating in history is expressed in numerical statements such as a decade, a century, and a
millennium. A decade refers to a period of ten years. A century is one hundred years, whereas a
millennium refers to a thousand years. For example:
• The years from 1900 to 1909 is the first decade of the twentieth century

• The years from 1900 to 1999 is the twentieth century

• The years from 1000 to 1999 the is the second millennium

The primary purpose of dating in history is to organize past events according to their sequence
of occurrence by using calendars. This is what we call chronology. The two widely used
calendars worldwide are the Gregorian calendar and the Islamic calendar. According to the
Gregorian calendar, time is counted forward- A.D, and backwards- from the time of the birth of
Jesus Christ. The time before the birth of Christ is referred to as BC. (Before Christ), whereas the
time after the birth of Jesus Christ is expressed in AD (Anno Domini), a Latin term meaning “The
Year of the Lord”. Ethiopia uses its calendar which begins on September 11 of the Gregorian

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Calendar. The Ethiopian Calendar is seven to eight years behind the Gregorian Calendar. The
Islamic Calendar follows the event called the Hijra to count time forwards and backwards. The
Hijra was the flight of the prophet Mohammed and his early followers from the town of Mecca
to Medina in 622AD. Hence, BH stands for the years before the Hijra, and AH refers to the years
after the Hijra. Historians sometimes use a timeline. A timeline is a graphic representation of
events in chronological order or periods of history. It is a horizontal or a vertical lineup of
historical events. Historical timeline enables quick visualization and forms a clear idea of the
passage of time about events.
1.2. Features, interdependence and achievements of major civilizations
1.2.1 Civilizations in Africa
Ancient Egypt
The civilization of Ancient Egypt began at about 3000BC. It flourished in the Nile Valley.
According to tradition, Upper and Lower Egypt were unified by Menes around 3200BC.
Agriculture was the basis of the Egyptian economy. The silt from the Nile replenished the fertility
of the soil and allowed the production of large amounts of crops. The Egyptian peasantry produced
wheat and barley. Livestock also formed an integral part of the economy.
Trade was another important economic activity in the Empire. The Egyptian Empire was a large
state ruled by an absolute king called a pharaoh. The king ruled Egypt through officials named
Viziers. The Viziers acted as mayors, tax collectors and judges. The pharaoh was regarded as a
king and a god. He was believed to be an incarnated god and would indeed be a god after death,
watching over Egypt’s welfare. The Egyptians were polytheists. They worshipped many gods.
Ancient Egyptians believe in life after death. The process of preserving the body is called
mummification. Mummification later developed into skilled art. As a result, ancient Egyptians also
advanced in medicine. The Egyptian society was structured hierarchically.

Peasants undertook irrigational activities. They also constructed palaces, massive temples and
tombs for the Pharaohs. These tombs are known as pyramids. Ancient Egyptians developed the art
of writing known as hieroglyphics around 3000BC. It was a combination of pictograms,
ideograms, phonograms and determinatives. Following that, the Egyptians introduced papyrus
which was a paper-like substance

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Nubia
Kush was a kingdom along the Nile River in what is now Northeastern Sudan. It existed as early
as 2000 BC and lasted until about 350AD. Agriculture was an important basis for social
differentiation and stratification. The Nubians cultivated cereals, vegetables and dates fruit. In
addition, pastoralism formed another important base of the subsistence economy. Additionally,
trade was another important source of wealth and power for Nubian states. At different times,
Egypt conquered and ruled lower Nubia. Absolute kings and queens ruled the Nubian states.
Nubian kings and queens were considered like the Egyptian pharaohs as divine rulers. Nubians,
whose civilization was centered at Napata, overthrew the Egyptians and ruled until 750 B.C. Later,
the Assyrians invasion destroyed Napata and the Nubians mover southward to Meroe where their
civilization flourished again. Nubia was also known for its metal technology. Meroe was an
important center of metal products such as gold, copper, silver, and iron indicating that Meroe had
a flourishing iron industry. The Kushites conquered Egypt about the eighth century BC. Then, at
about 350AD, the Aksumite king, Ezana, invaded and destroyed Meroe.
1.2.2. Civilizations in Asia
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia included the area of current Eastern Syria, Southern Turkey and most parts of Iraq.
The earliest of the great river valley civilizations was the civilization of Sumerians found between
the rivers Tigris and Euphrates. The Sumerians began to build the first cities in the world. The
Sumerians used mud bricks dried in the sun in their buildings. Large temples of this kind were
called Ziggurats (stepped towers). The soil of southern Mesopotamia was so fertile, and with flood
control and irrigation, getting large yields was possible. The Sumerian kings had divine authority.
A king ruled as representative of his city’s major god. The Sumerians were Polytheists. The plough
and the potter wheel first appeared in Mesopotamia. The Sumerians may have been the first to use
bronze. The Sumerians developed the first writing system in the world around 3200 BC. Their
writing system was known as cuneiform. Cuneiform was not an alphabet system. Instead, it was a
highly complex system of ideographs. They also developed mathematics, astronomy, medicine
and metal works.
Persia
Persia was a land that included parts of the area now called Iran and Afghanistan. The Persians
called the region the “Land of Aryans”, from which the name Iran is coined. The Persians called
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their language Aryan. They established a dynasty known as the Persian Empire, the largest empire
in the ancient world. The first Persian Empire, founded by Cyrus the Great around 550BC, became
one of the largest empires in history, stretching from Europe’s Balkan Peninsula in the West to
India’s Indus Valley in the East. It also included parts of North Africa. They made an important
contribution to government, law and religion. They built many new roads and developed the
world’s first postal service. Their religion was known as Zoroastrianism, founded by a prophet
called Zoroaster.
India
The first Indian Civilizations began in the Indus Valley in Pakistan and Western India at about
2500BC and reached its apex at about 1500BC. The people had their counting, measuring,
weighing, and writing systems. They dug ditches and canals around the cities to irrigate their
farms. The people traded with one another and also with other civilizations like Mesopotamia. The
Indus artisans used copper and bronze to make tools, mirrors, pots, and pans and crafted gold
ornaments. The ancient Indian society was hierarchically divided into different social classes
according to their work and birth for some 3,000 years. Hindu religion was developed from the
beliefs of the early Indo-Aryans. Buddhism emerged from Hinduism as a reform movement. It
spread outside of India to South East Asia, China and Japan.
China
The civilization of ancient China first developed in the Yellow River Region of Northern China in
the third millennia BC. Chinese civilization expanded over time to present-day China's central and
southern parts. Ancient Chinese civilization reached its height about 3000 BC. in the valley of
Hwang Ho. The first dynasty in China was called the Shang dynasty (c. 1700-1122 BC). Its
achievements included the creation of bronze vessels, war chariots, and a writing system. At about
1122 BC., the Chon Dynasty overthrew the Shang Dynasty and established its own rule over China
until 256 BC. As a result, Chinese literary classics developed, and Chinese philosophy emerged.
Confucius (551-479BC) was the most influential and respected philosopher in Chinese history,
and his teaching was Confucianism. Confucianism teaches the importance of a well-ordered
society in which parents rule their children; men lead women and the educated judge ordinary
people. The ancient Chinese constructed the Great Wall of China to keep out invaders from central
Asia. It extends about 7,400 Kilometers across southern China. The Chinese developed their

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system of writing called logographic, which meant the use of pictorial symbols to represent words
of the Chinese language.
1.2.3. Ancient Civilizations of Latin America
Maya
The Maya were Native American people who developed a magnificent civilization in the western
hemisphere before the coming of the Europeans. This civilization was at its peak from about 250
to 900AD. The Maya produced remarkable architecture, painting, pottery, and sculpture. They
made outstanding achievements in astronomy mathematics and developed an accurate yearly
calendar. They developed an advanced form of writing. The Maya worshipped many gods and
goddesses. The Maya built tall pyramids of limestone with small temples on top. The Spanish had
captured the southern part of the area in the 16th Century. Spanish domination of the entire Maya
region was completed in the late 17th Century.
Inca
The Inca were a South American native people. They ruled one of the largest and richest empires
in the Americas. The Inca Empire began to expand at about 1438. It included present-day
Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina. Its capital was Cusco, in southern Peru.
The Inca were skilled in engineering and crafts. For example, they built a network of roads. Inca
craft workers made fine artifacts from gold, silver and other materials. The Inca also wove fine
cotton and woolen cloth. Spanish forces conquered the Inca Empire after 1532.
Aztecs
The Aztecs were another Native American people who ruled a powerful empire in Mexico during
the 15th and 16th centuries. The center of the Aztec civilization was the valley of Mexico. The
Aztecs Empire included many cities and towns. The largest city was the capital Tenochtitlan, which
stood on the site of present-day Mexico-City. Agriculture formed the basis of the Aztec economy.
The Aztecs worshipped hundreds of gods and goddesses. They used a form of writing called
pictographic writing. Unfortunately, their empire was destroyed by the Spaniards in 1521.

1.2.4. Civilizations in Europe

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Ancient Greek Civilization
Ancient Greece, which emerged about 2500 years ago, was the birthplace of western civilization.
Greeks' culture developed chiefly in small city-states called Polis. A city-state consists of a city or
town and the surrounding villages and farmland. The best-known city-states were Athens and
Sparta. The city-states never became united into a nation. However, they all had a common
language, religion and culture. The Greeks called themselves Helens and their land Hellas. Greek
cultural achievements were outstanding in the classical period and were the ancient legacy to
Europe and the world.
Some of the accomplishments were:
• Architecture- The temple of Athena in Athens (the Parthenon) is the finest example.
• Literature and Drama- The Greeks invented drama and the (theatre).
• Sculptures- The Greeks made statues of gods and heroes in marble and bronze.
• History writing- The two great Greek historians were Herodotus and Thucydides.
Herodotus wrote about countries and civilizations outside Greece but is also our best
source for the Persian Wars. Thucydides wrote a good account of the Peloponnesian War,
without bias though he was Athenian.
• Medicine- Hippocrates began the tradition of modern medicine in Europe. He identified
symptoms, classified diseases and suggested sensible remedies (for example: fresh air and
a good diet).

• “Democracy”, “Psychology”, “Olympic”, and “Marathon” all have Greek origin.

• Philosophy- The two greatest philosophers of ancient Greece, who taught in Athens, were
Plato and later Aristotle. The modern philosopher Bertrand Russell stated, “Plato and
Aristotle were the most influential of all philosophers, ancient- medieval or modern.”
Ancient Roman Civilization
The Roman Civilization was started in present-day Italy around 753BC on the hills above the River
Tiber. Ancient Rome had a significant influence on the development of western civilization.
Roman Law had become the foundation for the legal systems of most countries in Western Europe
and Latin America. Roman roads, bridges, and aqueducts served as a model for engineering.
Ancient Romans built public baths and amphitheaters (outdoor arenas). The most famous theatre
in the city of Rome was the Coliseum.

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A series of kings ruled Ancient Rome at the beginning. The Roman Republic was established in
509 BC after the Roman nobles overthrew the king. Two elected officials called Consuls headed
the government of the Republic. A Consul served for only a year. The Senate was the most
powerful government body of the Roman Republic, and the senators served for life. The Roman
Republic lasted for nearly 500 years, up to 27 BC. The Roman Empire was established after the
Republic was destroyed by the twenty-year civil war. The Empire lasted until Rome fell in 476
AD.
Rome expanded beyond Italy in aggressive wars. The bloodiest wars of Rome were the repetitive
Punic Wars (264-146) fought against Carthage. Rome then extended its empire, step by step, all
around the Mediterranean Sea and beyond (Gaul, which is modern France, Britain, Belgium and
the Netherlands). The main difference between the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire was
that the former was a democratic society, while the latter was run only by one man. Moreover, the
Roman Republic was in an almost constant state- of- war, whereas the Roman Empire's first 200
years were relatively peaceful. Rome left behind an important legacy, which it passed on to the
world in its culture and institutions.
Some of the most important ones include the following:

• The Latin Language- Latin developed into the “Latin languages” of Europe and Latin
America.
• Latin literature- authors like Cicero, Caesar (he wrote the history of his wars) and the poets
Vergil, Horace and others.
• Roman Law was revived in the European Middle Ages.
• The Julian Calendar, introduced by Julius Caesar, is the base for the current Gregorian
Calendar

UNIT SUMMERY
History refers to the study of what human didi in the past and its interaction with
the immediate environment. The study of history mainly focused on the changes in
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the development of human society. The relevances of studying history are to know
how human beings passed through several stages of developments, to understand
the current systems and developments and to forsee the future. History is an
integeral part of human identity and provides backgorud for every discipline and
sciences. The sudy of hisrory is dependent on sources. There are two types of
sources. i.e. Primary and secondary sources. Both are important in studying human
past.
One of the earliest achievements of human beings in the course of history is
formation of early civilizations and empires that can show us how human beings
develop, their achievements and interactions among them. There were ancient
civilizations in Asia i.e. Mesoptamia, India, China, Persia…, in Africa i.e. Egypt
and Kush//Nubia, in Europe i.e. Ancient Greece and Roman civilizations, and in
America i.e. Inca, Maya and Azetec empires. Each civilizaions had magnificent
achievements which can be a foundation for the current development and identity
of human socities.

Review Questions
Choose the best answers from the following alternatives.
1. Which one of the following is a primary historical source?
A. Books B. Tools C. Films D. Plays
2. Which of the following is not a key element of a civilized state?
A. Enforcing body of the law (government)
B. Right to be enjoyed (sovereignty)
C. Minted currency (coin) to collect revenue from territory
D. People to be ruled (population)
3. The land of Aryan civilization included what are today____
A. Tunisia and Libya C. Iran and Afghanistan
B. Southern Turkey Iraq and Syria D. Pakistan and west Indus
4. Oral tradition refers to ______
A. Any oral data that is verified and established as true
B. Any important stories taught to the generations
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 C. Any historical accounts that are reserved in archives
D. Any significant information that historians get from elders
5. History is different from pre- history because history is recorded ____
A. After the art of writing C. After Hagiography records
B. After novels were written D. After primary sources were collected
6. The first Native Americans who developed a magnificent civilization in the western
hemisphere before the coming of Europeans were ______
A. Incas B. Greeks C. Mayas D. Aztecs
7. From 509 BC onwards with the establishment of the Roman Republic, which one of the
following was the most powerful body?
A. Roman Senate B. Roman Kings C. Roman Nobles D. Roman consuls
8. The final blow/end of Meroitic Civilization came from ____
A. Egyptians invasion C. Nubians invasion
B. Assyrians invasion D. Aksumites invasion
9. As Dravidians were for Indian Civilization, _______ were for Mesopotamian civilization.
A. Sumerians B. Syrians C. Phoenicians D. Shona
10. Which one of the following ancient states had adopted some important elements from
Mesopotamia and Assyrians?
Persia B. Kush/Nubia C. Greece D. India
11. The Aztecs Empire collapsed in the 16th c due to _______
A. The conquest of the Portuguese C. The invasion of the Spaniards
B. The expansion of Maya D. The civil war
12. Which of the following was /is not true about Sumerians civilization
A. They introduced decimal point and Zero
B. They introduced 360 Degree in a circle,60 minute in a hour and 60 seconds in a
minute
C. They developed b/n rivers and laid foundation for modern astronomy by analyzing
stars & planets
D. Sumer was their land and Lugals were their rulers
E. None
13. Which one of the following is wrong about achievement of ancient Egyptian civilization

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 A. Mummification Mechanism of preserving corps
B. Pyramids Burial place of all Egyptians
C. Book of dead Religious book, for incarnation of life
D. Hieroglyphics Complex and non-alphabetical writing system of Ancient Egyptians
14. Punic war was a war took place between
A. Romans and Carthegians
B. Athenians and Spartans
C. Persians and Iranians
D. Greeks and Romans
15. Which of the following sources is less reliable?
A. novels B. coins [Link] [Link]
16. Which of the following helps us in the study of pre history
A. fossils B. Inscriptions C. Letters D. Monuments
17. Point out the wrong combination
A. Confucianism – China C. Logography – Mesopotamia
B. Buddhism - India D. Hieroglyphic – Egypt
18. The cuneiform writing system was developed by
A. The Egyptians C. The Persians
B. The Sumerians D. The Chinese

19. Which of the following was not the contribution to the world?
A. Roman Laws became the base for laws formulated in the Western Europe.
B. Latin language and alphabet became the base for many languages.
C. Roman engineering became a model.
[Link] philosophy became the base for western philosophy.
20. Zoroastrianism was
A. The religion of Assyrians C. The religion of Chinese
B. The religion of Persians D. The religion of Phoenicians
21. One of the following is the first basic step in the writings of history?
A. Gathering information from different sources
B. Selecting a topic from the past period
C. Writing the history in a simple and attractive language
D. Interpreting the obtained information
22. Which is the proper stage of periodization based on instruments of labour?

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 A. Bronze age, stone age and iron age B. Stone age, iron age and bronze age
C. Iron age, stone age and bronze age D. Stone age , bronze age and iron age
23. Identify the wrong statement.
A. Objectivity has got no role in reconstructing history.
B. An eye-witness account is a primary source.
C. Primary sources are more reliable than secondary sources.
D. Primary sources have direct relations to the events they describe.
24. Who became the first Roman emperor in 27 B.C?
A. Romulus Augustus B. Augustus Caesar
C. Julius Caesar D. Romulus Augustus
25. Identify the wrong statement about ‘History’.
A. It deals with only the political aspect of human past.
B. It deals with the recorded aspect of human past.
C. It deals with changes in human developments.
D. It deals with political, economic, social and cultural aspects of human past.
26. One of the following is NOT the importance of history?
A. It helps us to avoid mistakes of the past.
B. It helps us to know the past human aspects.
C. It helps us to increase our understanding of the present society and forecast about the
future society
D. It helps us to take revenge and retaliate societies.
27. The following are the key elements in the study of history, except___
A. sources B. objectivity C. chronology D. subjectivity
28. Identify the correct statement.
A. Secondary sources are more reliable than primary sources.
B. Critical evaluation of both primary and secondary sources is vital.
C. Secondary sources are nearer in time and place to the events they describe.
D. Chronicles are examples of secondary source.
29. Which one comes first in the writing of history?
A. Writing in a simple, readable and attractive way
B. Selecting a topic or a title

19
 C. Analyzing the information obtained from different sources
D. Presenting the information obtained from various sources
E. Collecting information from different sources
30. What does objectivity mean in history?
A. It means subjectivity.
B. It means only getting the facts.
C. It means only presenting the facts.
D. It means identifying the real facts and presenting what the facts say without any bias
for or against.
31. Which development marked the boundary between pre- history and history
A. The beginning of the technique of writing
B. The beginning of farming
C. The beginning of domestication of plants and animals
D. The beginning of hunting and gathering

CHAPTER TWO

2. STATE FORMATION AND POPULATION MOVEMENTS IN THE HORN OF

AFRICA UP TO THE 17TH C
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit students will be able to:

20
 - Analyze the developments and achievements of ancient socities in the
Ethiopian region and horn of Africa
- Examine the interactions among different states and kingdoms in the region
and with other civilizations
- Understand the causes and effects of population movements in the region
-
2.1 North: Punt, Dama’at , Aksum and Zagwe
Punt
Punt was an ancient and historically known state in the Horn of Africa. However, Punt's exact
location and territorial limits are not well known. Historians suggest that its territory falls in the
Red Sea and Indian Ocean coastal parts of present-day Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia.
According to an Egyptian hieroglyphic, the land of Punt was located south of Egypt and had trade
relations with Egypt since the third millennium BC. The trade was conducted by land and sea
routes. Egyptian inscriptions and pictorial reliefs dating from early times indicate the objects that
punt supplied to Egypt. The land of Punt was commercially important for the goods it provided to
Egypt. These exports originated in the interior, which later became Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa.
Such goods include gold, undoubtedly from the Ethiopian interior mainly in western Ethiopia.
Others such as ivory, panther and other animal skins, myrrh and myrrh trees, ostrich feathers, etc.
came from anywhere in the Horn. The Egyptians exported hatchets, daggers, necklaces, etc.
Damat
Damat existed just before the rise of Aksum. Its center was a little to the south of the town of
Aksum. Information about this state has come from local archaeological sources. Some of Damat’s
rulers used the South Arabian political and religious title called Mukarib. This indicates that Damat
had established external relations with South Arabia. This can be understood from the local
inscriptions left by one of its rulers around the 5th century BC. Damat used the port of Adulis on
the Red Sea coast.
Other pre-Aksumite states have emerged since 1000BC. These include Yeha, Hawlti-Melazo,
AddiSeglemeni, Metera, Kaskase, Coloe, etc.
Aksumite Kingdom
The exact time the kingdom emerged as a center of state is not certain because of the lack of
sources. But based on some evidences, scholars assume that the origin of Aksum to be in the
21
middle of the second century BC (2nd BC). This assumption was mainly based on the document
known as the Periplus of the Eritrean Sea, which was written around 50AD. Periplus of Eritrean
Sea is a manual or handbook used by merchants who frequently came to the Red Sea, the Gulf of
Aden and the Indian Ocean. Its author is not known and gives a detailed account of Aksumite State
and the port on the Rea Sea and the Gulf of Aden. It states that Adulis was the port city of Aksum
and the then king of Aksum was called Zoscales, who could communicate with Greek. Economy
of the Aksumite State
At the beginning, it seems that the Aksumite state was dominated by land owners, who derived
much of their income from agriculture, but later on, the Aksumite economy became highly
dependent on the income from the Red Sea trade, which it monopolized.
The Port of Adulis
It was an ancient port of the Aksumites through which several foreign merchants came to Aksum.
It rendered shipping services for which the merchants had to pay. A very important trade route
from it stretched into the interior of Aksum. So, the Aksumite state controlled both the internal and
external trade and became very much prosperous.
Significance of local and international trade of the Aksumites enabled the Aksumite Kings to
further promote trade by issuing coins of gold, silver and bronze, which bear their images. Using
these coins for international trade brought an immense wealth and prosperity to Aksum. It also
enabled the Aksumite kings to build magnificent stale, palaces and churches, which are the signs
of the advanced technology of Aksumite civilization. Using this income from the red sea trade,
Aksumite kings built a strong military force and expanded their territories in different directions.
Aksum’s Territorial Extent
In the west: the highland region overlooking the Blue Nile (Abbay) river
In the East: the whole region between the Red Sea coast
In the north: the northern tip of Eritrea
In the south: northern Shawa
Some evidences such as a book entitled “The Christian Topography” written by a Greek traveler
called Cosmas Indicopleustes indicated that Aksumite’s influence extended beyond these areas. It
stated that Aksumite merchants visited lands to the south of Abbay to buy gold for the ruling class,
and the existence of intense rivalry and clashes between Aksum and the kingdom of Meroe in the
Sudan
22
Some other historical evidences indicate that Aksum had controlled territories in part of South
Arabia probably in a desire for controlling the Rea Sea trade on both sides in the 3 rd and 6th C AD.

Aksumite Diplomatic and Commercial Relation

Aksum had diplomatic and commercial relations with the Eastern Roman Empire and other states
in the Middle East, Near East and other countries on the Indian Ocean coast. Aksum was already
exposed to the Greco- Roman world even before its pre- Christian period.
Introduction of Christianity in Aksum
Christianity was introduced to Aksm in the middle of the 4th C, during the reign of King Ezana and
was a far reaching development in the history of Aksum. The introduction was not a well-planned
missionary activity; rather it was an incident, effected because of the diplomatic and commercial
relations with Eastern Roman Empire. King Ezana (320-350AD) was the first king to accept
Christianity. He was converted by Fremnatos (later Bishop Abba Salama) around 339AD. Since
then Christianity had become the state religion of Aksum which later on helped its rapid expansion.
Christianity was first confined to the court of Ezana in Aksum. However, after over a century
following the coming of some monks known as the Nine Saints toward the end of the 5th c AD,
the religion began to spread among the broad masses. The Nine Saints were very active in religious
involvement, such as preaching Christianity among the ordinary society of the interior of Aksum,
building churches and monasteries, and translating the Bible and other religious books into Geez.
From this time onwards Geez began to serve as the language of the Orthodox Church in Ethiopia.
The introduction of Christianity in Aksum created a long lasting relationship between Ethiopia and
Egypt because the Ethiopian church became dependent on the Alexandrian Church of Egypt for
its bishop. For instance, Fremnatos was baptized by the patriarch of Egypt as a bishop and sent to
Ethiopia. This tradition of consecrating the bishop continued until1959.
The Decline and Fall of Aksum
From the second half of the 6th C onward, the Aksumite wealth and power gradually declined.
There were three major reasons for the decline of Aksum. These were:
1. Political changes in Arabia: Rebellion against King Caleb, (rm500-535AD) broke out in South
Arabian. Caleb had once controlled South Arabia in 525 AD. But the South Arabians finally
expelled Aksumite governors and soldiers from their region between 580 and 590 AD. Thus
Aksum lost its control of the other side of the Red Sea trade.
23
2. The Rise and spread of Islam: The rise of Islam in the 7th C and other subsequent creation of a
vast Muslim empire led to intense rivalry between Aksum and the Muslim Arabs over the Red Sea
trade. Then in 702 AD, the Arab Muslims destroyed the port of Adulis. This resulted in loss of
revenue from the port and military weakness of the Aksumite Kingdom.
3. The Beja invasions: When Aksum was weakened by the external invasion, it also faced internal
invasion from the Beja and other people. Finally, the Aksumite power declined and its kings totally
lost their power to a new dynasty known as the Zagwe in the mid 12 th C.
The Zagwe Kingdom (1150-1270 AD)
The people of Agew took over the political power in northern Ethiopia in 1150AD, owing to the
decline and the downfall of Aksum. That is why the dynasty was named Zagwe. The Agew are
Cushitic speaking people. They were Christianized after the coming of the Nine Saints to the
country towards the end of the 5th century. The Dynasty was founded by the local Agew ruling
class of Bugna, a district in Lasta.

The possible reasons that led to the rise of the Zagwe to power were the following. The integration
of the Agew ruling class with the Axumite ruling class began since the shift of Axumite political
center southwards. This led to the Agew people to be recruited and give service in the Axumite
army. The Agew ruling class also established marriage engagement with that of the Axumites. This
closer interaction eventually enabled the Agew to take power easily from the Axumite rulers in the
middle of the 12th century (1150AD).
Its founder was Merera, also known as Mera TekleHaymanot, who established a new capital at
Adefa, in Lasta, in the center of the Agew speaking region. Adefa was later renamed Lalibela, after
one of the greatest kings of the Dynasty, King Lalibela (r. about 1190-1225 AD).

The Territory of the Zagwe State

The Agew State included: in the north, the former highland Axumite province; iIn the south, the
present northern Shawa; and in the west, upto the Lake Tana region. The economy of the Zagwe
Kingdom was based on agriculture. The Peasantry formed the bulk of the population. Peasants
were paid part of their produces to the court in the form of tribute. Trade brought additional income
for the state. Based on trade, the district governors ensured peace for traders, trade routes, and
the peasants. The trade outlets during the Zagwe Kingdom were the Dahlak Islands on the Red Sea

24
coast, which served as an outlet for the trade of the northern part of the kingdom, and the Zeila
Port, which was the main outlet for the trade of the southern territories of the State.

The Zagwe Kingdom maintained the cultural tradition of the Axumite state. Thus, Christianity
continued to be the state and official religion of the country; Geez was maintained as the language
of the church and writing; and they maintained the cordial relations with the Muslim rulers of
Egypt. The tradition of visiting the Holy Land of Jerusalem in Palestine for religious purposes was
maintained, but it seemed to have reached its peak during this period.
The Zagwe Dynasty is renowned in Ethiopian history for its remarkable architectural achievement.
This was expressed through the building of the monolithic (rock-hewn) churches.

The Downfall of the Zagwe Dynasty

A number of reasons contributed to the decline and final fall of the Zagwe dynasty
First, succession problem to the throne among the Zagwe Princes. Most of the time, the question
led to frequent power struggle and war. They could not be able to arrange a smooth succession to
the throne
Secondly, there had been strong opposition to the Zagwe kings throughout their rule. This
opposition was from the regions of Tigrai and Amhara
The opposition from Tigrai region:-came from the leading clergymen of the churches of Aksum
and Debra Damo who spread anti-Zagwe propaganda that was related to the legend of the Queen
of Sheba. Hence, the intension behind this legend were making of Zagwe kings “illegitimate”
successors of Aksum and the “restoration” of the ancient dynasty of Aksum
In spite of the strong opposition in Tigrai, the initiative to overthrow the Zagwe came from the
Amhara region. The Amhara region located to the south of Lasta, around southern Wollo and
northern Shawa. Yekuno Amlak (1270-1265) was the Amhara chief who organized a movement
against the Zagwe rule. He defeated Yetbarek, the last Zagwe king, in the battle field in 1270 AD,
and established a genealogy that made him a descendant of the last king of Aksum, Dil Naod, who
was deposed by the Zagwe around 1150 AD. Subsequently, declared himself as Emperor and at
the same time restored the so called Solomonic dynasty in 1270 AD. Yekuno Amlak was
considered as the restorer of the so called “Solomonic “ dynasty. His successors had used this
legend as an ideological arm to legitimize their political power and the tradition of identifying the
Christian kings of Ethiopia with ancient Israel continued until 1974.

25
2.2. South and southwest: Bizamo, Damot , Enarya and Gafat
The Kingdom of Bizamo
The kingdom of Bizamo existed on the southern bend of the Abbay River just opposite to the
present district of Wambarma in southern Gojjam. We do not know when the state of Bizamo came
into existence. But it existed until the end of the sixteenth century under the control of the Christian
kingdom. The medieval population of Bizamo consited of the speakers of the Omotic language
family. Among them the present day Shinasha ethnic group was one of the settlers of the kingdom.
The population of Bizamo was constantly harassed by the Christian kings who led occasional slave
raids into the kingdom. This reduced the population of Bizamo. On the arrival of the Mecha Oromo
towards the end of the sixteenth century, part of the remaining population fled across the Abbay
into Gojjam. Part of the population which remained behind retreated further west to the lowlands,
while the remaining part was assimilated by the Mecha Oromo.
The Kingdom of Damot
Damot was one of the oldest and strongest states in the Ethiopian region. For most of its history
Damot roughly occupied the western and southwestern part of the Ethiopian region. The eastern
part of the state probably included what is now the territory of the Regional State of Beni Shangul-
Gumuz. The northern frontier of the kingdom stretched to the present day northern Shewa, and
Damot also included the central and southern parts of Shewa. A vast territory south of the Abbay
gorge was also part of the territory of Damot. We do not know when the kingdom of Damot came
into existence. However, the history of the kingdom goes back to the Aksumite period. At that time
Damot was known for its gold which reached the market of Aksum and the ports of the Red Sea
coast. During the southward political orientation of the Christian kingdom of Aksum in the ninth
and tenth centuries, it seems that the kingdom of Damot had put up a strong challenge against the
further expansion of the Christian state.

The dominance of Damot in the Ethiopian region continued during the Zagwe period. During the
period, Muslim and Christian trading communities depended on the kingdom of Damot for the
sources of trade items. From Damot trade items such as gold, ginger and slaves were exported to
countries as far as Arabia, Persia, India, Egypt and Greece. The communities served as middlemen
between the coast and the kingdom. Therefore, trade influenced the pattern of their relation with
26
the kingdom of Damot. In this respect, common interest promoted the maintenance of peaceful
relations for most of the time. But there were occasions when Damot interfered in the commercial
affairs of the communities. On such occasions the communities put pressure on the Zagwe kings
to interfere on their behalf. Under such a pressure, one Zagwe king led a military expedition against
Damot towards the end of the twelfth century. Unfortunately, the expedition ended in complete
defeat of the Zagwe king. This shows that Damot was a viable state even by that time. Among the
kings of Damot, Motalami is constantly mentioned in the records of the period. Damot seems to
have attained the peak of its power during the reign of this king. One indication to this is a fierce
struggle between Motalami and Yekuno-Amlak. The struggle was over the control of Shewa. In
the struggle Motalami was finally defeated. After this defeat Motalami was converted to
Christianity which marked the beginning of a growing Christian influence in Damot. But Damot
continued its resistance from lands to the south of the Gibe River until 1316, when Amde Seyon
finally annexed the kingdom. Subsequently, Damot became the tributary of the Christiam kingdom
and continued to exist up to the time of the expansion of the Mecha Oromo in the area towards the
end of the sixteenth century. On the arrival of the Mecha, part of the population of Damot fled
across the Abbay river to southern Gojiam. The district they settled at the time is still called Damot.
The Kingdom of Enarya
The medieval kingdom of Enarya was located immediately to the north of the Gojeb River and
west of the upper course of the Gibe river. We do not know when this state came into existence.
But Enarya is mentioned for the first time in the documents of the Christian kings towards the end
of the Aksumite period. Christian influence had reached Enarya as early as the middle of the
thirteenth century. Subsequently, the Christian influence grew strong and finally, Enarya became
the tributary of the Christian kingdom during the reign of Amde Seyon. Enarya was the main
source of trade items for the trade of the region. Above all, pure gold from Enarya was exported
to the countries as far as Egypt, Greece and Rome. Enarya continued to serve as an important
source of trade items, particularly for gold, up to the sixteenth century.
The later history of Enarya was closely related to the history of the Oromo people. Enarya was one
of the kingdoms which strongly resisted the expansion of the Mecha Oromo in the area beginning
from the end of the sixteenth [Link] resisted the Mecha Oromo for more than a century.
Finally, it was defeated by one of the clans of the Mecha called Limmu. Subsequently, the

27
conquerors took the name Limmu-Enarya, signifying a complete assimilation of the people of
Enarya to the Mecha Oromo.
Gafat
The original homeland of the Gafat lies south of Abay (Blue Nile) River adjoining Damot. It is
not clear from the scanty records in Ethiopian chronicles whether the Gafat formed a “state” or
a “kingdom,” or not, but Gafat mountains provided a rich source of gold.
2.3 Muslim Sultanates: Shoa, Hadya, Fatagar, Bali, Ifat and Dawaro
The Sultanate of Shewa
The introduction of Islam to the Horn was followed by the emergence of a series of Muslim states
since the ninth century AD. The northern Ethiopian trade declined due to the Arab control of the
Red Sea and the destruction of Adulis. Thus, Zeila, on the coast of the Gulf of Aden, emerged as
a primary port for south-eastern Ethiopian trade. This port became the most crucial gateway for
Islam into the Horn of Africa. Several Muslim states were formed along the Zeila trade route,
which linked the port with the rich interior. After the spread of Islam since the beginning of the
eighth century, viable Muslim communities and states had been established at many locations,
especially along the main trade routes from Zeila and its many branches penetrating the interior.
The first to be established was the sultanate of Shawa in 896AD. Since the founders of this
sultanate claimed descent from the Makhzunmite clan of southern Arabia, the dynasty became
known as the Makhzunmite Dynasty. Its location was in the hot lowland region on the left of the
Awash River. The ruling family of this state had an internal power struggle which later led to its
final decline.
Ifat
Ifat emerged to the south of Shewa, founded by Umar Walasma (hence the Walasma dynasty) in
1285AD. It would have destroyed the older Makhzumite dynasty. Instead, it became the strongest
Muslim sultanate in the region. Ifat controlled a vast territory through which the long distance
trade routes of Zeila passed. Therefore, most of the profitable Zeila trade came under the control
of Ifat. Eventually, Ifat became the strongest rival of the Christian highland state. Since 1270 the
Christian highland state had also developed a great interest in the Zeila trade and trade routes.
Therefore, the need to control the Zeila trade became the main source of conflict between the two
states

28
The Sultanate of Hadiya
Hadiya was one of the medieval Muslim sultanates of the Ethiopian region. We do not know when
the sultanate came to power. However, the sultanate is mentioned for the first time during the reign
of Amde Seyon. At that time, the sultanate was one of the tributaries of the Christian Kingdom.
Among the Muslim sultanates, Hadya occupied the most westerly territory of the Ethiopian region.
The western frontiers of Hadya stretched to the Gibe River. In the south the territory of the
sultanate seemed to have stretched up to Lake Hawassa, while in the north it extended a little to
the north of Lake Zway. One problem in the history of the medieval Muslim sultanates is lack of
information on the ethnic identity of their population. In the case of Hadiya, it is known that the
ancestors of the present Hadiya ethnic group were among the original settlers of the sultanate. It
is also suggested that the ancestors of the present ethnic groups like Burji, Kambatta, Tambaro,
and part of the Halaba people constituted the medieval population of [Link] economy of
Hadiya sultanate was mainly depended on mixed farming, while some part of the population led a
purely pastoral life. Trade also contributed to the economy of the state. Hadya was the main source
of slaves for the region. The sultanate of Hadya possessed rich natural resources and mainly it was
known for its wealth in human resource. Because of this, the Christian kings gave much attention
to Hadiya and defeated it in the early 1330s reducing it to a tributary status. Nevertheless, Hadiya
had always caused problem to the Christian kings. The rulers had the title of garad. The garads
rebelled now and then against the Christians kings. As a result, the Christian kings occasionally
led punitive expeditions to retain the tributary status of Hadiya. They even went to the extent of
securing the loyalty of the rulers of Hadiya by means of political marriage. The daughter of a well-
known Hadiya garad was married to Emperor Zar’a Ya’eqob and became Queen Elleni, who was
a famous woman in the politics of the Christian Kingdom. Baide Mariyam and Libne Dengel were
also officially married to Hadiya princesses. This policy was followed by the other members of
the Christian ruling class. Yet, this dynastic marriage did not moderate the militancy of Hadiya.
The last rebellion of Hadiya was during the reign of Sarsa Dengel (r.1563-1597) who totally
abandoned the sultanate because of the increasing pressure from the expanding Mecha Oromo.
The Sultanate of Bali
Bali was another Muslim sultanate of the Ethiopian region. Its rulers also used the title of garad.
We do not know when Bali emerged as a state. The sultanate is mentioned in the chronicles of the
Christian kings beginning from the fourteenth century, when the sultanate came under the control
29
of Amde Seyon. Since then the garad of Bali paid tribute to the Christian Kingdom up to the
sixteenth century. Bali occupied the most southerly territory of the Ethiopian region. Except on
the southern frontier, Bali was surrounded by various Muslim sultanates. North of Bali existed the
sultanates of Dawaro and Sharka. In the west existed Hadiya, while the eastern frontier was
occupied by the sultanate of Adal. The southern limit of the territory of Bali is not clearly known
The medieval population of Bali seems to have consisted of different ethnic groups. The ancestors
of the present Sidama ethnic group were one of the settlers of the sultanate. Some groups of the
Oromo people also occupied the highlands of Bali.
The Sultanate of Dawaro
Dawaro was situated south of Shoa, bordering on Ifat on the right bank of the Awash, stretching
southwards as far as the River Webi which marked the border with the neighbouring state of Bali.
Dawaro, therefore, corresponded roughly to present Arsi region. The ancestors of the present
Sidama ethnic groups are known to have settled in the territory of Dawaro. The present-day Dawro
people also trace their origin to Dawaro. According to their tradition, they were forced to move to
their present territory around the Omo River because of the wars of Imam Ahmad Ibrahim.
The Sultanate of Fatagar
The sultanate of Fatagar emerged around the middle of the thirteenth century. The sultanate was
located between Lake Zway in the south and the present town of Bishoftu (Debre Zeit) in the north.
The territory of Fatagar included more or less the present districts of Minjar, Shenkora and Ada'a
in Shewa. Fatagar also became the tributary of the Christian Kingdom during the reign of Amde
Seyon. It was later reduced to a province directly ruled by the Christian Kingdom. Since then, the
province became the center of the kingdom for almost a century.

2.4. Interstate Relations: causes of the conflict

Relationship between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal: 1520s-1559
The primary source of conflict among peoples and states in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa was
the desire to monopolize long-distance trade. Long-distance trade was a source of great wealth. It
also served as a link among the peoples of Ethiopia. The desire for territorial expansion was also
another source of rivalry among the peoples and states of the Ethiopian region. Therefore, the
desire for the monopoly of long-distance trade and territorial expansion proved to be sources for
inter-state conflicts. The revival of long-distance trade caused competition and struggle for control
30
over the trade routes between the Christian kingdoms and the Muslim principalities. This was
followed by a series of wars, depicted as wars for religious supremacy in historical accounts of
Christian and Muslim clerics. While maladministration and exploitation of the periphery made
military mobilization possible, religion provided ideological justification for the wars. However,
the interest in controlling trade routes lay at the heart of the conflict that continued for two
centuries. The war culminated in the years from 1529 to 1543.
In the beginning, the Zeila trade route was under the control of the Muslim states, mainly Ifat.
However, in 1332 Ifat was defeated by the Christian kingdom and lost its independence. Thus
monopoly over the route went to Amde Seyon. To regain their independence and control over the
Zeila trade route Haqadin II and Sa'adadin retreated to the Harar plateau and set up a new Muslim
resistance base in the late fourteenth century. As a prelude to this conflict among the Muslim
Sultanates, internal strife, corruption and anarchy were intensified, and new leadership was
urgently called for. Such leadership came from Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi.

After Imam Ahmad came to power, the battles were not just fought to control the long-distance
trade route going through Zeila but mainly because there was a demographic pressure among the
Afar and Somali pastoralists pushing to approach Harar and the Christian Kingdom. It was one of
the Imam's remarkable achievements in leadership that he mobilized the pastoral communities of
the Afar, the Argoba, the Somali, the Harla, Harari and others to a common cause. He convinced
them not to fight amongst them but to unite and expand to the Christian Kingdom. It was to resolve
their pressing material needs while at the same time keeping Islamic beliefs and practices from the
infiltration of any alien religious doctrine. As a result, he was able to gain an audience as Imam.
He consolidated his army to fight the Christian Kingdom. Meanwhile, LebneDengel was
enthroned when he was only eleven. Nevertheless, assisted by the elderly Elleni and due to internal
conflicts in Adal, the Christian state initially retained its interest and even advanced into Muslim
territory scoring significant victories in the early sixteenth century. As a result, most Muslim
Sultanates, including Adal, were tributaries to the Christian Kingdom.

However, shortly, Adal fell to Imam Ahmed's army because by that time Imam Ahmed was strong
enough for military confrontation in 1520. He refused to pay tribute, which was followed by a
campaign against the Christian Kingdom in 1527. The Imam's army fought fiercely and controlled

31
the territories including Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya and Kambata, and the Christian
Kingdom was at risk. In 1528, realizing the upcoming threat, Lebne-Dengel mobilized a vast force.
However, there was a logistics problem, and the leadership of the army of the Christian Kingdom
failed to adopt a common strategy to defeat Adal’s force. On the other hand, enthusiastic Imam
Ahmed’s army managed logistics problems with its small-sized army. The Imam’s army also had
an excellent leadership characterized by better mobility and flexible tactics with a unified
command. As a result, the larger and well-equipped Christian army was defeated in one of the
most decisive engagements at the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529, near present-day Mojo. After
the victory, the Imam's army made a large-scale control of the territories of the Christian Kingdom,
including Shewa, Amhara, Lasta, and moved as far north as Mereb Melash.
By 1535, Imam Ahmed's empire stretched from Zeila to Massawa on the coast, including the
Ethiopian interior. As he penetrated deep into the Christian Kingdom, Imam Ahmed established a
civil, administrative bureaucracy constituted by his men and newly recruited personnel from the
Christian territories. One of the most helpful figures during the war was the wife of the Imam, Bati
Del Wanbara. She was the daughter of a Muslim military commander of Adal known as Mahfuz.
She accompanied her husband throughout his expeditions. She is said to have marched even in a
state of pregnancy during which she was unable to use mules. Indeed, she delivered her two sons
during the campaigns of 1531 and 1533 in Ifat and present-day Tigray, respectively. On the part of
the Christian Kingdom, the military setback forced the reigning king, Lebne Dengel, to retreat,
and finally died in 1540 being fugitive. His son Gelawdewos (r. 15401559) ascended to the throne
and continued to face the wars with more intensity.

2.5. International Dimensions of the War

Conflict in the Ethiopian region began to take an international dimension when two foreign powers
intervened for their advantage. These powers were Portugal and Ottoman Turkey. Since the twelfth
century, Europeans had found the long-distance trade route from Europe to the Far East blocked
by the Ottoman Turks. The Ottoman Turkish Empire was already in control of Arabia and Egypt.
It also occupied areas in parts of the Red Sea coast and along the eastern coast of the Indian Ocean.
Ottoman Turkey was an established power in the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean
regions. After Vasco da Gama discovered a direct sea route to India for Europe in 1498, the
Portuguese began to establish trading stations along the eastern coasts of Africa. They were also
interested in getting new ones on the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea coasts. Having noticed the
32
movement of diplomatic missions between the Christian Kingdoms and Portugal, the Turks gave
moral and military support to Imam Ahmed. Imam Ahmed had received Turkish two hundred
Muslim musketeers and ten cannons in 1540. In the meantime, based on the earlier request made
by Lebne-Dengel in 1535, about four hundred Portuguese soldiers armed with matchlocks arrived
in the Christian court in 1541.
The army was led by Christopher da Gama, the youngest son of Vasco da Gama. However, in
August 1542, the Christian army was defeated in Ofla, in today's southern Tigray. In the battle,
about two hundred Portuguese and their leader Christopher da Gama were killed, and the leader
was beheaded. An important anecdote that should be mentioned here is the role of Lebne Dengel's
wife, Seblewongel. She is said to have participated in the war against Imam Ahmed in
1542. After the success, Imam Ahmed was confident about his army's ability to repulse any future
attack by the force of the Christian Kingdom that he sent his allies back home and let his army
camp. On the part of the Christian Kingdom, preparations were made for the final confrontation
under the leadership of Emperor Gelawdewos. The Queen's mother, Seble-Wongel, advised the
reigning emperor how to prepare and march for the battle of Woyna-Dega. Due to limited
resources, the monarch employed hit and run strategy, which severely affected Imam's army. Imam
Ahmed's army could not use its previous quality of easy mobility because they did not know where
the attacks came from.
On February 25, 1543, while Imam Ahmed was encamped near Lake Tana, he was attacked and
killed after fierce fighting at the battle of Woyna-Dega. Soon after the battle, Gelawdewos was
confident that the nobility and his army were loyal to him. As a result, the king restored possession
of almost all the northern and central plateau. Muslim communities in the highlands submitted to
Gelawdewos. He was tolerant toward them to promote national conciliation and develop a revival
of smooth relations with the Muslim world. Besides, Gelawdewos restored many of the pre-1520s
territories and tributary regions. The king attempted to reconsolidate the state through campaigns
to different areas and camping Chewa (regiment) in border areas. By the early 1550s, Gelawdewos
had established a strong Christian Kingdom. However, controlling the Muslim-dominated areas
was not an easy task. The growing challenge to the Christian state came from the retreating soldiers
of the Sultanate of Adal, the Ottoman Turks, Jesuit interlude, and Oromo that advanced into the
centre. Under the leadership of Nur Ibn al-Waazir Mujahid, Adal was ready to wage war against
the Christian state for revenge.
33
In 1559, the forces of Emir Nur confronted Gelawdewos and killed the king himself. Emperor
Minas (r.1559-1563), who succeeded Gelawdewos defeated the Turks' force and reclaimed
territories on the coast, including Dabarwa. However, in the early 1560s, Yishaq revolted and allied
with the Turks against him. Similarly, Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563- 1598) had to defend the Turks while
fighting with the Agaw, Gumuz, Bete-Israel, Sidama, Ennarya and the Oromo. The Emperor then
marched to the north, defeated Turkish forces, and restored the territories.
The Muslim-Christian conflict had resulted in several consequences. One of the most obvious was
the huge human and material cost. It is also evident that both the Muslim Sultanate and the
Christian Kingdom were weakened, thereby paving the way for easy penetration and success of
the Oromo population movement. On the positive side, it should be restated that the war had
arguably resulted in cultural interaction among the peoples of Ethiopia. Linguistic and religious
interactions accompanied by intermarriages among peoples of the various cultural groups were
one of these manifestations in the long history of Ethiopia and the Horn.
Competition for supremacy over the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean between Portugal and the
Ottoman Turks gave the prolonged conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim
principalities a global dimension. Apart from the hostile relations, wider socio-economic and
cultural interactions were between the Christian Kingdoms and Muslim principalities. As in earlier
periods, trade continued to be the major channel of social integration. Also, it had long been the
source of friendship, interaction, interdependence and conflict among the region's states. The long-
distance trade and local markets served as core areas of social ties. The difference in ecology
between the Muslim sultanates and the Christian Kingdom created economic interdependence,
which strengthened socio-economic bondage. Merchants of the two regions often moved from the
highlands to the coast and vice versa. The social links were strengthened through such caravan
merchants, and religions spread. These interactions and interdependence in economic, social,
cultural and political spheres lay the foundation for modern Ethiopia
2.6 Population Movements, Expansion, and Integration in Ethiopia
The lowland in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa is inhabited by Afar, Oromo, Somali, Saho, and
other Cushitic language family speakers. In the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, the
military conflict between the Christian kingdoms and the Sultanate of Adal was partly responsible
for the Afar and Somali population movement. In addition, the demographic pressure on the
environment gave the background for the population movement. Their territories lay in the region
34
where trade routes passed and were affected by the consequences of the military conflict.
Therefore, these people moved back and forth in response to the ongoing military conflict.
Afar: Due to drought, the Afar moved towards the east until they reached the middle Awash. Trade
routes linking the ports in the Horn passed through the Afar's territory. As a result, the region was
the centre of competition between the Christian kingdoms and the Muslim sultanates to control
the trade routes. Besides being actors in the conflict, the conflict inevitably pressurised the Afar to
move in different directions to avoid the risk of disputes. In the sixteenth century, their pastoral
economy helped them survive the destructive effects of the wars.
Somali: Their territory lay in the medieval competition to control trade routes. Likewise, before
the wars of Imam Ahmed al-Ghazi, there was strong demographic pressure from the Somali. The
population movement of the Somali was a strong force behind the military strength of the Imam.
However, the population movement of the Somali did not last for long as they returned to their
home base following the defeat of Imam Ahmed in 1543.
The Oromo Population Movement
The Oromo Institutions and Social Organization
Before and during the period of their movements, the Oromo had their own political,
economic, social and religious i nstitutions that they organized into the Gada System. The
Gada System is a system in which Gada classes succeed each other every eight( 8) years in
providing military, political, social and ritual leadership for the Oromo population. In the Gada
system, the male members of the society would join Gada classes and pass through a number
of age-grades. Each age-grade last for a period of 8 years; people move from one age- grade
to the next as they advance in age. There are 5 age-grades the Oromo pass through for about 40
years before they join the Gada age-grade (41-48). These 40 years which are divided in to 5 age-
grades are period mainly served as school for the young Oromo people, because it is this time
they obtain different trainings which qualify them for war and community leadership. The Gada-
grade (41-48) is the stage of political, social, military and ritual leadership. Oromo officials are
elected from this age-grade at their Assembly called Chafe. Chafe is a Gada Assembly in which
the main decision making body reside. The head of the Chafe had the title Abba Boku/Abba
Gada/ and served as the spokesman of the Assembly for 8 years. Other Gada officials who are
elected from Gada age-grade were: Abba Dulla- the commander of the army; Abba Sera- in
charge of the traditional laws.
35
The economy of the Oromo before their movements used to be mixed economy. They practiced
both pastoralism and sedentary agriculture to small degree. The Oromo followed a traditional
religion of their own in which they worshipped one chief god called Waqa (sky god). In this
religion, the Qallus served as high priest or link between the Oromo people and the Waqa. These
Qallus were highly respected and they even are involved in non-religious affairs of the society.
According to Oromo oral traditions, the original homeland of the Oromo before the sixteenth
century was the south-central part of Ethiopia's highlands. The political and religious centre of the
Oromo settlement area was Madda Walabu, located on the Bale- Sidama borderlands. A
combination of natural and man-made factors caused the movement of the Oromo population in
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. These are:
• Demographic pressure and the subsequent need for land to accommodate the growing
human and livestock population;
• The conflict between the Christian Kingdoms and Muslim Sultanates;
These factors that forced the Oromo to leave the lands they inhabited and move to other
areas.
Long before their expansion, the Oromo people were divided into two major confederacies: the
Barentu and the Borana confederacies. Each confederacy comprised smaller divisions and clans.
The Borana confederacy consisted of Mecha, Tulama, southern Borana and Guji clans.
The Barentu was composed of the Karayu, Marawa, Ittu, Humbana, Akachu, Wollo and Arsi
clans.
The movement and expansion took place from around 1522 to 1618. The movement was set in
two major directions in the Ethiopian region. The Barentu moved out in a northeast direction. The
Borana followed a north-westerly direction. They also moved out in the directions of Kenya and
Somalia outside the Ethiopian region. The movement took place in two stages.
• The first stage was the period of a small and slow movement in the first half of the sixteenth
century.
• The second stage started around the mid-sixteenth century and lasted up to 1618. This was
a large-scale movement carried out using force.
• In 1522, when the population movement began, the Oromo were already organised under
Borana and Barentu confederacies. The Oromo forces took northern direction and passed
through a corridor between Mount Walabu and Lake Abaya. When they reached halfway
36
 between Lakes Abaya and Hawassa, they took westward. First, they penetrated across the
Bilatte River to the southwest. Then they headed northwards to the lake's region of the Rift
Valley.
• The organisation of the Oromo under the Gadaa system played a crucial role in the success
of the Oromo population movement. In their movement into various regions, different
Oromo branches established Gadaa centres.
The Oromo population movement and expansion was successful for several reasons:
• In the first place, the Gadaa system provided training and military organisation, which
contributed much to the movement's success. Besides, almost all members of society
participated in wars. So, it was a large-scale expansion so difficult to stop.
• The Oromo made wide and good use of the horse at the time of the expansion.
• One important Oromo institution which seems to have facilitated the expansion was
adaptation. Moreover, the movement took place when the Sultanate of Adal- was
exhausted and weakened due to the wars of the first half of the sixteenth century.
The Oromo population movement and expansion brought about fundamental changes in the
Ethiopian region. Ethnic and cultural intermixing took place between the Oromo and other peoples
of the region. The expanding Oromos destroyed the old states of the kingdoms of Damot, Bizamo
and Ennarya. The peoples of Damot and Gafat were either assimilated with the Oromo or forced
to move out from the south to the north and intermingle with the Christian community of the area.
The Christian kingdom was greatly disturbed by the Oromo population movement. The territorial
and financial strengths of the kingdom were highly weakened. It was forced to shift its political
centre from Shewa in the south to Lake Tana area in the north and Gondar.
The Sultanate of Adal was reduced to the walled town of Harar as a result of the Oromo expansion.
This was mainly because after the death of Iman Ahmed, the Muslims of Adal was reorganised
under Emir Nur Mujahid. The Emir launched an offensive war against the Christian kingdom. In
1559 Nur Mujahid defeated and killed Gelawdewos in the Awash valley. Nevertheless, he could
not pursue his victory over the Christian forces because the Oromo forces had already reached the
Harar area at the time. So, he returned to Adal to defend it from falling to the Oromo. However,
since most of Harar was occupied by the Oromo, he just built a wall around the town of Harar,
which is known as the Jegol Gimb. This led to the end of an age-old conflict between Adal and the
Christian kingdom. Following their movement and expansion, the Oromo became largely
37
sedentary agriculturists. In time, the great majority of them also adopted Christianity and Islam.
Still, later on, they were able to form kingdoms of their own in the Ethiopian region.

UNIT SUMMARY
The sate formation and development process in the horn of Africa dates back to the classical period.
The earliest state in the reigon was Punt which emerged in the 3 rd Millenium BC. Then the Da’amat
state emerged in the northern Ethiopia C. 6 th C BC. These early states had close contacts with
Egypt and South Arabian civilizations respectively.
One of the magnificent civilizations in the region and, even in the world was the Aksumite
kingdom. Although the exact period about the formation of Aksume isn’t known, some sources
indicated that Aksume emerged C. 2nd C BC. The Aksumite Kingdom was one of the four powerful
empires in the world. It had a control over the the Red sea trade which became instrumental for
the developlement of Aksume. With the collapse of the Aksumite kingdom due to internal and
external factors, The Zagwe Kingdom comes into emergence. It was centered in the lands of
agaws, at Lalibella. They were well known in the construction of Monolithic churches. The Zagwe
continued the former traditions of Aksum in many political and religious aspects. However,
because the Zagwe rulers were considered as illegitimate, as they didn’t belong to the Solomonic
bloodline, they faced opposition from the clergymens. The oppositions combined with their
internal power struggle and the attacks from Yekuno Amlak brought the era of Zagwe to an end.
Yekuno Amlak became the restorer of the Solomonic dynasty which lasted until the downfall of
Emperor Hailesselassie I in 1974.
In addition to the kingdoms in the northern Ethiopia, there were local kingdoms in the southern
and south westen Ethiopia, Such as; Damot, Bizamo, Enarya and Gafat. They had interactions
among each other and with the northern states. Many of them became tributary states of the
Christian Kingdom in the medieval period. Many Muslim sulatanates were founded in Ethiopia
following the introduction of Islam in the region through the three gateways of Zeila, Dahlak and
Benadir coast along the Indian Ocean. The Sultanate of Shewa was the oldest of all the Muslim
sultanates. Other Muslim sultanates include Ifat, Hadiya, Bali, Fatagar, Dawaro, Arbabini and later
Adal.
The inter-state relation between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates were conflictual
due to the competition for a control of Zeila trade route. The competition for deominance in the
38
region led them into war and it continued unjtil the late 16 th C. Due to a prolonged war in the 16th
C, both the Christian kingdom and Sultanate of Adal exhausted and weakened which paved the
way for the Oromo population movement. This population movement was the largest population
movement in the Horn of Africa caused by natural, human and demographic factors. It resulted the
ethnic and social intermixing of the Oromo people with others.

Review Questions
Choose the best answer from the following alternatives.
1. One of the following is an achievement of the Aksumit civilization?
A. The development of a Latin alphabet
B. The development of build ing technology
C. The invention of the wheel
D. The development of a written legal code
2. The Islamic calendar is based on
A. The volume of the world’s big rivers
B. The life cycle of the big stars
C. The prophet’s flight from Mecca to Medina
D. The birth of the prophet Mohammed
3. The main cause of the Oromo population expansion movement in the 16th c was

A. The war of 16th c C. Demographic pressure

B. External pressure D. Land fragmentation
4. The reason for the success of the Oromo expansion during 16 th c was

A. Their policy of assimilation

B. The support they got from Muslims
C. The quality of firearm they used
D. The support they got from Ottoman Turks
5. Which of the following Muslim Sultan was killed by Gelawdewos at the battle of Woina
Dega?
A. Imam Mahfuz B. Ahmed Badly C. Ahmed Gragn D. Imam Mahmad

39
6. Which one of the following combinations is true about the Gadda institution?
A. Traditional religion of Oromo - Qallu
B. Culture of adopting new youths - Mogassa
C. Abba Dulla - spokesman of Chaffe
D. Abba Sera - Traditional law of Oromo which favours women
E. Early age grades of Oromo - Regarded as leadership age
7. Which of the following Muslim Sultanets of medieval period extended its territory which
included present day Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a in Shewa?
A. The Sultanate of Dawaro
B. The Sultanate of Dera
C. The Sultanate of Bali
D. The Sultanate of Fatagar
8. The Founding dynasty of Muslim sultanate of Ifat and Adal was __________
A. Makzumite Dynasty C. Ummayd Dynasty
B. Malla Dynasty D. Walasma Dynasty
9. Which of the following is true about the medieval Islamic states in East- Central Ethiopia?
A. They were entirely theocratic.
B. They were dominated principally by trading interests.
C. They were always dependents on the Christian state in the north.
D. All of them were Arabic speaking.
10. The root cause for the conflict and wars between the Muslims and Christian kingdoms was
A. Religious difference and dominance
B. Safety and security of the kings court
C. The need to control the territories along the trade route
D. The refusal of the Muslin traders to become agents of the king
11. Which of the following is not true about the Gadda system and Population movement of
Oromo?
A. Religion was traditional, believed on waqa as sky god and lead by qallu
B. Movement was not to control trade route and not for trade benefit
C. Movement was to get breathing place for themselves, grazing land for their cattle
D. Assembly was called chaffe which led by Abba Dula
40
12. Which of the following is true about the state of Hadiya during the Medieval Period?
A. Its rulers claimed a northern Ethiopian origin.
B. It was the friendliest state towards the Christian kingdom.
C. It tried to maintain its independence by combining resistance with diplomacy.
D. It was able to coordinate and lead a Muslim front against the Christian Kingdom.
13. Which city of Kush was destroyed by Assyrians?
A. Sennar B. Napata C. Meroe D. Thebes
14. The Indication that ancient state of Damat used to have relation with Saud Arabia was the
fact:
A. It was using the port of Adulis for trade.
B. Its rulers speak the Arabic language.
C. Its rulers used religio-political title Mukarib.
D. It fought against Persian alliance with Saud Arabia
15. Which of the following was not a major achievement of Zagwe?
A. They controlled Jerusalem and made tour there.
B. They built monolithic churches during the period 1150-1270.
C. They had a strong military that was strengthened by trade benefit.
D. They made Geez the church language and Christianity the state religion
16. Which of the following pairs did not come under control of the Christian state between 1270-
1529?
A. Damot and Keffa C. Wolaita and Ifat
B. Gojjam and Hadiya D. Keffa and Adal
17. Which of the following contributed to the emergence of Muslim states in Medieval Ethiopia?
A. The migration and settlement of Arabs in the region
B. The Jihad that Arabs conducted in the region
C. The threat of the lowlanders by the Christians
D. The expansion of trade through the port of Zeila
18. An inter – state conflict in Ethiopia in the 16th c was primarily caused by_____
A. Monopoly over the Zelia trade route
B. Religious difference b/n the Christians & Muslims
C. Political instability in the horn of Africa

41
 D. External pressure
19. Which one of the following was a characteristic of the state of Kaffa?
A. Its democratic administration system based on the Mikrecho
B. Its organization of an effective defence structure
C. Its organization of the economy on slave-cultivated plantations
D. Its endurance for a long time as a result of political alliance with the Oromo
20. What was the relationship between the medieval state of Damot and Wolaita?
A. Both states emerged in the same geographical area but in different historical periods.
B. Wolaita tradition claims that one of its dynasties had links with Damot.
C. The ruling dynasty of wolaita was established by refugees from Damot following its
conquest by the Oromo.
D. The political institutions of Wolaita were exact reproduction of the political institutions
of Damot and both were founded by Motalam.
21. The two Countries which directly were involved in the military conflict of 16th c Ethiopia
were___
A. Portugal and Spain C. Ottoman Turkey and Portugal
B. Britain and France D. Italy and France
22. Which one of the following features does not explain the period of Zagwe Dynasty rule in
Ethiopia?
A. Zagwe rulers continued the cultural tradition of the Aksumite state.
B. Religious pilgrimage to Jerusalem reached its peak.
C. Construction of churches and expansion of Christian faith flourished.
D. At the end of their rule there was a smooth power succession among the Zagwe rulers.
23. The success of Adal’s victory over the Christian kingdom in the 16th c was due to:
A. The backing of Imam’s army by the Turks

B. Imam’s military and readership qualities

C. Superiority of imam’s army compared to Lebne Dengel’s force
D. The traditional weapons of the Christian army unlike Ahmed Gragn’s
24. The reason for the success of the Oromo in their expansion during the 16th c was__
A. Their policy of assimilation

42
 B. The support they got from Muslims
C. The quality of firearm they used
D. The support they got from Ottoman Turks
25. The swift movement of the Oromo in the highland of Ethiopia in the 16th c was explained
by____
A. The use of firearms C. Disunity of the Oromo
B. Gada military organization D. Strength of their kings
26. The Oromo social practices which facilitated the absorption of non – Oromo groups in the
course of expansion was -----------
A. Guddifacha B. Worship of Waqa [Link] [Link].
27. Who was the war leader of the Oromo in the course of their movement in the 16th c?
A. Abba Lafa B. Abba Dula [Link] Boku D. Abba Sera
28. The Muslim state which reorganized the Muslim resistance against Christian kingdom since
the late 14th c was___
A. Adal B. Ifat [Link] D. Bali
29. The traditional council of the Oromo community which elected the officials of the Gada
government was --------------
A. Chaffe B. Luba C. Qallu D. Muda
30. Leadership such as Abba Boku, Abba Dula and Abba Sera in traditional Oromo society
were__
A. Hereditary C. Based on divine right
B. Based on descent D. Derived from the Gada system
31. The Imam of Adal who came to power in Adal in the Early 1520s was ______________
A. Mahfuz C. Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al - Ghazi
B. Ahmed Badley D. Emir Nur Mujahid

32. Queen Hatshepsut was well known for___

A. Arranging the marriage of Cleopatra and Mark Anthony
B. Sending commercial ships to Punt
C. Expanding Egyptian territory to Kush
D. Defending Egypt from foreign attack
33. A major event which took place in the time of Ezana, the king of Aksum, was__
A. The emergence of Aksum as a capital
B. The arrival of the followers of the prophet Mohammed in Aksum
43
 C. The introduction of Christianity into Aksum
D. The conquest of South Arabia by Aksumite force
34. One of the following was not the task of the nine saints____
A. Preaching the Christian gospel
B. Building churches and monasteries
C. Translating Bible and other religious books in to local languages
D. Giving military training
35. __________ was the first locally known state in Ethiopia.
A. Punt B. Damat C. Zagwe D. Axum
36. Which cultural element of Axum was maintained by Zagwe?
A. Christianity religion C. Ge’ez language
B. Architecture D. All of the above
37. Who was the founder of the Zagwe kingdom?
A. Yitabarek B. Lalibela C. YekunoAmlak D. Mera T/Haimanot
38. One of the following is not a source to know about the Aksumite history?
A. Periplus of Erythrean Sea C. Inscription
B. Christian Topography D. None of the above
39. Identify the incorrect statement about the Zagwe Kingdom.
A. It was an immediate successor of Axum.
B. Adafa was its political center.
C. Lalibela was its famous ruler.
D. Yekuno Amlak was its last ruler.
40. All the following are factors that accounted for the downfall of Zagwe, except__
A. The destruction of port Adulis
B. Succession problems among the Zagwe prince
C. Opposition of Amhara and Tigray
D. Zagwe rulers’ spending most of their time, energy and money for religious purpose
41. One of the following is not true about the Periplus of Erythrean Sea?
A. It stated about port Adulis. C. It stated about the origin of Axum.
B. It stated about king Zoscales. D. It stated about King Kaleb.
42. Identify the wrong statement.

44
 A. Punt had external trade relationship with ancient Egypt.
B. Damat had external relationship with South Arabia.
C. Axum emerged immediately after Punt.
D. Damat was immediate forerunner of Axum.

CHAPTER THREE
THE MODERN WORLD SINCE 1500
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit students will be able to:
- Outline the major changes in the world transformation to the modern period
- Examine the roles of industrial, political and intellectual transformations for
the development of the world
- Explain the roles of exploration and discoveries to the expansion of oversea
colonies.
- Analyse the influence the French revolution and Napoleon’s expansion in
Europe.
3.1. The Renaissance
The Renaissance was an intellectual movement. The word renaissance indicates the “rebirth” of
learning. It began in the 14th century and ended in the 17th century. Renaissance began in Italy
and spread to the rest of Europe, mainly to England, France, Germany, Spain and Holland. First,
Renaissance Italy was essentially an urban society. Second, the Renaissance was an age of
recovery from the disasters of the fourteenth century. This revival affected both politics and art.
Third, a new view of human beings emerged as people in the Italian Renaissance began to
emphasize individual ability
The Renaissance had the following characteristics:
• The study of ancient Rome and Greek languages, literature, arts and the use of reason;
• The support for freedom of thought and questioning mind; and
• The use of the vernacular, or the national language such as the Italian and the English language
rather than Latin in writing.

45
The outstanding persons of the Renaissance produced great works of literature, painting, sculpture,
architecture and science. In literature: Divine Comedy was written by the Italian, Dante Alighieri;
Utopia by Englishman Thomas More; Don Quixote by the Spaniard Cervantes; the Holy Bible was
translated into German by Martin Luther; and various great plays by the Englishman William
Shakespeare. In arts: Italian Leonardo da Vinci painted the Last Supper and Monalisa; Italian
Michael Angelo painted the Creation of Adam and made statues of David, Moses and the Virgin
& the dead Christ. In science, the Belgian Vesalius studied human anatomy. The Polish Nicholas
Copernicus declared that the earth revolved around the sun. Previously, it was thought that planets
revolved around the earth. The Renaissance had a profound influence on the development of
modern society culture, since it is a natural extension of both, artistic expression. The Renaissance
influence in the world brought about a new focus on humanism and, as a result, a subsequent
turning away from the dominant ideas put forth by the church. The dawning recognition of human
potential and scientific inquiry shaped the course of world history and still influences
contemporary societies' culture today
3.2 The Age of Explorations and Discoveries
The age of European explorations and discoveries was in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The
explorations were, in part, initiated by the need to bypass the Ottoman Turkish blockade of the old
long-distance trade route from Europe to the Far East.
Factors that encouraged explorations and discoveries were:
• European interest in long-distance trade and new inventions like the compass;
• The development of better maps and ships and the growing interest in geographical knowledge;
and
• Prince Henry, the Navigator (1394-1460) of Portugal and Queen Isabella (1451- 1504) of Spain,
who supported the voyages of explorers, also inspired the exploration. They sponsored voyages
for the sake of their economy, religion and glory.
Spain and Portugal were the leaders in the exploration and discoveries in the 15th and 16th
centuries. They were closely followed by Holland, Britain, France and Russia. The Portuguese
explorer, Vasco da Gama, discovered a new sea route to India and the Far East in 1498. Christopher
Columbus was the first European explorer to reach America in 1492 while he was in the service
of Spain. Unfortunately, Columbus died without knowing that he had found new lands. The land
found came to be known as America from the name of an Italian mapmaker called Amerigo
46
Vespucci. The newly “discovered” areas also became known as the “New World”. The Portuguese,
Ferdinand Magellan, circumnavigated the world between 1519 and 1522 in the service of Spain.
The newly discovered lands were later conquered and became colonies of European powers
There are economic impacts of the age of exploration and discoveries. Economically, Europeans
gained huge profits from local trade networks which enhanced the globalising process. Moreover,
with the subsequent colonial conquest, the voyages promoted the faster development of capitalism.
3.3 The English Bourgeois Revolution
In 1603, the last ruler of the English Tudor Dynasty, Queen Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603), died
unmarried. She was succeeded by her nearest relative, James VI, King of Scotland, who became
also James I, King of England and Ireland, the first King of England of the Scottish Stuart Dynasty.
From 1603 onwards, England and Scotland had the same ruler but remained separate countries in
all other respects. England and Scotland were both Protestant. However, the Scottish Church,
called the Presbyterian Church, was more strictly and thoroughly Calvinist than the official Church
of England. England and Scotland did not become politically united, except briefly in the time of
Cromwell, until the Act of Union in 1707. Then after 1707 with a single parliament and
government, England and Scotland became known as “Great Britain” but usually just “Britain”
for short.
The Tudor Dynasty (1485-1603) had made the English monarchy strong but not absolute and the
Stuart Dynasty stepped into this strong position in 1603. The English monarchy was not absolute
because although there was a royal navy, the king had no regular, professional army and only a
small bureaucracy of paid officials. The monarchy needed the co-operation of the land owning
nobles and gentry, and the richer citizens (bourgeoisie) of the towns and cities, to govern the
country effectively. The gentry were just below the nobles in rank and really part of the same class,
except that they had no noble titles. The English economy was not yet very advanced; the Dutch
were leaders in merchant capitalism in the 17 th century.
The English monarchy was not absolute for another reason, that is the existence of a representative
national assembly called parliament. All laws and taxation had to be approved by parliament but
parliament only met when the king called it. Its meetings were at Westminster, which was then just
outside London. Parliament was two Houses (assemblies): the House of Lords, not elected,
consisting of the heads of noble families and the archbishops and bishops of the official Church of
England; and the House of Commons, which was elected and represented the people. The voting
47
in elections for members (M.P.s) of the House of Commons was not democratic. A fairly, large
number of adult males could vote but certainly not all adult males. Also, there was respect and
obedience towards gentry’ families and these families took the lead in public affairs. It was
members of the gentry and a few bourgeois merchants and lawyers who were elected as members
of Parliament in the House of Commons.
Serious conflict between the king and parliament began in the reign of Charles I (r. 1625-1649)
and co-operation between the king and the ruling class began to break down. The most serious
disputes were about foreign policy, then money and religion. Early in his reign, England was
involved in two expensive and unsuccessful wars against Spain and France and failure led to
criticism of the king and his ministers. Charles, like most European kings, was usually in financial
difficulties. When parliament did not vote sufficient money in taxation, Charles collected money
without parliament’s approval in a number of ways which his people felt was illegal. The religious
problem was the growing suspicion in England that Charles and his French Catholic queen,
Henrietta Maria, were taking England away from Protestantism and back to Catholicism. This was
not true, Charles was not secretly Catholic, but in history very often it is not what is true that
matters but what people believed to be true. Charles had so much trouble form parliament that
after 1629 he did not call a meeting of parliament again until 1640. In the eleven years, 1629-40,
Charles ruled without parliament and continued to collect money in what people believed to be
illegal ways. He was ruling like an absolute monarch.
Beginning of the Revolution
The revolutionary crisis began in Scotland. Charles was king of Scotland as well as king of
England. In 1637, without consulting the Scots, Charles imposed the Church of England Prayer
Book for Church services in Scotland. The Scots opposed this for nationalist reasons and because,
to the Calvinist (Presbyterian) Scots, the prayer Book really did look Catholic. The Scots rebelled.
Hoping to obtain money to suppress the rebellion in Scotland, Charles called a meeting of the
English Parliament. However, Parliament refused to approve any taxation and the king quickly
dissolved what was called the Short Parliament because its meeting was so brief (April – May
1640). Charles wanted to defeat the Scots without money from Parliament but was unable to
suppress the rebellion. The government’s authority began to break down in England as well as
already broken down in Scotland. The king could not avoid calling the English parliament again.

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It met in November 1640 and became known as the Long Parliament because it met from 1640 to
1653.
At the beginning, the members (Lords and Commons) of the Long Parliament were united against
the king. Charles was forced to accept laws seriously limiting his powers. Then parliament itself
became divided. A majority, but only a small majority, of the House of Commons, and a few of
the House of Lords, wanted to take away all the powers of the king and make him a puppet of the
parliamentary leaders. They believed they could not trust the king and they feared his revenge
against themselves if he kept any of his powers. A little less than half of the Commons and most
of the Lords believed that parliament was going too far in opposing the king. They also feared that
the political crisis was breaking down all authority in the country, not only the king’s authority,
and that political and religious radicalism among the lower classes was a growing danger. These
conservatives turned to the king, who now found he had growing support. The conservatives also
opposed the wish of the strict Calvinists in parliament to abolish archbishops and bishops in the
Church of England and change the English Prayer Book.

The basic question on which the king and the opposition to him in parliament would not
compromise, rose following a rebellion in Ireland. The parliamentary opposition demanded control
over an army which would be raised to suppress this revolt, fearing that otherwise the army would
be used against themselves. The king refused this demand. The final incident, making civil war
unavoidable, was the king’s attempt, which failed, to arrest five leading members of the
parliamentary opposition. The king then left the capital to raise an army from his supporters in the
provinces. Parliament also raised an army and fighting began in the summer of 1640. In this First
Civil War (1642-46), London, the richest part of the country, and the navy supported parliament.
In 1643, the Parliamentarians, as the opponents to the king were called, also got military help from
Scotland. Nevertheless, the Royalists, who supported the king, did well in the fighting at first.
Parliament won the war by raising a new centralized force called the New Model Army and putting
it under the command of two able generals, Thomas Fairfax and
Oliver Cromwell. The Civil War initiated Cromwell’s military and political career. After the First
Civil War, Fairfax, in the end, withdrew from political life and Cromwell became the principal
army leader. At this time, the problem was to get a firm political settlement. A settlement involved
the king, the parliament and the army. Although Charles had lost the Civil War, almost everyone
49
at first expected and wanted the monarchy to continue with Charles still the king. This meant
reaching an agreement with him about the distribution of political power and about religion. Both
parliament and the army leaders negotiated with the king but with no success. Charles believed he
was indispensable and could win in negotiation what he had lost on the battlefield, and in the end,
in the Second Civil War in 1648, he attempted to get military victory again.

Parliament, without, of course, its Royalist members who had joined the king in 1642, apparently
had power at the end of the First Civil War. However, the New Model Army who had the guns was
not willing just to be disbanded (dismissed, demobilized) or sent to suppress the rebellion in
Ireland. The army wanted its voice to be heard in the settlement. But the army was itself divided.
Its leaders, including Cromwell, were socially and politically quite conservative but part of the
army had become much more radical. Before and during the Civil War, radical religious and
political ideas had emerged. A largely secular political movement called the Leveller movement
had appeared. The Levellers wanted democracy, religious tolerance with no state church, and a
reform of the slow, complicated, expensive and harsh legal system. The Levellers had strong
support among particularly, small master craftsmen and wage workers in the towns, especially
London. They also had support among the ordinary soldiers and junior officers of the New Model
Army.
These elements in the army said that they did not want to have shed their blood in the Civil War
for nothing. They had been fighting for political and religious freedom for ordinary people. The
lower ranks of the army were strong enough to force the army leadership to hold a political
discussion with their representatives. This discussion, called the Putney Debates (1647), ended
without conclusions or [Link], in 1648, came the Second Civil War. This was an invasion
of England by a Scottish army. One political group of Scots had reached an agreement with Charles
and sent an army to support him. The Second Civil War was also a Royalist insurrection in
England. The New Model Army quickly defeated the Scots and the English Royalists. The majority
of the army was now determined to put an end to Charles and the monarchy. Cromwell finally
agreed to this. In December 1648, the army excluded from parliament all members of the House
of Commons who did not agree with the army's programme. The members of the House of
Commons who remained were called the “Rump”, meaning remnant or left-overs. The “Rump”
and the army then staged a show trial of the king and Charles I was publicly beheaded in January
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1649. The House of Lords was abolished. England was declared a republic, called the
Commonwealth. It was not, however, in any way a democratic state. After the Second Civil War,
Cromwell moved fast to smash the Leveller movement inside and outside the army. “You have no
other way with these men but to break them” he said, “for either you will break them or they will
break you”. This was the defeat of the first secular democratic movement in modern Europe.
From 1648 to 1653, the “Rump” of the Long parliament ruled England, upheld by the army.
However, the army and its leaders became dissatisfied with the Rump. In April 1653, Crowell took
soldiers into the House of Commons and dismissed the Rump, and this ended the Long Parliament.
Cromwell himself now ruled England, Scotland and Ireland by conquest. Cromwell ruled until his
death should in September 1658. The problem was then to decide what form of government
England should have. The ruling classes of England, who had been divided by the civil wars,
reunited to have a restoration of the monarchy. It was security for political stability, traditional rule
by traditional laws and a security against any revival of political radicalism, which seemed a
danger after Cromwell’s death. Restoration of monarchy was more acceptable to more people than
any other possible political solution. When general Mock, who commanded a strong section of the
army, decided to support the restoration of the monarchy, restoration became certain. In May 1660,
Charles I’s eldest son who was also named Charles, entered London and began to rule as Charles
II. This event is known as the Restoration.
The Restoration brought back the monarchy, the House of Lords, the state Church of England with
its archbishops and bishops, who had been abolished by the Long Parliament in 1646, and the
traditional constitution. Charles II did not come back as an absolute monarch. He had to rule with
parliament and with the support of the nobility and gentry. Charles had no legitimate children and
when he died his brother became the king as James II (r. 1685-1688). He was accepted as king on
the understanding that, though himself a Catholic, he would not interfere with the Protestant state
Church of England. People soon began to suspect that James intended to undermine the Church of
England and make England Catholic. They also suspected that James was trying to establish an
absolute monarchy, like Louis XIV’s in France, which was the absolutist model for other European
kings. A small group of ruling class conspirators secretly invited William of Orange, the Protestant
leader of the Dutch Republic and Mary’s (James’s Protestant daughter) husband to come to
England with an army. William was willing to do this to bring England into his alliance system

51
against the power of France and Louis XIV. William arrived in England with a Dutch army in
November, 1688.
Parliamentary Supremacy and the Bill of Rights
In 1689, when King William III and Queen Mary became joint rulers of England, Parliament
presented to them a declaration that became known as the Bill of Rights. This famous document
assured the people certain basic civil rights. It stands with Magna Carta and the Petition of
Rights as the legal guarantees of English liberty. The Bill of Rights listed certain rights that were
the “true, ancient, and indubitable rights and liberties of the people” of the English Kingdom. It
settled the succession to the throne. It also made it illegal for the king to keep a standing army, to
levy taxes without Parliament’s approval, or to be a Roman Catholic.
3.4 The French Revolution
The period from the middle of the 17th century to 1789 in France was called the Old Regime.
The Old Regime government was absolute monarchy with no constitution. Society in Old
Regime France was still divided into three estates, meaning social groups. The 1st estate was the
royal family and Catholic clergies, the 2nd estate was the nobility, and the 3rd estate was -
bourgeois, petty bourgeois, wage workers and peasants. The 1st and 2nd estates had more
privileges than the 3rd estate, meaning that their legal position was more favorable. In particular,
the clergy and the nobility paid less tax than the 3rd estate. Within the 3rd estate, the peasants
were the most oppressed of all; they paid more taxes than any other group in relation to their
income and they still paid feudal dues to lords, and the Church tax called the tithe to the Church.
In the second half of the 18th century, there was increasing criticism in France of absolute
monarchy, which people now called “despotism”. There was increasing criticism of unjust
privileges. As the French economy expanded, the bourgeoisie increased in number and wealth.
The bourgeoisie no longer accepted their inferior position compared to the 1st and 2nd estates
and were more dissatisfied about the privileges which the 1st and 2nd estates enjoyed. The
peasants were also becoming less passive and more discontented with unjust taxation and feudal
dues. These criticisms and discontents were the long term causes of the Revolution.

The immediate cause of the Revolution was France’s participation in the American War of
Independence (1778-83). The war led to a revolution in two ways. First, officers who had served
in America returned to France full of ideas about liberty. French people also wondered why the
52
French should help to liberate Americans, yet still live under despotism themselves. So there was
increased criticism of the absolute monarchy. Second, the war was very expensive and resulted
in financial crisis for the government. By 1788 there was no more money in the treasury; the
government could borrow no more money and the authority of the government was breaking
down. The government was forced to announce a meeting of the Estate General. The Estate-
General was the national representative assembly of France. It consisted of representatives
elected by the three estates. It had not met since 1614. In 1788 the government announced that
elections would be held for the Estate-General and that it would meet at Versailles, the royal
residence near Paris, in 1789. Meanwhile, the political crisis was made worse by economic crisis.
The French economy had been in depression since the 1770s. Things were made worse by a very
bad harvest, caused by the bad weather in 1788. Food was scarce, price rose and there was high
unemployment. The suffering and discontent of the poor increased. Paris, the capital, had about
500,000-600,000 people in 1789. In general, the masses in Paris were discontented enough to
provide a fighting force for the revolution of the bourgeoisie. Added to all this, the king, Louis
XVI (r. 1774-1792), was weak and incompetent and his wife, Marie Antoinette, was very
unpopular and criticized for her extravagant spending. She was disliked too, because she was a
foreigner, an Austrian princess.
The Estate-General met in May 1789. The representatives of the 3rd estate were the most
numerous. On June 17, the 3rd estate passed a resolution. They declared that, since they
represented 96% of the French people, they alone were competent to make a constitution. They
declared themselves alone to be a National Assembly of the French Nation. The representatives
of the 3rd estate took the name National Assembly and invited the representatives of the other
estates to join them which some did. The members of the National Assembly then took another
step that they would not end the meetings of the National Assembly, no matter what the king
ordered until they had given France a proper constitution. This event is called the Tennis Court
Oath because the oath was made in a large, indoor tennis court on June 20, 1789. The king
planned counter-revolution, ordering army regiments to march to Paris and Versailles.
The National Assembly was saved from counter-revolution by a mass insurrection of the
ordinary people of Paris, the wage workers and small craftsmen. On 14 July 1789 the people
captured the Bastille, the royal prison, fortress and arsenal in the middle of Paris. The soldiers
in Paris were too few to suppress the rising and also the soldiers sympathized with the people,
53
 so that officers dared not to order them to fire on the crowds. The Bastille was considered as a
symbol of tyranny and oppression. The fall of the Bastille marked the end of absolute monarchy
(thought not yet the end of the monarchy) in France, and July 14, is celebrated by the French
people as the anniversary of this liberty. Meanwhile, in the summer of 1789, there were mass
peasant disturbances in many areas of France. The National Assembly satisfied the peasant by
decreeing on August 4, 1789 the abolition of feudal dues and the Church tax, the tithe. The
National Assembly did even more; on the night of August 4, 1789 it proclaimed the abolition of
all forms of privilege, including tax exemptions. The events of July and August 1789 ended the
Old Regime in France. The National Assembly took authority to create new social and political
conditions in France. It did this by writing a constitution and decreeing a number of reforms.
Before getting to work on the constitution, the National Assembly decreed on August 26, 1789
the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. This set out the political principles on
which the new constitution would be based. The Declaration said that all political authority
comes from the people and that laws and taxation must be approved by an elected representative
assembly of the nation. All members of the nation are equal in rights and duties. The division of
France into estates had thus been rejected; all Frenchmen were equal citizens of one nation. The
Declaration also expressed various civil rights like freedom of speech and religion.
In October 1789 there was another mass upraisal. The people of Paris heard rumours of more
counter-revolution at Versailles. On October 5-6, 1789 a large crowd, with many women in it,
marched to Versailles and forced the king and his family to come back with them to Paris. The
National Assembly soon moved its meetings from Versailles to Paris. After this, there was relative
calm for the next two years and the National Assembly was able to concentrate on building up a
New France. The French Revolution was a bourgeois revolution. Most of the leadership was
bourgeois and the bourgeois majority of the National Assembly reflected mainly bourgeois
interests. However, some of what it did also benefited the people as a whole. The National
Assembly ended government of the provinces by royal officials and replaced this by government
at different levels by elected councils. To cope with the financial crisis, the National Assembly
nationalized all the land belonging to the Catholic Church. This land was then sold. It was
members of the bourgeoisie, some nobles and some rich peasants who had the financial capacity
to buy the land. The poor peasants and land-less people in the countryside got nothing. In 1790
the National Assembly also voted to put the Catholic Church in France under the control of the
54
state. The measure was not accepted by pope in Rome and many Catholic clergy in France. This
led to a quarrel between the Revolutionaries and the Church. As a result, the counter-revolutionary
forces in France got support for the first time. The situation was acute especially in rural areas
where the influence of the Church was strong.
In June 1790, the king and his family fled from Paris to join the counter-revolutionaries who had
already left France. The king was recognized before he got to the frontier, stopped and brought
back to Paris. This made the royal family still more unpopular with the ordinary people of Paris
but the National Assembly was not willing to abolish the monarchy. A mass demonstration in
Paris in favor of a republic was suppressed by the bourgeois security force called the National
Guard.
In September 1791 the new constitution had been completed. It made France a constitutional
monarchy. However, the constitution contradicted the principles of the Declaration of the Right
of Man and the Citizen declared in August 1789. The new constitution gave full political rights
of voting and being elected only to “active citizens”, who had enough property. Others were called
“passive citizens” and did not have full political rights. Women denied all political rights. Slavery
continued in the French overseas colonies. The National Assembly did not give political rights to
the poor, because the bourgeoisie feared giving political rights would endanger the guarantee of
private property. Having finished its work, the National Assembly arranged elections under the
new constitution for a new Legislative Assembly which met in October 1791. The new
constitution did not last long as France soon entered war that made the revolution more extreme.
The monarchies of Europe disliked the revolution and wanted to crush it. The Legislative
Assembly also believed that a revolutionary war would spread revolution to the rest of Europe.
As the result of these reasons, in 1792 war began between France on one side and Austria and
Prussia on the other. As the scope of the war spread, France was at war against most European
states in 1793.
Austro-Prussian army invaded eastern France. As the war went against France, the people of Paris
believed, that the royal family was secretly on the side of the enemy. A new rising broke out in
Paris and overthrew the monarchy on August 10, 1792. Peoples also rejected the constitution of
1791. Thus, the Legislative Assembly dissolved itself for a new assembly called the Convention.
The task of the Convention was to write a new constitution. Meanwhile, at the war front, the

55
revolution was saved for the moment. The French army won an important victory against the
Austrian force victory t the battle of Valmy in September 1792.

The Convention met in September 1792 and immediately declared France a republic. The ex-king,
Louis XVI, was executed in public by the guillotine in January 1793 and Marie Antoinette was
guillotined later in October 1793. In the meantime, political groups and parties had emerged, since
the beginning of the revolution. The two rival political parties in the convention were the Jacobins
and the Girondins. The Jacobins believed to have represented the middle and petty bourgeoisie,
whereas the Girondins, that of the big bourgeoisie. However, the real difference between the
Jacobins and the Girondins was that the Jacobins were willing to go to more radical extremes to
save France and the revolution.
In 1793, the revolution and France were again in serious danger. There were economic problems
because of war and internal instability. There was counter-revolution in parts of France. France
was again invaded by the armies of the European monarchies. The people of Paris turned to the
support of Jacobins whom they believed to be a radical and determined party which could save
the country. From May 31 to June 2, 1793, another big uprising forced the Convention to purge
the Girondins. The Jacobins, though a minority in the Convention, were now in power in a
revolutionary dictatorship. The Convention continued to meet but the Jacobins were in control.
Until July 1794, the Convention did what the Jacobins wanted it to do. The chief Jacobin leader
and theorist was Maximillien Robespierre. The Jacobins ruled France through a 12-man
Committee of Public Safety. The Jacobins introduced a new, very democratic constitution in (June
1793), which was to come into effect only at the end of the war. However, it never did come into
effect. Food rationing was introduced and controls on prices and wages called (the Law of the
Maximum) was also enforced. These measures were used to stabilize the economic situation. The
Reign of Terror was used to crush counter-revolution. Terrorism meant execution of individuals
convicted of being “enemies of the people”. The Committee of Public Safety made mass army
conscription to face the external invasions. Different methods were used to supply the armies.
Organizing a large scale production of arms, and consificating, by government order, everything
necessary for the war fronts were some of the methods used. The invasions were repulsed. The
Jacobin revolutionary dictatorship, June 1793 – July 1794, was the height of the French
Revolution and its bloodiest stage.
56
The Jacobins were an extreme revolutionary minority in the Convention and outside it. The
Convention and the bourgeoisie accepted the Jacobin dictatorship while the military situation was
critical. However, when the danger was over, they turned against the Jacobins. The
Jacobins also lost support among the people of Paris by their suppression of popular democracy at
the local level. Also, the terror got out of control and made enemies in all classes. Finally, the
Jacobins failed to keep discipline among themselves. Their quarrels gave an opportunity for the
non-Jacobin majority in the Convention to turn against the Jacobin leadership. On July 27-28,
1794 the Convention voted the arrest of Robespierre and other Jacobin leaders and sent them to
the guillotine. This was the end of the Jacobin revolutionary dictatorship and the revolution now
became more conservative. The Convention voted a new constitution in 1795. This constitution
restricted political rights even more than the 1791 constitution had done. The 1795 constitutio n
established a regime called the Directory. The Directory was unable to give France a stable,
conservative bourgeois republic.
The regime was corrupt, weak and unpopular, without much support even among the bourgeoisie.
For a time it kept power with the support of the army. Finally, in November 1799, an ambitious,
popular and successful general overthrew the Directory in a military coup and took power. This
general was Napoleon Bonaparte.
Democratic Gains
The French Revolution brought about great changes in the society and government of France. It
introduced democratic ideals to France but did not make the nation a democracy. However, it
ended supreme rule by French kings and strengthened the middle class. The Revolution abolished
serfdom, slavery, inherited privileges and judicial torture. Legal equality gradually became the
norm in France. The French Revolution created the long-lasting foundation for a unified state, a
strong central government, and a free society dominated by the middle class and landowners.
The Revolution, which lasted from 1789 to 1799, also had a far-reaching effect on the rest of
Europe. After the Revolution began, no European kings, nobles or other privileged groups could
ever again take their powers for granted, or ignore the ideals of liberty and equality.
The Napoleonic Era (1799-1815) and Its Consequences
Military Dictator Napoleon was born on August 15, 1769, in Ajaccio, on the island of Corsica in
the Mediterranean sea. Napoleon's parents were members of noble Italian families.
57
He had received his education in a military school and had become a second lieutenant in the
French army at the age of 16. He had won favour with the revolutionary government by a victory
against the English (at Toulon when the British and the French rebelled against the revolutionary
government in 1793) and the Spanish, and by successfully defending the National Convention
from attack by a bomb. In 1796, Napoleon was given command of an army fighting the Austrians
in northern Italy. With astonishing speed, he conquered the little republics and kingdoms of
northern Italy and smashed the Austrian army sent against [Link] persuaded the Austrians to
make peace by allowing them to have Venice. But Austria agreed to surrender the Austrian
Netherlands (Belgium) to France and to permit most of northern Italy to be divided into little
republics under Frances ''protection''. Prussia and Holland had already made peace. Great Britain
remained Frances' only powerful enemy.
France lacked the sea power needed to make a direct attack upon the British Isles. So Napoleon
persuaded the Directory that the next best thing for France would be to conquer Egypt and Syria
in the eastern Mediterranean region. Such a move would strike a blow at the British trade in the
East. But Napoleon's campaigns in Egypt and Syria were not successful entirely. He won victories
by land, but the British fleet, under Admiral Nelson, destroyed his fleet and forced him to return
to France. On his return to France, however, Napoleon was hailed as a hero. The French people
had heard much about his victories and little about his defeats.
In 1799, Napoleon overthrew the Directory and proclaimed a new constitution for France.
Napoleon's own title was to be First Consul. Two other consuls were to aid him as advisers. There
were several government bodies including a legislature and a council, but Napoleon, as First
Consul could control this membership. Outwardly byFrance remained a republic, but actually it
was a military dictatorship with the real power in the hands of the First Consul, Napoleon.
Napoleon filled the position of First Consul of France from 1799 to 1804. During this period, the
Consulate, Napoleon showed a genius in both military and governmental affairs. A new alliance
of Russia, Austria, Great Britain and certain smaller states had been formed to drive the French
from Italy, Germany and the Netherlands. But Napoleon smashed the alliance against the French
and gained all Germany west of the Rhine River. He extended Frances influence over all Italy and
strengthened France’s grip on Holland and Switzerland. He even forced Great Britain to make
peace in 1802. In 1804, Napoleon cast aside his title of First Consul of French Republic and
became Emperor of the French. Shortly after Napoleon became Emperor, war broke out again.
58
Still another alliance was organized against Napoleon. Great Britain, Austria, Russia and Sweden
were the principal members. In the campaigns that followed, Napoleon displayed his greatest
genius and won his greatest victories. The result was to bring most of the continent of Europe
directly or indirectly under his control.
By 1810, the French Empire itself had been extended to include Belgium, Holland, western
Germany, northwestern Italy, and part of what is now Yugoslavia. A large part of Europe-Spain,
most of Poland, the rest of Italy, Switzerland, and a group of German states known as the
Confederation of the Rhine-though not annexed to the Empire, was under the French Emperor's
control. States such as Austria, Prussia, Denmark, and Norway (which belongs to Denmark) had
been forced against their will to become allies of France. Even the Russian Czar had been obliged
to promise aid to Napoleon. To help in the control of Europe, Napoleon had given thrones to his
relatives and favourite generals, but Great Britain remained undefeated. This was due to its island
position and its command of the seas. In 1805, the British fleet, commanded by the great Lord
Nelson had crushed the French fleet in the important sea battle of Trafalgar off the coast of Spain.
This victory not only saved England from a French invasion but gave conquered Europe new
hope.
Meanwhile, Napoleon had problems of his own: not only the British army and navy to contend
with, but also the populations of the countries he had overrun. At first, the French armies had been
welcomed as ''liberators'' by the common people of Holland, Belgium, Germany and Italy. These
people thought that French armies would free them form unpopular rulers and unjust laws. But as
time went on, the people of the conquered territories began to wonder about the high price they
had to pay for the ''benefits'' of French rule. Napoleon plundered captured cities of their works of
art and shipped them to France to beautify the city of Paris. He forced conquered peoples to
contribute soldiers to swell his armies and money to pay his wars.
The people of Europe came to hate and fear Napoleon. Discontent turned into rebellion as the
people of different countries banded together to throw off French control. So long as Napoleon
had merely to over throw kings or defeat professional armies, he was victorious. But when he had
to fight conquered peoples who were stirred by national patriotism, Napoleon began to lose. He
did not have armies strong enough to hold them down.
In 1812, Napoleon made the mistake of invading Russia. At first he was successful. He defeated
the Russian army and captured Moscow. But he had failed to reckon on two things-the sprit of the
59
Russian people and the cold of the Russian winter. Finding it impossible to remain in Moscow,
much of which the Russians had burned, Napoleon began one of the most disastrous retreats in
military history. The Russians cut off supplies of food, destroyed roads and bridges and captured
stragglers. And always there was the terrible, biting cold. When Napoleon reached German soil
again, little was left of his army. Meanwhile, all his enemies had turned on him. Rebellion
brokeout among the Germans, while French armies were defeated in Portugal and Spain. In 1813,
in the battle of the nations near Leipzig, Germany, Napoleon suffered a disastrous defeat. He was
driven back to France and finally forced to surrender.
In 1814, the victororious allies sent Napoleon into exile on the island of Elba in the Mediterranean
Sea. They restored the monarchy, and put Louis XVIII, brother of the guillotined King, on the
throne of France, and turned to the problems of bringing peace to Europe. But suddenly the
peacemakers were interrupted by startling rumors. Napoleon had escaped from Elba! He was in
France! He was marching on Paris! The French troops who were sent to capture Napoleon joined
his army instead. To one of his old regiments he said: ''Here I am. You know me. If there is a
soldier among you who wishes to shoot his Emperor, he can do it''. King Louis XVIII fled the
country, and for 100 days (March to June, 1815) Napoleon was again in control of France.
The master of France, however, was no longer the master of Europe. Napoleon's enemies untied
in a last campaign in 1815. On the field of Waterloo, in Belgium, the British led by the Duke of
Wellington, and the Prussians under Blucher defeated Napoleon. This time the British found a
safe place for Napoleon, the faraway little island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic. Then he died
a few years later at the age of 52. His body now rests in a magnificent tomb in Paris.
What effects did Napoleon's rule have upon France? While Napoleon was in power, he had two
main goals-to replace the confusion of the Revolution with law and order, and to keep those
achievements of the Revolution which were dear to most Frenchmen. Napoleon set up a
centralized efficient government for France. Taxes were collected properly. Roads, canals, and
bridges were built which helped to unite France.
Napoleon appointed lawyers to finish organizing the French law into a uniform code for all
France. The new law codes-seven in number-incorporated some of the freedoms gained by the
people of France during the Revolution including religious tolerance and the abolition of serfdom.
To this code of laws, he gave it his own name, the Code Napoleon. This code has had wide use in
Belgium, western Germany, and Italy, as well as in France.
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Napoleon set up a whole system of public schools-elementary schools, high schools, military
academies, and universities-all under the supervision of the central government. French men
continued to have complete freedom to worship as they wished, but an agreement was reached
with the pope in 1801 whereby the Catholic Church became the established Church of France. The
Church agreed to give up claims to its former lands, but regained ownership of church buildings.
The government agreed to pay the salaries of the clergy. You can see that this agreement, while it
restored the Catholic Church in France, kept it under the close control of the government.
3.5 American War of Independence
The American Revolution was also called the U.S. War of Independence. The war was the
insurrection fought between 1775 and 1783, through which 13(thirteen) of Great Britain's North
American colonies threw off British rule to establish the sovereign United States of America. Since
Columbus's discovery of the "New World" in 1492, people from Europe began to migrate,
searching for a better life there. Nevertheless, these people gradually developed settled life as
colonists and began to claim colonial territories in the "New World". Among Europeans, between
1607 and 1682, the British have succeeded in establishing thirteen colonies in North America. The
struggle of these European settlers (thirteen colonists) against British colonial rule for
independence was coined in world history as the American War of Independence.
As the British began to impose heavy taxations, the thirteen colonists gathered at Philadelphia -
the First Continental Congress. They adopted a non-importation, non-consumption agreement,
which virtually cut off imports from Britain. Again, they met in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775.
The Congress set the Army of the United Colonies and Colonel George Washington to be
Commander-in-Chief of the Army. The fighting started in the largest cities and trading ports.
Finally, in 1776, representatives from 13 colonies met in Philadelphia to declare themselves
independent. Thomas Jefferson drafted a document called the Declaration of Independence (July
4, 1776). It justified the act of rebellion and announced the birth of a new nation called the USA.
The document also set forth the philosophy of human freedom, which later became a dynamic
force in the rest of the western world. In 1783, the British government accepted defeat.
The majority of delegates signed a constitution on September 17, 1787
The constitutional convention of 1787 faced severe challenges in 1788 when a gulf was created
between federalists and anti-federalists. Nevertheless, finally, anti-federalists joined the federalists
to ratify the constitution on June 25. The War of Independence brought about the liberation of the
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American people from British rule. It also created independent American nations, which were
formerly the British colonies. These nations finally created the United States of America. The
American War of Independence highly influenced many countries like the French and Latin
Americans. It was one of the immediate causes for the French Revolution outbreak in 1789. In the
case of the Latin American countries, they started to raise arms against their colonial masters,
Spain and Portugal. In March 1889, elections were held for the Presidency of the new federal
government, and George Washington became the first President of the USA. The American War
of Independence did not abolish slavery. At the same time, it did not consider the Red Indians as
citizens. Nevertheless, it was an essential step towards creating the United States of America,
which has shown a more rapid industrial development since then.
3.6. The Industrial Revolution and Its consequences
The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain in the late 1700s but slowly spread across the
globe. The Industrial Revolution was new the manufacturing processes in Europe and the United
States that took place between the 18th and the 19th centuries. Before the Industrial Revolution,
the economic needs of the society were met through the farming and production of simple
handmade articles. During the Industrial Revolution, manufacturing rapidly changed from mainly
hand production to the use of machinery. This transition from old modes of production to new
technologically driven production brought drastic changes in the European way of life. Making
cloth moved from homes to large factories. Britain also had plenty of coal and iron, which was
essential to power and produced machine for the factories.
The consolidation of capitalism in Europe was an outcome of change in producing cloth, iron,
steel, and other manufactured goods. It was essentially the replacement of manual works by the
new machine that made the large-scale production of goods possible. Capitalism emerged in the
16th to 17th centuries in Northwestern Europe, especially in Great Britain. Industrial capitalism is
a mode of production consisting of large, centrally controlled accumulations of capital that is used
to finance production of commodities. One of the biggest factors contributing to the rise of
industrial capitalism was technology.
Characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets, a price system,
private property and the recognition of property rights, voluntary exchange, and wage labour. In
addition, there were new technologies that helped business: the telephone to coordinate
transactions over long distances, the typewriter to speed up record-keeping, and electricity which
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made it possible to work safely after dark. The ethos of industrial capitalism also began to
challenge mercantilist doctrines of trade barriers and protective monopolies, and by the mid-19th
century, Britain had fully embraced laissez-faire economy. Liberalism and competition in trade
and the development of a free-market economy are now capitalism’s main political and economic
philosophies. By the 19th century, Britain was seen (and saw herself) as the world's workshop.
However, the driving forces of industrial capitalism, comparable to those experienced in the
Britain, also impacted landscapes in other parts of Europe and North America. Steam engine
technology underpinned the invention in the early 19th century of steam-powered locomotive
engines and the development of railways. Railways made possible the integration of vast
continental spaces politically, culturally, and economically. For example, the British began to build
railways in India in the 1850s.
In North America, the first transcontinental railroad opened in 1869. As a result, the transport costs
of raw materials and finished products were significantly reduced; new sources of supply became
accessible; and new markets were opened. Politically, industrialization had effects on the political
structure due to the increase of power of the industries that would later become monopolies. The
mechanization of labour caused the displacement of thousands of labourers. The rise of industrial
capitalism throughout the nineteenth century went hand in hand with the rise of strikes and other
forms of labour protests. Socially, Industrial Revolution drastically changed the social life of
Europe and the world. This change was evident in the growth of cities and the emergence of two
new social classes: the bourgeoisie and proletariat.
The bourgeoisie owned the factory, machines, raw materials and the finished goods. The
proletariats sold their labour for money wages. They were poorly paid under strict work discipline
and faced unemployment. Living conditions were changed along with the emergence of class
differences. Children represented a cheap supply of labour. Economically, the Industrial
Revolution transformed agriculture and handicrafts economies to large-scale industry, mechanized
manufacturing, and the factory system. This transformation resulted in increase in wealth,
production of goods and standard of living. In addition, people had access to healthier diets, better
housing, better education, and cheaper goods.
Industrial Revolution had also many negative effects. Among those were:
• Environmental degradation • Spread of diseases
• Pollution
• Poor sanitation
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 • Poor working conditions and • Child labor
low wage

UNIT SUMMARY
In the periodization of the world history, the period since 1500 AD is refered to as the
Modern Period. There are several factor that contributed fo the transformation of human
history from the medieval to modern period. i.e. the Renaisance movement and /the
beginning of exploration and discoveries. The Renaisance movement was an
intellectual movemement that centered in Italy. It showed significant transformation in
literature, art and sciences. The exploration and discovery conducted by Portuguese and
Spanish sailors was instrumental for the discovery of the new world and expansion of
oversea ccolonial expansion by the European powers since the 16 th C.
The English civilwar that was conducted form 1642-48 brought a change in the
government structure and the downfall of the absolute monarchy. This change was
known as the English bourgeoisie revolution. In the 18 th C the French revolution
occurred in France by the public which led to the collapse of the French absolute
monarchy and brought changes in the form of government. With eliminating the
despotic rules the French revolution brought Liberty, Equality and Fraternity as the
fruits of the revolution. Some democratic practices were also started following the
revolution. Napoleon Bonaparte, who call himself the son of the revolution, came to
power and made france dominant in the region. The Amercian war of independence was
another important incident occurred the modern era. This war of independence was led
by some prominent personalities i.e. George Washigton and Thomas Jefferson. With the
declarationof indeoendence were made on July 4, 1776, the English colonial era came
to an end with their struggle to independence in 1783.
Another important transformation in the modern world is the Industrial Revolution. It
changed the process of production, the economic system and transform unbanization in
many parts of the western world. Several inventions were made which became the basis
for the current industrial and urban development. i.e. steam engine, spinning machines,
development in locomotives, invention of phone…
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 Review Questions
Choose the best answer from the following alternatives.
1. A major result of the age of exploration was:

A. Expansion of population
B. The beginning of a period of European global domination.
C. A long period of peace & stability
D. The fall of European monarchies

2. Which one of the following was the Western Europeans achievement in the 15 th c exploration?
A. Discovery of America C. Conquest of Jerusalem
B. Defeat of ottoman turkey D. Domination of Indian ocean
3. What did the term Renaissance refers to?

A. It studies about natural science

B. It was concerned about rebirth of learning
C. It was concerned with religious issues
D. It was rediscovery of Europe
4. The renaissance period mainly emphasized:

A. The support of freedom of thought

B. Devotion to religion
C. Revival of the Latin language instead of vernacular language
D. Obedience of government officials.
5. Which statement best describes a characteristic of the Renaissance?

A. Creativity in the art C. Organized political system

B. Decrease in the use of reason D. Decline in life after death
6. Who was the writer of a book entitled Utopia in the Renaissance era?

A. W. Sheakspeare C. Thomas Moore

B. Leonardo da Vinci D. Michelangelo
7. Which one of the following is not the major feature of the Byzantine Emperor?
A. It survived un to 1453 A.D
B. The Empire was ruled by the Emperor
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 C. Its capital was Constantinople
D. It had not defended its territory from foreign invasion in the 5 th c A.D.
8. Which European countries were pioneers in explorations and discoveries?
A. Britain and France C. Spain and Portugal
B. Russia and Holland D. Italy and Germany
9. What was the main motive for organized overseas voyages of Europeans in the 15 th and 16th
centuries?
A. Conquest of territory B. Expanding Christianity
C. The search for Pester John D. To access goods from the Far East
10. Which one of the following is a correct contrast of absolutism in France and England?
A. Absolutism in France reached its highest point under Louis XIV, while in England it
started to decline about the same time.
B. Absolutism in France was weakened by the backwardness of the economy, while in
England it benefitted from economic expansion.
C. Absolutism in France benefitted from the acquisition of overseas territories, while this
undermined its growth in England.
D. Absolutism in France was strengthened by the teachings of the Catholic church, while
it was undermined by the Anglican Church in England.
11. England is regarded as the birth place of Industrial revolution because:
A. They had enough land for investment.
B. They had foreign scholars.
C. They had large deposit of coal and steal.
D. Accessibility of port and ownership of well skilled workers.
12. Which of the following is Not correct about the three estates of France?
A. The first estate included the royal family and clergy, whereas the second estate
consisted of nobility.
B. The third estate was made up of peasants and bourgeois and had big lands, free from
government taxation.
C. The third and second estates were not equally privileged.
D. The first and second estates were special in socio-economic and political privileges
unlike the third states.

66
13. During the French Revolution, “The Reign of Terror” reached its climax by which of the
following political wings?
A. Jacobins B. Girondists C. Urban workers D. Bourgeoisie
14. When the European coalition forces occupied Paris on march 31,1814, Napoleon I was exiled
to the Island of:
A. St. Helena B. Water loo C. Sedan D. Elba
15. The Glorious Revolution (1688-1689) in England marked:
A. The victory of the parliament and the final defeat of the English autocracy
B. The bloodless change of the regime in place of Charles II
C. The decline of Tudor Dynasty and the coming of Stuart Dynasty
D. The declaration of England as republic ad Cromwell as lord protector
16. What was the Tennis Court oath of the 1789 French national assembly about?
A. The over throw of the monarchy
B. The freeing of political prisoners
C. The drafting of a new constitution
D. The reduction of the size of the military
17. The French Empire in North America immediately came to an end:
A. When the French were defeated in the Seven Years War by the Americans.
B. When the French were defeated by the British at the Battle of Quebec.
C. When the French signed the Paris Peace Treaty in 1763
D. When the British force occupied New York.
18. Which of the following waterways flourished due to industrial capitalism which interlinked
the two greatest oceans of the world?
A. Suez Canal B. Panama Canal C. Eri Canal D. Russian Canal
19. The leader of the Confederacy during the American Civil War was:
A. Ulaysses Grant C. Abraham Lincoln
B. Jefferson Davis D. Thomas Jefferson
20. Which of the following is a political philosophy that spread to the world in the advent of
Industrial capitalism by having multi-political parties with full rights and duties?
A. Nationalism B. Pluralism C. Liberalism D. Democracy
21. What was the main driving agent toward Berlin Conference?

67
 A. Partitioning of Africa among themselves (Europeans) peacefully
B. Rapid involvement of Belgium and Germany towards colonialism
C. Battle of Omdurman between the Sudan and the Anglo Egyptians
D. Disagreements and rivalries among Europeans which forced them to have agreement
22. Which one of the following is not the consequence of the American Civil War?
A. Abolishing of the slavery and slave trade
B. Northerners preserving their ideology, economy and politics unlike the southerners
C. Ethnics discriminations immediately stopped in the American land.
D. USA emerged as global or super power.
23. Which of the following is correct about the American Civil War?
A. The Abolitionists lost the war against the preservers.
B. It fastened industrialization of North America.
C. It fastened human acts like slavery over American land.
D. It marked USA to be formed and become global power.
24. Which event came first?
A. The Industrial Revolution C. The French Revolution
B. The English Revolution D. The Enlightenment
25. What was the main reason for the conflict between Charles I and the Parliament?
A. He continued to rule without the Parliament.
B. He was interested to rule both Scotland and England together.
C. He rejected signing the Petition of Rights.
D. He was considered as a foreigner.
26. What is the significance of the Glorious Revolution?
A. Making a political change without bloodshed
B. The formation political parties
C. Holding democratic election
D. The dominance of the parliament over the monarchy
27. What was the justification of Americans to oppose the British taxation?
A. “Taxation without representation is tyranny.”
B. It would affect the relationship of Britain and its colonies in North America.
C. As Americans were English speaking, they should not be taxed.
D. France may interfere in the affair of the colony.

68
 28. The Varennes crisis is associated with:
A. The storming of the Bastille
B. Declaration of the Rights of Men and Citizens
C. Calling the Estate General
D. The unsuccessful flight attempt of Louis XVI and Marie-Antoine
29. Identify the wrong statement regarding the course of the French Revolution
A. The National Assembly confiscated the lands of the Catholic Church.
B. Jacobin and Girondin had close friendship.
C. Active citizens were enabled to vote.
D. The Jacobins dictatorship was led by Maximilien Robespierre.
30. Identify the wrong statement about Napoleon Bonaparte
A. He introduced the Code of Napoleon.
B. He became a democrat leader.
C. The Legion of Honour was introduced.
D. He established the National Bank of France.

CHAPTER FOUR
4. THE GONDARINE PERIOD AND SOCIO ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL
DEVELOPMENT IN OTHER ETHIOPIAN REGION
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit students will be able to:
- Describe the achivements of Gondarine period
- Describe the major features of Zemene Mesafint
- Discuss political deveopments in other parts of Ethiopian region
- Examine the interactions of the people and states in the Ethiopian region in the
medieval priod
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4.1. THE GONDARINE PERIOD
The Gondar period refers to the years during which the rulers of the highland Christian Kingdom
ruled from a new capital called Gondar. Beginning from the mid-sixteenth century, the Kingdom
gradually shifted its political center from the Shewan highlands to the Lake Tana region. The shift
was caused bythe Adal’s continued threat and the pressure of the Oromo population movement.
After the death of Gelawdewos in 1559, Minas (r.1559- 63), the brother and successor of
Gelawdewos, retreated to the lands north of the Abay River. However, his successors continued to
live in mobile capitals. Denqez, Gorgora, Azezo, Dembiya, and Qoga in Gojjam and Begemidir
were sites where this mobile capital rested at different times. Gondar was founded by Fasiladas
around 1636. Gondar was strategically located on the long-distance trade route linking
southwestern regions with Massawa on the Red Sea and Mettema on the Ethio-Sudanese border.
Its establishment as a permanent capital city ended the tradition of ruling from temporary camps.
Gondar continued to serve as a political center for the next two centuries. Gondar became known
for its architectural achievements and building technology. Several kings who ruled from Gondar
built magnificent castles as palaces. In addition, churches, bridges and swimming pools were
constructed. Notably, during the reigns of its three successive kings: Fasiladas (r. 1632- 1667),
Yohanes I (r. 1667- 1682) and Iyasu I (1682-1706), Gondar attained great prosperity and
technological developments. The city grew, and traditional schools of learning were built and
expanded around their palaces and Churches. These three Gondarine rulers were also politically
stronger than their successors. Gondar developed certain urban features very soon. It had about
70,000 inhabitants. Its population was composed of different religious, cultural, indigenous and
foreign communities. Gondar became an important commercial center with a daily market
attracting merchants, crafts and rural people to exchange their respective products. This led to
intense urban-rural interactions. Traders were mostly Ethiopian Muslims, known as the Jeberti.
However, there were also other occupational groups like the Bete Israel. They were engaged in
craft activities such as masonry, pottery, basketry and ironworks. There were separate living
quarters for the Muslim communities, for the Bete Israel and also for some foreign communities
from India, Greek, Armenia and Persia. Cash payment for labour services was also introduced.
The ruling class enjoyed luxurious life and lived in their beautiful palaces and castles. They took
advantage of Gondar's commercial and urban prosperity.

70
However, it was only during the reigns of the first three kings that Gondar led a life of glory. Later
on, Gondar declined as an important political center and economic prosperity. Political disorder
and social unrest became common in the city. Court intrigues became common, accompanied by
poisoning and assassinations of kings and princes. The Gondarine monarchy could not keep its
former political power. This was partly because of its military weakness. Finally, they were unable
to impose control over regional lords and provinces. Following the assassination of Iyasu I in 1706,
the imperial court itself had to be guarded by powerful warlords with regional bases. The period
led to the strengthening of warlords of different regions with little or no control from the weakening
centre. The last stage of the Gondarine period was dominated by the growing power and
importance of a Quara born woman called Itege Mentewab. She was the wife of Emperor Bakafa
(r. 1721-30). Soon after the death of Bakafa, she began to rule over the kingdom as a regent for
her young son and the successor of Bakafa, Iyasu II (r.1730-55). Until he died in 1767, she was
supported by her strong brother, Welde Leul, on whom she bestowed the prestigious title of Ras
Bitweded. The warlords were contending for the title of Ras Bitweded and position during the
whole period of the Zemene Mesafint. Mentewab lost power in 1769 to the Tigrean warlord Ras
Michael Sehul. Michal Sehul came to Gondar, killed the reigning king, Iyoas (1755-1769), and
took over the title of Ras Bitweded. Gondar also suffered from internal splits within the Ethiopian
Orthodox Church. The clergy were engaged in conflicts over religious principles or doctrines that
also had a regional character. The combination of political and religious disputes finally led to the
period of the Zemene Mesafint or the era of warlords

4.2. The Jesuit and Their Evangelization in Ethiopia

We have discussed the development of early contacts between the Christian kingdom and
Portugal. On the basis of this contact, Libne Dingil sent a letter to Portugal in which he requested
military assistance for the war against Imam Ahmad Ibrahim. As stated earlier, that military help
came in 1541 and played a decisive role in ending the Muslim hegemony in the Christian
kingdom. The Portuguese soldiers killed Imam Ahmad and forced the Muslim army to retreat to
Adal. However, once they accomplished their task, the Portuguese soldiers did not withdraw from
Ethiopia. Rather they stayed in the country and invited the Catholic missionaries, known as the
Jesuits, who sought to convert the Orthodox Christians of Ethiopia to Catholicism.

71
Although we do not know what was discussed between the king and his Portuguese messenger,
Bermudez, Libne Dingil's letter of 1535 did not mention anything about his intension to be
converted to Catholicism. However, Bermudez later claimed that in return for military assistance,
Libne Dingil had promised to give a third of his kingdom to the king of Portugal and to be
converted, together with his subjects, to Catholicism. This claim gave the Portuguese government
and the Pope of Rome a ground for their steady effort to convert the Orthodox Christians of the
kingdom to Roman [Link] attempt at conversion began as soon as the Portuguese
soldiers entered the Christian kingdom in1541. At the time, Gelawdewos had already succeeded
his father, who died in 1540. Bermudez heard of the death of the king while he was still in Goa.

The ambitious Portuguese soon made himself patriarch of the Christian kingdom. In fact, he was
not ordained by the Pope of Rome. However, he claimed that Libne Dingil had nominated him
patriarch of the kingdom, provided that his nomination was approved by the Pope of Rome. On
the basis of this claim, Bermudez began to try to force Gelawdewos to fulfill the alleged promises
of his father. He required the Emperor to convert to Catholicism and recognize his position as a
patriarch of the kingdom. He also insisted him to assist in converting the subjects of the kingdom
to Catholicism. Bermudez knew how much Gelawdewos depended on the Portuguese army he
brought from India. Therefore, he used this situation as a leverage to force Gelawdewos into
fulfilling his demands. But Gelawdewos, who was with his father until the Emperor's death, knew
that Libne Dingil did not make the alleged promise. Therefore, he rejected the request of
Bermudez. Bermudez then, tried to induce the Portuguese soldiers not to fight for Gelawdewos.
However, the Portuguese soldiers who knew about the story rejected Bermudez's attempt to stop
them from fighting on the side of Gelawdewos.

The king of Portugal, John III, also refused to recognize Bermudez as the patriarch of the kingdom.
Finally, the frustrated Bermudez retired to Debarwa in 1553. The official appointment of patriarchs
and bishops for the Christian kingdom began after the retirement of Bermudez. The appointees
were selected from the Society of Jesus or the Jesuits. Nevertheless, the first attempt at appointing
a patriarch and bishops for the Christian kingdom was the result of a misunderstanding of the letter
of Gelawdewos. After the war with Ahmad Ibrahim was over, some of the Portuguese soldiers who
fought in the army of Gelawdewos accepted the request of the king to live permanently in the

72
kingdom. So, the grateful king wrote a letter to the king of Portugal to send Catholic priests who
could render religious services for the Portuguese soldiers.
But King John III of Portugal thought that Gelawdewos wanted to be converted to Catholicism.
Therefore, the king and the pope, decided to send one patriarch and two bishops who were selected
and ordained from among the Jesuits. When Gelawdewos heard about the arrangements made in
Europe for his conversion, he wrote a letter of objection to the Portuguese governor of India. The
governor sent a young Jesuit priest called Rodriguez to convince the king to accept the patriarch
and become a Catholic. On his way to the court, Rodriguez met Bermudez who adviced him to use
threat in forcing Gelawdewos to accept his request. Soon after he arrived, the young Jesuit priest
openly criticized the Orthodox Christian practices such as circumcision, food taboos, fasting and
the observance of Saturdays as heresies.
Gelawdewos tolerated the priest because he needed the Portuguese armyas the military conflict
with Adal had not yet abated. However, Geladewos rejected the demand for his conversion and
Rodriguez returned to Goa. The recruited patriarch and the bishops decided to go to the Christian
kingdom and asked the governor of Goa for an armed escort. But the governor opposed the idea
of using force and instead sent again a bishop called Andre de Oviedo to try to convince
Gelawdewos. The bishop arrived at the court of Gelawdewos in 1557 and followed the king from
one campaign to another trying to convince him. But Oviedo failed to convince the king. Indeed,
the king wrote a book called Confessions of Gelawdewos, in which he defended the practices of
the Orthodox faith of his kingdom against the criticisms of the Catholic priests. As a result, Oviedo
retaliated by isolating the Portuguese army from Gelawdewos. It was at this time that Gelawdewos,
who was abandoned by the Portuguese army, faced the army of Adal who defeated and killed him
in 1559. After the death of Gelawdewos, Oviedo moved with the Portuguese army to the province
of Tigray, where he joined Bahr Negash Yeshaq, the leader of opposition forces against King
Minas. Oviedo assured Yeshaq that Portuguese military assistance would come soon to depose
Minas and appoint a puppet king of their own choice. Yeshaq and his followers agreed to be
converted when the said military assistance arrived.
But, Oviedo's promise was not fulfilled and he himself died in 1597 without any success in his
mission. After the death of Oviedo, two other bishops, Pedro Paez and Alfonso Mendez were
successively ordained for the Christian kingdom. Paez came in 1603 and died in 1622, while

73
Mendez arrived in 1622 and stayed until all Portuguese and Jesuits were expelled from the
kingdom in 1632. Paez was particularly successful in converting many influential dignitaries of
the kingdom, including King Suseniyos (1607 - 1632). Let us see how he succeeded and the
consequences of his success upon the death of Sarsa Dingil in 1597.
The Christian kingdom faced political disorder as a result of an acute power struggle. Since the
wars of Imam Ahmad, there has been a gradual erosion of the power of the kings. The weakness
of the kings led the Orthodox Church leaders to ally with the more powerful provincial governors.
Besides, the kings could not depend on the loyalty of the army. Therefore, they began to consider
the advantage of converting to Catholicism, i.e getting military assistance, etc, from Portugal. All
Jesuit bishops who came to the Christian kingdom knew about the situation in which the kings
reigned. But some bishops, particularly the first arrivals, did not succeed in their mission, mainly
because they were not wise in their dealings with the kings. Among them, Paez was the most
successful.
When Paez arrived at Massawa in 1603, the reigning king was the fourteen-year-old Ya'iqob. Paez
was informed that the young king knew Arabic and was fond of the language. The bishop who also
knew Arabic hoped to use the language to get along with the king smoothly. But, before he reached
the Christian court, Ya'iqob was deposed and replaced by Za Dingil. Za Dingil was fully aware of
the political problem faced by his predecessors. Therefore, he was determined to get rid of the
disloyal soldiers and their commanders as well as the clergy, whom he thought were the sources
of the weaknesses of the monarchy. When Paez understood this attitude of the king, he directly
told Za Dingil that if he agreed to be converted to Catholicism, he could get Portuguese military
assistance with which he could deal with his enemies and consolidate his political power.

Even before the agreement could get acceptance in Portugal, the impatient king intended to take
measures like banning the observance of Saturdays to satisfy the demand of Paez. However, Paez
advised the king to be cautious and not to take hasty measures that might lead to failure. Whatever
the case, Za Dingil had already been suspected of being secretly converted, and consequently, he
faced strong opposition from the Orthodox Church which accused him of being converted to
Catholicism. In the civil war that followed, Za Dingil was killed in 1604. After the death of the
king, Ya'iqob was again put on the throne. Paez continued the same dealing with Ya'iqob, who

74
agreed to accept Catholicism. But, before the agreement was implemented, Ya'iqob was killed in
a battle in [Link]'iqob was succeeded by Suseniyos.
The reign of Suseniyos saw the success of the long effort of the Jesuit bishops. Just like his
immediate predecessors, Suseniyos leaned towards Catholicism in order to get Portuguese military
assistance to maintain a strong and peaceful monarchy. So, the Jesuits got freedom to preach and
recruit converts even in the court itself. Suseniyos did not take the lead in being converted to
Catholicism. The first important convert was his brother, the old powerful general, Si'ile Kristos,
who was rebaptized publicly in 1611. The palace clergy and other influential cousins of the king
followed the example of Si'ile Kristos. Beginning from 1612 a series of public debates on Catholic
principles were held in the court. The debate was chaired by Suseniyos himself. In the debate, the
Catholics were represented by Si'ile Kristos.
In the meantime, the Orthodox Chruch practices such as circumcision, fasting on Fridays and
Wednesdays and the observance of Saturdays were condemned as heresies. The Orthodox
clergymen who stood against Catholicism also faced mistreatment in the court. All these measures
brought about the rebellion of the peasants headed by the clergy and the nobility. Suseniyos,
himself, was officially converted to Catholicism in public and made Catholicism the official state
religion in 1622.

The first peasant rebellion against Suseniyos and Catholicism broke out in 1617 and from 1626 to
1632 Suseniyos fought many battles. This was mainly because of the hasty imposition of the new
religion on the peasants of the kingdom. Besides many of the long established Ethiopian Christian
practices were also banned. So, both the peasantry and the clergy joined in rebellion to defend their
religion from falling to Catholicism and the period witnessed one of the large scale peasant
uprising in Ethiopian history.
Eventually, Suseniyos came to understand that he could not suppress the staunch opposition of the
Church and peasants militarily. In the meantime, the Portuguese soldiers and firearms which he
had hoped to obtain from Portugal failed to arrive. Therefore, he realised that he had simply
incurred the enmity of his people and the clergy in vain. He understood that in an attempt to build
a strong and peaceful government using Catholicism, he was leading the country to a bloody civil
war. So, after his last battle, the Battle of Denqez in 1632, he decided to withdraw from the

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experiment with Catholicism. In the same year he abdicated in favor of his son, Fasiledes, whose
first measure was the restoration of the Orthodox Church to its traditional position.
In the reaction that followed, many Catholic converts were killed. The first victim was Si'ile
Kristos, who was publicly hanged. On the other hand, the Catholic missionaries were not harmed,
because Fasiledes feared Portuguese interference. Instead, Fasiledes ordered the expulsion of the
Jesuit missionaries from the country.
The theological controversies that shook the foundation of the Orthodox Church in the subsequent
centuries were the consequence of the religious conflict between Orthodox Christianity and Roman
Catholicism. The religious controversy had also a long-term consequence for the foreign relations
of the Christian kingdom. It was believed that the bloody civil war was caused by the interference
of alien forces. Thereafter, all European Christians were suspected as Catholics. Therefore, to
avoid similar problems in the future, Fasiledes made an alliance with the hitherto traditionally
hostile Muslim neighbors. He signed treaties with the Imams of Yemen and the Pashas of Swakin
and Massawa, who agreed to prevent or report the coming of any European to the Christian
kingdom. Thus, the Christian kingdom adopted a closed-door policy which isolated the kingdom
from the Christian Europeans for about two centuries i.e., from the seventeenth to the early
nineteenth centuries. During this long period of isolation, only two Europeans succeeded in
reaching the Christian court. They were a French physician named Jaques Poncet and the Scottish
traveler, James Bruce, who came to discover the source of the Blue Nile.

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4.3. The Ascendancy of the Yejju Dynasty
After the defeat of Michael Sehul, chaos and disorder continued until the coming to power of Ali
Gwangul (Ali I) from the Yejju Oromo family. Ali founded a new ruling dynasty known as the
Yejju Dynasty or the Warra-Sheh in 1786. This dynasty dominated the politics of northern Ethiopia
in the name of the puppet kings of Gondar until the middle of the nineteenth century. During this
period of Yejju rule, the most important centers of political power were the territories of the
present-day Gojjam, Gondar, Tigrai and Wollo.
When compared to each other, the “Yejju dynasty” was the leading power during the Zemene
Mesafint with the center at Debre- Tabor. Ali Gwangul (Ali I or Ali Talaq) was considered the
founder of the “Yejju Dynasty” in 1786. The Yejju Dynasty strengthened its power during its
strongest ruler Ras Gugsa (1803- 1825). The two successive Tigrian rulers, Ras Walda Sellase of
Indarta (r. 1790 - 1816) and Dejjazmach Sabagadis (r. 1822-1831), resisted Gugsa's power in the
north. Nevertheless, he tried to neutralize them through marriage relations and diplomacy.
Moreover, Gugsa's military and diplomatic skills helped him exercise his power over the lords of
Gojjam, Wollo, Lasta, Semen, Wagara and Dambya.
Following the death of Gugsa in 1825, the Yejju Dynasty met strong challenges from Semen and
Tigrai. Semen was defeated by Gugsa's son and successor, Ras Yemam (1825-1828). Ras Marye
succeeded Yemam in 1828. However, Dajjach Sabagadis of Tigrai decided to end the Yejju
political domination. This led to the battle in 1831 of May-Aslamay, near Dabra Abay, in western
Tigrai. The two rivals, Ras Marye and Deijjazmach Sabagadis were killed in this battle, but the
final victory went to the Yejju Dynasty. The ruler of Semen, Dejiazmach Wube, was rewarded
Tigrai for his contribution siding with the Yejju lords during the battle of MayAslamay. However,
the Yejju political dominance over northern Ethiopia continued for the next two decades under Ras
Ali Alula or Ali II (r. 1831-1853). Yejju rule reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso (r.1803-1825),
who made an incessant struggle against Ras Walde-Silassie of Enderta and Dejjazmatch Sabagadis
Woldu of Agame. In 1826, Gugsa's successor, Yimam (r.1825-8), defeated Hayle-Mariam Gebre
of Simen. Maru of Dambiya was also killed at the battle of Koso-Ber in 1827. The period of
zemene mesafint was brought to an end by Kasa Hailu of Qwara through battles that lasted from
the 1840s to 1855.

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4.4. Decadence with the Ruling House and the Zemene Mesafint (The Era of Warlords)
From 1767 to 1769, there was a power struggle in Gondar between groups of Wollo and Quara
political factions. Wollo was represented by Wabi, the wife of Iyassu II and mother of the young
monarch, Iyoas (r. 1755-1769). Quara, on the other hand, was represented by her mother in - law,
Itege Mentewab, who then controlled state power in the name of her grandson, Iyoas. This rivalry
took place following the death of Ras Bitweded Welde Leul in 1767. Mentewab had given a power
base to the Wallo Oromo by arranging a political marriage between her son Iyassu II and Wabi,
from the Wollo Oromo family. In addition, she intended to secure their military support to
consolidate her power in the Gondarine state.
After that, however, the Wollo Oromo gradually began to enjoy a leading political role and
influence. The conflict between Quara and the Wollo Oromo factions created political disorder
around the capital. This endangered Mentewab's power. She was thus forced to look for any strong
personality who could help her control the situation. The most powerful candidate in 1768 was
Ras Michael Sehul of Tigrai. He had a big army and more modern firearms due to his access to
foreign trade through the Red Sea. Michael Sehul was invited to Gondar by Mentewab and soon
restored peace and order in the city. He was awarded the highest title of Ras Bitweded. When king
Iyoas ordered him to go back to Tigrai, Michael felt strong and refused to obey the king's order.
He assassinated King Iyoas in 1769. This event marked the beginning of a new era in which
powerful regional warlords undermined the monarchy's power.
Zemene-Mesafint refers to the period when the actual position of political power was in the hands
of different regional lords. The period lasted from1769 when Ras Michael Sehul "assassinated"
king Iyoas to 1855 when Kasa Hailu was crowned as Tewodros II. Ras Michael, a kingmaker
during the period, took strong measures against the nobility. A coalition of lords of Gojjam,
Amhara, Lasta and Wollo defeated him at the battle of Sarba-Kussa in 1771 and forced him to go
back to his power base in Tigrai. He ruled over Tigray for the next nine years until his death in
1780.
After the defeat of Michael Sehul, chaos and disorder continued until the coming to power of Ali
Gwangul (Ali I) from the Yejju Oromo family. Ali founded a new ruling dynasty known as the
Yejju Dynasty or the Warra Sheh in 1786. Under the reigns of his successors, there was relative
stability, but several regional lords evolved. The main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint lords
ruled were Tigray, Semen, Debye, Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam and Shewa. This era is
78
commonly known in Ethiopian history as the Zemene Mesafint (1769 – 1855). The different
regionally based northern Ethiopian warlords of the Zemene Mesafint fought against each other
for various objectives:
• They wanted to expand their territories at the expense of their neighbours because large territory
means enormous human and material resources.
• They wanted to have the title of Ras Bitweded to become guardians of the weak Gondarine kings
and their court.
• They wanted to collect as much tribute as possible in the name of these weak kings.
• Religious conflicts worsened the regional power conflicts of the Zemene Mesafint. There was an
intense doctrinal controversy within the Orthodox Church during the period. This weakened the
position of both the Ethiopian state and the Church. The Orthodox Church could not enforce
unity among the Christian masses because it was deeply divided into different factions within
itself. The divisions took a regional character. The internal religious division gave an ideological
dimension to the power conflict and further intensified the power struggle of the Zemene
Mesafint. The endless wars of the Zemene Mesafint affected the social and economic life of the
peasantry. The peasants suffered from frequent wars. The peasants were forced to feed the
enormous armies of the local and regional lords. The many shiftas (bandits) also forced the
peasant to supply them food. Therefore, the various dependents discouraged the peasantry from
working hard and producing surplus production. Moreover, the farmlands of the peasantry often
became battlefields, and their villages were burnt down. Therefore, agriculture which formed the
backbone of the peasant economy was depressed in the period of the Zemene Mesafint. The
continuous wars of the Zemene Mesafint also affected the development of trade. Merchants could
not travel peacefully along the long-distance trade routes due to endless wars and robbery.
Moreover, they were forced to pay heavy taxes at the different warlords' gates (tax stations). The
most important trade items during the Zemene Mesafint were natural products such as ivory,
gold, and civet. Enslaved people formed an important element of trading items. As a result of
feudal wars, war captives increased the supply of enslaved people who were in high demand in
Arabia. By and large, the continuous wars of the Zemene Mesafint had undermined the sense of
nationalism. It was a period of weak national feeling and national power

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4.5. Polities of Shoa, Omo and ahe Gibe Regions, the Emirate of Harar and Shiekdom of
Assosa- the Omotic States
The peoples and the states which occupied the territory around the Omo river basin speak various
languages collectively known by linguists as Omotic languages. The peoples and the states are
also known by the genetic linguistic term of Omotic. So, around thirty different languages are
classified under the Omotic family. The most important languages under the Omotic language
family are Kaffa, Walayita, Dawuro, Bench, Dorze Gamo, Gofa, Koyra, Yem, Sheka, and Maji.
The Kingdom of Kaffa
It is found south of the Gojeb River. The land is Kaffa and the people are called Kaffecho. The
origins of the kingdom can be traced as far back as the fourteenth century. The names of two
dynasties are very important in the history of the Kaffa Kingdom. These dynasties were Matto and
Minjo. The Matto Dynasty ruled Kaffa before 1390. The first king of the Minjo Dynasty was
Minjilo and after whom, the ruling dynasty came to be known as [Link] the 19th century,
particularly between 1821 and 1897, five prominent kings successively ruled Kaffa. They were:
Gahe Nhchochi (r.1821-1841), Kawe Erochi (r. 1841-1843), Kaji Sharochi (r.1843-1868), (Gali
Sarochi r.1868- 1890 (Galito), Gaki Sharochi. (r 1890-1897).
During the reign of these kings, the kingdom developed its monarchical system and was extended
to south, southwest and northeast of Kaffa. The administration of the kingdom was divided in to
twelve and later into eighteen provinces. The Kaffa kings held a royal title called Tato. The Tato
was assisted by state councilors called Mikrecho. There were eight Mikrecho with one non-
permanent member. The land in the Kingdom was considered as the property of the king. Here the
concept of the king and the state over- lapped. The kingdom of Kaffa was known to have an
efficient system of frontier defense. All along the territory of Kaffa, watch towers were secretly
erected at high points to watch and detect the approach of the enemy. The approach of the enemy
was signaled by beating drums that imply call for mobilization. The drums from the border were
beaten by assigned clans called the Manjo. The Manjo are known to have been outcaste clans in
Kaffa.
The economy of Kaffa was based on agriculture. The peasants produced different kinds of crops.
They also kept Civet cat to collect musk. The peasants paid taxes from their products including
the collected musk. Taxes were collected by assigned collectors called Tate- kisho, meaning the
hand of the king. Taxes were collected in kinds. The economy of Kaffa was also supplemented by
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trade. The most trade items of Kaffa were: coffee, ivory, musk, slave and gold. Long distance trade
routes linked Bonga, the center of the kingdom with the center and the coast of the Ethiopian
region. Many merchants from different directions came to Kaffa market places in search of
lucrative commodities, which are mentioned above. Kaffa is also known for its coffee production.
Beads, salt bars and iron bars were used as medium of exchange. There also existed traditional
iron industry. Following the expansion of Menilik, Kaffa was finally incorporated into the
Ethiopian Empire in1897.
The Kingdom of Yem
Another Omotic state was the kingdom of Yem. The Yem people occupied the western bank of
Gibe River. Yem existed as a political entity since the fourteenth century. In the nineteenth century,
the kingdom of Yem was ruled by a dynasty called the Mowa. The kings of Yem adopted a title
called Ano. The kings were both religious and political heads of their people. The administration
of the kingdom was hierarchically organized. The king was at the top of the social pyramid, and
he was the most powerful figure in the kingdom. Below him, there was a council of officials known
as Astesor.
The Astesor was chaired by an official who had the title called Waso. The kingdom of Yem was
divided into provinces and sub-provinces. These provinces and sub-provinces were ruled by
officials known as Erasho (rasho) and Gena. The economy of the kingdom was based on
agriculture. The peasants paid tributes directly to the king. Trade and handicrafts such as weaving
and iron work, were auxiliary economic activities for the people of Yem. This kingdom was finally
conquered by the force of Menelik in 1894.
The Kingdom of Wolayta
The other prominent state in southwestern Ethiopia was the kingdom of Walayta. This kingdom
had a strong connection with the medieval state of Damot. The founder of this kingdom was
Motalami. Motalami founded a dynasty called Walayta Malla. Walayta Malla was established
around the beginning of the fourteenth century. In the fifteen century, the Walayta Malla Dynasty
was ousted from power and replaced by a rival dynasty called “Tigre”. The Tigre Dynasty ruled
Walayita until the end of the nineteenth century. While this dynasty was in power, Walayta
expanded its territory towards the south and west. The kings of Walayta used the royal title called
Kawo. The “goqa” were the privileged warrior class of Walayta kingdom. The economy of Walayta
was based on Agriculture. All land in the kingdom was the property of a king. The king had also
81
absolute power over the life and property of his people. These warrior classes resided around the
court of the Walayta kings. The last king to rule independent Walayita was Kawo Tona. Walayta
was finally conquered by Menilik II in1894 after a stiff resistance.
The Kingdom of Sheka
This kingdom was found to the east of Baro and west of Gojeb rivers or to the west of Kaffa
kingdom. Sheka had two ruling dynasties before the end of the nineteenth century. These ruling
dynasties were Batto and Bushasho. Much is not known about the Batto Dynasty. The first Sheka
Bushasho king migrated from neighbouring Anfillo to Sheka at the end of the sixteen century. The
Bushasho Dynasty of Sheka ruled from the end of 16th to the19th centuries. Christianity is
believed to have been introduced to Sheka in the late sixteenth century. For the brief period in the
seventeen century, Sheka was conquered by the Mecha Oromo tribe. But it regained its
independence at the beginning of the nineteenth century. The kings of Sheka like Kaffa used the
royal title “tato”. The kingdom of Sheka had a close economic, political and historical relationship
with Enarya, Kaffa and Anfillo.
Traditions of Sheka kingdom recognized the names of five kings of the nineteen century These
were: Bedi Nechochi ( r.1800-1805), Tachi Nechechi (r.1805-1810), Gali Goechi ( r.1820-
1850), Deji Goechi (r.1850-1887), Techi Goechi ( r.1887-1898 )
Besides the above states, there were also other Omotic states. Among these the most important
were the kingdoms of Dawuro, Konta, Gamo and Gofa.
The Oromo Monarchies
What was the major political transformation the Oromo of the Gibe valley had undergone in
the19th century?
Another group of states that emerged in the south-western Ethiopia in the eighteenth and nineteenth
belonged to the Oromo people. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, monarchical states
emerged in the Oromo settled areas of Gibe Valley. At the time of the Oromo population movement
and expansion, the Gibe basin was occupied by the various clans of the Mecha Oromo. At the time
of their expansion, the Mecha Oromo led mainly pastural life and were governed by the Gada
system.
By about 1800, however, the Oromo of the Gibe Valley had undergone a profound political
transformation. The traditional Gada system was transformed into monarchical system of
government.
82
Many factors accounted for this transformation. Firstly, the Oromo of this region had come into
contact with Omotic states which had a long tradition of monarchical government. Secondly, the
expansion of the Oromo into a wide area affected the system which worked very well in small
groups. Thirdly, the long distance trade and the spread of Islam seemed to have undermined the
power of the Gada government. Finally, frequent wars gave rise to powerfull individuals such as
the Abba Dulas who became influential. On the whole, the combination of the above factors was
responsible for the decline of the Gada system and the rise of monarchical government.
The monarchical system of government first emerged around the beginning of the nineteenth
century. This historical development took place among the Oromo around the Gibe River and
Wellega. Five states emerged around Gibe River which came to be known as the “Gibe
monarchies”. These were Gera, Goma, Guma, Jimma and Limu- [Link] earliest of these
monarchical states was Limu-Enarya. This state was built on the ruins of the medieval kingdom
of Enarya/ Hinnario. Enarya was defeated after long period of resistance by the Mecha Oromo.
Limu-Enarya became powerful because it controlled the long distance trade route of the region.
Limu-Enarya reached the height of its power during the reign of Abba- Bagibo, or Ibsa
(r.18251861). From the middle of the nineteenth century on, Limu-Enarya declined and gave way
to its rival, Jimma Kaka. Jimma under its ruler, Abba Jifar became powerful and controlled trade
and trade routes. At about the same time, three Oromo kingdoms emerged to the west and
southwest of Jimma. These were Gera, Goma, and Guma. All the Gibe states were located along
the trade route which accounted for their rise and prosperity.
At about the middle of the nineteenth century, two other Oromo states emerged in Wollega region.
One of these states was Leqa Neqemt. This state was founded by a Bakare Godana. This state
reached at the height of its power during the reigns of Moroda and his son Kumsa. Kumsa was
later baptized taking the Christian name, Gebre Igzeber. When Menelik’s territorial expansion was
under way, Kumsa peacefully subdued and was able to maintain his local autonomy. Kumsa ruled
Leqa Neqemt in the 2nd half of the nineteen century.
The other Oromo state in Wollega region was Leqa Qellam. Leqa Qellam was founded by Tullu
and became powerful during the reign of his son Jote Tullu. The main source of Leqa Quellam’s
wealth and power was its cross-frontier gold trade and the trade with neighbouring Shiekdoms of
Aqoldy and Bela Shangul.

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The Emirate of Harar
The Harari people live in the city of Harar. In the nineteenth century, they possessed a highly
organized system of government. The political organization of Harari people was the result of
political developments of the past centuries. The Sultanate of Adal was the most powerful state in
the 15th and16th centuries and much of the territory in the East had been under the hegemony of
this Sultanate. For most of this period, the Sultanate ruled the region from its center in Harar. In
1577, the pressure of the Oromo expansion forced the Sultanate of Adal to shift its center from
Harar to Aussa in the north east of the Awash Valley. A little before this time, Harar city was also
surrounded by a stone wall to resist the Oromo pressure. This wall was built by Emir Nur, the
immediate successor of Ahmed Ibrahim Ibin El Ghazi, commonly known as Ahmed Gragn.
The shift of the Adalite political center had one important consequence. This was the emergence
of the Harar Emirate. From 1577 to the middle of the seventeenth century, the emirs of Harar paid
annual tribute to the Imam of Aussa. The tributary relation came to an end with the rise of Emir
Ali Dawud ( r. 1647-1662). He declared the independence of the Harar Emirate. The Emir
established a dynasty that ruled Harar up to the last quarter of the nineteenth century.
For more than two centuries, Harar became the most important trade center in the East. The city
was strategically situated between the trade routes of the northern Somali coasts and the interior
of the Ethiopian region. Two routes from the northern Somali ports of Zeila and Berbera meet at
Harar. These trade routes further proceeded to the interior of the Ethiopian region. These trade
routes were controlled by the state of Harar, which made it very prosperous. The commerce of
Harar was an important economic asset to the surrounding Oromos and Somalis. During the first
wave of the Oromo expansion, the city had secluded itself from the communities outside the city.
As the initial waves of the Oromo expansion subsided, the seclusion gave way for the economic
interaction between the Harari inside the wall and the Oromo and the Somalis outside the wall.
When this process started, the contact between two groups was very limited. The gates of the wall
were opened only for trading purposes. The merchants and local traders from outside the wall were
forced to surrender their weapons at the city gates.
The security measures were gradually abandoned and free movement inside and outside the city
started. Infact, common economic interests determined closer and peaceful interactions among the
peoples. The Oromos around the city became good farmers. These farmers exchanged their
agricultural products for items brought to the city by foreign merchants.
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The fertile territories around Harar produced grain, varieties of fruits and vegetables, coffee and
chat. Above all, the last two items, coffee and chat, together with dyes and ostrich feathers, formed
the major export of Harar. These items were supplied by the communities around the city of Harar.
Therefore, economic interdependence created the ground for more and broader interaction among
the peoples of the region.
The growth of the trade of the region made Harar wealthy and prosperous. The city developed its
own currency as early as the 17th century. The wealth made the Emirate very powerful and it
gradually extended its hegemony over the surrounding Oromos and Somalis. The extension of
hegemonic power was facilitated by economic links and marriage relations. Above all, the spread
of Islam among the Oromos and the Somalis was important in promoting the power of the Harar
Emirate.
Harar is one of the earliest centers of Islam in the Ethiopian region. The city of Harar continued to
serve as the center of Islamic religious study and training. In this way, the Emirate became a center
of the Islamic culture. A number of mosques were built in the city. The Grand Mosque and the
palace of Emir were the most important edifices of the city. There were also several religious
shrines in the city. The Harari possessed well developed handicrafts. The Emirate had maintained
close economic and political ties with Yemen and the Arabian Peninsula through Zeilla and
Berbera ports. Many foreigners lived in the city of Harar. Among these, the most important were
the Arabs, Persians, Turks, Armenians and the Greeks. But the Emirate had no direct relations with
Europeans. The emirs were suspicious of Europeans whom they did not allow to enter into their
territory. Europeans who tried to enter Harar were often imprisoned or killed. But in 1855, the
British traveler Sir Richard Burton was able to stay in the city for ten days. Burton’s visit had
strong impact on the Emirate’s future. This traveler disclosed the wealth of the city as well as the
strategic importance of the Emirate to the outside world. Consequently, the first threat came from
the Egyptians. In 1875 the ruler of Egypt, Khedive Ishmael (r.1863-1879) sent a military
expedition led by Mohammed Rauf Pasha and occupied Harar. After ten years of occupation. The
Egyptian army withdrew in 1885. Soon after the withdrawal of the Egyptian troops Menelik of
Shawa, defeated the force of the last Emir of Harar, Emir Abdullahi at the battle of Chalenqo, on
January 6, 1887 and conquered [Link] that the independent existence of Harar came to an end.
The Emirate as well as the surrounding Oromos and Somalis were incorporated into the Ethiopian
Empire.
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The Sheikdoms Asosa, Benishangul, and Komosha
During the nineteenth century, there existed Muslim states or Sheikdoms situated along the Ethio-
Sudan border. These were Asosa, or Aqoldi, Beni Shangul, and Khoosha. The main factor for the
rise of these Muslim states was the influence of Islam and the border trade. This region was very
rich in gold. This and other natural resources of these states attracted the Sudanese (the Mahdists)
and the Egyptians to develop a special interest in the region. However, their attempt to control the
region failed as the result of the incorporation of the whole region in to Menelik’s Empire in the
1880s and 1890s.
The Shewan Kingdom
Shewa was founded in 1695 by the local aristocrat called Negasi Kirstos. The core area of the
Shewa state was a locality called Menz. After Negasi Kirstos, Shewa was ruled by his successors:
Sibste (r.1703- 1745), Amha Yesus (r.1745-1775), Asfa Wossen (r.1775-1808), and Wosen Seged
(r.1808-1813). These successors of Negasi expanded the frontiers of Shewa into the territories of
the neighbouring Oromo and Gurage lands.
The distance Shewa had from the center of the Christian kingdom (Gondar) allowed the Shewan
rulers to exercise full authority in their kingdom. From about the middle of the eighteenth century,
Shewa ceased to pay tribute to Gondar and became virtually independent from Gonderian rule.
Shewa reached the height of its power during the reign of Sahle Selassie (r.1813-1847). He was
the first Shewan ruler to adopt the title Negus for himself. The former rulers of Shewa were simply
contained with the titles like Meridazmach and Abeto. Sahle Selassie was able to organize an
effective administrative system for his kingdom. The administration of Shewa was sub-divided in
to nine provinces, namely, Minjar; Bulga, Yafat, Gidim, Tegulet, Menze, Gishe, Moret and Shewa-
Meda. These were administered by their respective governors who were appointed by the king and
answerable to him.
The economy of Shewa was based on agriculture. Trade also contributed a great deal to the wealth
and consolidation of the kingdom. The territorial expansions of King Sahle Selassie enabled the
kingdom to have access to a supply of ivory, coffee, gold, civet cat and slaves. These trade items
were very important to get fire arms. King Sahle Selassie, like other rulers and chief of his time,
was interested in firearms and military technology as this would enable him to silence his rivals.
The economic prosperity and political stability of the Kingdom attracted a considerable European
interest in Shawa. During the reign of King Sahle Selass, many Europeans visted Shewa and tried
86
 to influence their governments to establish relations with the Shawan rulers. The first Europeans
to approach the Shawan king were the missionaries Isenberg and Krapf, who arrived at the court
of Sahle Selassie in 1837. In 1839 another European, the French chemist Rochet d’Hericourt, came
to Shewa. He tried to influence the French government to establish relations with the Kingdom.
However, the British government took the lead in establishing relation with the Kingdom. On the
basis of Krapf’s recommendation, the Britain sent an envoy to Shawa in 1841. This envoy was led
by [Link] who succeeded in securing a formal treaty between the British and Shawa. Later in
1843, the French envoy Rochet d’ Heircourt, on behalf of his government signed a treaty of
commerce and friendship with Sahle Selassie. These foreign contacts helped King Sahle Selassie
to get firearms with which he was able to expand his Kingdom.
King Sahel Selassie died in 1847 and was succeeded by his son Haile Melekot. The reign of Haile
Melekot (r1847-1856) marked the end of the autonomous existence of Shawa. This was because
Emperor Tewodros II (r.1855-1868) campaigned to Shawa in1856 and made it one of his
provinces. King Haile Melekot died a little before Tewodros defeated the Shawan force at the
Battle of Bereketin November 1855. At the end of his Shawan campaign, Tewodros captured
Menilik, the son of Haile Melekot and brought him to his court where he stayed for the coming
ten years. In 1865, Menilik escaped from Meqdella royal prison and established his power in
Shawa. His first capital was at Ankober and with the expansion of his domain, he shifted his center
to Entoto until the founding of Addis Ababa.

UNIT SUMMERY
The Gondarine period is a period in which Chrisitian Kingdom rulers ruled from their permanent
center, Gondar. It was eatablished as a capital city by Fasiledes. During the reign of the three successive
rulers, namely Fasiledes, Yohannes I and Iyasu I, Gondar attained a period of glory and success. But,
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following the assassination of Iyasu I in 1706, Gondar began to decline as an important political and
economic center. It was the result of the military weakness of the monarchy. Such negative political
developments finally led to the period of Zemene Mesafint. The Zemene Mesafint was characterized
by the dominance of warords in the state politics and existence of weak monarchy. Kings were
appointed by powerful warlords. War and conflict was the most common feature of Zemene Mesafint
which discouraged peasantry and trade.
The coming of Jesuit catholic missionaries following the footsteps of the portuese army was another
important historical incident in the kingdom. The Jesuits tried to create a catholic kingdom by
converting the rulers and the people. Susenyos was the first king to officially accept Catholicism and
made Catholicism a state religion. But, it faced resistances from the nobility, the orthodox clergies and
the peasants. The harsh measure taken by Susenyos led to civil war. Finally Susenyos abdicated his
throne to his son Fasiledes and the Jesuits attempt of creating a catholic kingdom in Ethiopia failed.
In addition to the kingdom in the northern Ethiopia, there were States in the southern, eastern, western
and south western Ethiopia. There were kingdom of Kaffa, Yem, Welayta and Sheka which were
established by the Omotic speaking communities. They had political autonomy independence until the
late 19th C. many of them relied on Agricultural economy. Interstate trade brought additional income
for the state. Following the population movement, the Oromo in the Gibe region abandoned the Gada
system and established five monarchical states. i.e. Limmu Enarya, Gumma, Gomma, Jimma and Gera.
The Emirate of Harar was established in the eastern Ethiopia in the 17 th C by a local Emir named Emir
Ali Ibn Dawd and it maintain its political autonomy until the late 19 th C. In the western Ethiopia the
Shiekhdoms of Assosa, Belashangul and Khomosha were founded by the intense interaction between
local Berta-Gumuz people with Arab speaking Sudaneses.

Review Questions
Choose the best answers from the following alternatives.
1. Why did King Susenyos officially embrace Catholicism in 1612 and made it the official religion in
1622?
A. In order to end the peasantry and noble oppositions
B. Because he had conflict with the Orthodox Church
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 C. In order to gain military support from the Portuguese to build a royal power base
D. Because the remnant Portuguese soldiers forced him to accept

2. The Jesuits were:

A. Catholic missionaries who attempted to convert Gelawdewos to Catholicism but were
unsuccessful.
B. Who declared Catholicism as the official religion of Ethiopia, since their main objective
was spreading Catholicism.
C. Who isolated Ethiopia from the Muslim world.
D. Who converted Za Dingil to Catholicism.
3. Why did kings of CHK use Mobile camps before the foundation of Gondor in 1636 as their seat?
A. Because the shift was caused by Adali’s continued threat
B. Because they regarded mobile camps are important to check rebellion
C. Because they did not gain towns that were in the center
D. Because they calculated the shift had trade benefit
4. Which one of the following is not true about societies who were dweller in Gondar?
A. Jebarti - Muslim clerics in Gondar
B. Felasha - Beta Israel (Jewish) in Gondar
C. Muslim communities who settled in Addis Alem
D. Foreigners - Persians, Greeks, Arabs …etc.
E. None
5. The immediate factor for the decline of the Gondorian Dynasty as an important center and
economic prosperity in 1706 was:
A. The assassination of King Iyasu I
B. The coming of Michael Sehul as king maker
C. The Church split in different doctrines
D. The assassination of King Iyoas by Mikael Sehul
6. What was the reason behind the formation of Sheikdoms in the western border of the country?
[Link] trade and Islam C. Political power and the the coming of the Egyptians
B. Foreign relation with Sudan D. Absence of foreign threat and long distance trade
7. Why did Emir Nuri Mujahid build Jegol Gimb?
A. To defend Harar from CHK attacks
B. To defend Harar from Oromo population movement
C. To protect Harar from Somali population movement
D. To celebrate his victory over Gelawdewos
8. The founder of Yejju or the Warrasheh Dynasty in 1786 was:
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 A. Ali II B. Ras Gugsa C. Ras Yemam D. Ali Gwangul
9. The two war commanders, Ras Marya and Dej Sabagadis, were killed at the battle of:
A. Sabarkus B. May Aslamay C. Ayshal D. Deressgie
10. The factor which contributed for the development of regionalism during the Zemene Mesafint
from the religious point view was
A. The challenge from Muslim clerics
B. The influence of Christian missionaries and the need to hold the title “Ras Bituwaded”
C. The plot by Jesuits and reduction of priests and deacons to 2:3.
D. The doctrinal conflict with in the Orthodox Church and disunity in sects
11. Which of the following was true about Zemene Mesafint?
A. It broke out because of the assassination of Iyasu II.
B. It ended with the coming of Kassa Hailu as emperor.
C. It was the period when the power of the regional lords was weak.
D. It was characterized by identical doctrine of Orthodox Church.
12. The Hey- day of Gondar ended because of:
A. Bete Israel’s (Felasha) introduction of their own art style
B. The Muslim’s attack over Addis Zemen court
C. Court intrigue, political disorder, social unrest, and military weakness as well as
assassination of kings
D. The dominance of Gondar’s trade by Oromo Muslim merchants called Jebarti
13. Which of the following event marked the immediate outbreak of Zemene Mesfanit?
A. The coming of kasss Hailu to the power in 1769
B. The assassination of Iyoas in 1769
C. The assassination of Iyasu in 1769
D. The coming of Michael Sehul to the Gondarian court from Tigrai
14. Who was the founder of the Emirate of Harar?
A. Emir Nur Mujahid C. Imam Ahmed Gragn
B. Emir Ali Ibn Dawd D. Emir Abdullahi

15. The reign of king Fasildas witnessed the following, except:

A. Restoration of the orthodox faith
B. Expulsion of the Jesuits
C. The establishment of permanent calpital
D. The beginning of separate living quarters in Gonder city
16. Who was the founder of the kingdom of Shewa?
A. Sahleselassie C. Negasi

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 B. Menelik II D. Hailemelekot
17. Who was the last king-maker of the Yeju Dynasty during the Zemene Mesafint?
A. Ali Guangul B. Ras Marye C. Ras Gugsa D. Ras Ali II
18. In applying a closed-door- policy, CHK rulers had an increased contact with all except:
A. Egypt B. Yemen C. Massawa D. Swakin
19. Which pair shows a friendly relation?
A. Iyoas and Mikael Sehul
B. Ras Marye and Dejazmach Sabagadis
C. Dajazmach Wube and Kassa Hailu
D. Ras Bitwaded wolde Leul and Mentewab
20. The reign of Fasiledes, Yohannes I, and Iyasu I showed the following developments except:
A. Architectural development C. Development of education
B. Economic development D. Industrial development
21. In the medieval Ethiopian state history, Mikrecho had relationship with
A. Kaffa B. Welayta C. Yem D. Enarya
22. The period of Zemene Mesafint was characterized by all except:
A. Decline of agricultural production C. Endless civil war
B. Lack of central government D. Decline of feelings of nationalism
23. The title of ‘Kawo’ had relationship with the state of:
A. Welayta B. Kaffa C. Yem D. Jima

CHAPTER FIVE
AFRICA AND THE OUTSIDE WORLD TO 1900s
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit students will be able to:
- Examine the nature and influence of the Trans Atlantic slave trade

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- Explan how the advent of colonialism started and the scramble of Africa was
materialized by colonialist forces
- Describe how colonialism affected African well being and development
5.1 Genesis, Development and Consequences of Trans- Atlantic Slave Trade
The background to the beginning of the Atlantic slave trade had been set up by the voyage of
Christopher Columbus to the new continent, America in 1492. Soon afterwards, the Spanish
conquerors and other adventurers entered the territory of North, Central and South America. In
these areas, very large plantations were established by the Europeans. The native Americans, the
American Indians, called Red Indians by Europeans in the past, had been brutally exterminated by
the Europeans. Those Red Indians who escaped the brutal extermination were forced to work in
the European plantations and mine fields under dreadful conditions. This was completely unknown
to the natives of America in their traditional way of life. When they tried to rebel in mass they
were suppressed with great atrocities.
Most of the American Indians died from European diseases and harsh treatment. As a result, a
severe shortage of free labour was created in the European plantations. The Europeans tried to
solve the problem by transporting the indentured white slaves from Europe. However, the white
slaves were unable to resist the hardships. Therefore, the idea of transporting the natives of West
Africa originated at this critical point.
Portugal was the first European country that began the slave trade in Africa. Then Spain followed.
The Portuguese and the Spanish had already transported a limited number of West African slaves
to their own countries before the demand for free labour arose in the American plantations. After
the demand for slaves had grown in the American plantations, they now began to export West
African slaves across the Atlantic Ocean to the American continent.
In Africa, the slave trade was conducted for over 300 years. During these years, the Atlantic slave
trade passed through three distinct phases. The first phase was commonly known as the piratic
slave trade. In this phase, the traders who hunted slaves in West Africa were individual merchants,
adventurers, navigators or sea robbers. In this phase, European governments did not take part in
the slave trade nor did they give official support to their citizens engaged in this evil business. The
slave trade which began in this manner in the 15th century continued upto the last quarter of the
16th century.

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The second phase, which began in the 1580’s, was known as the monopolistic slave trade. In this
phase the trade was conducted by monopolistic slave trading companies, which were officially
chartered by their respective governments. These companies operated in a highly organized system
which was assisted by regular armed forces. With the help of these forces, they penetrated deep
into the interior of West Africa where they captured the natives in great numbers. The slave-hunting
ground was widened and the volume of the trade also increased.
Slave merchants and companies made enormous profit. The price of a slave in Africa was 100-200
Francs. But in America the market price of the same slave was 1000-2000 Francs.
The second phase is also known as the triangular trade, because the route of this trade tied, in
somewhat a triangular shape three continents-the Americas, Europe and Africa. From western
European parts, goods such as cotton, alcoholic beverages, metal wares and firearms were
transported to West Africa, where they were exchanged for slaves. African slaves were transported
across the Atlantic to be sold to the plantation owners in exchange for sugar, tobacco, rum and
other products which, in turn, were taken back to Europe and sold at high prices.
The West European nations accumulated enormous wealth as a result of the triangular trade. These
accumulated wealth helped the industrialization of Western Europe starting from the 18 th century.
The third phase which began in the second half of the 17 th century was called free trade. In 1689,
the British government took a legal action by instituting free trade. The law provided for every
individual of the British Empire the right of participation in any kind of business, including the
slave trade. Several men joined the slave trade on an individual bases. The increasing number of
slave dealers, incited a fierce competition between the companies as well as among the individual
traders.
The Horrors of the Salve Trade
African slaves suffered torture of various degrees at different stages of the trade. First, slaves were
captured like beasts. Then they were chained and hurried, often bearing heavy burden of ivory, to
the coastal ports which might be located hundreds of miles from places of origin. The African
slaves underwent a bitter hardship in the voyage across the Atlantic. The following description
given by one scholar seems to give us some idea about the hardship.
“… they were stripped, branded and pushed into airless under decks, crushed together, often
chained by hand and foot. Like this, they crossed the Atlantic in harsh weeks of sailing. Perhaps
as many as one in every six captives died on their voyage across the ocean.”
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The last stage of the horror, which was a lifelong hardship, began in the American plantations.
They toiled daily from dawn to dusk, often in chains. During this lifelong torture, their owners
provided them only with basic necessities barely enough to keep them alive and work. Death was
preferable to living and working in the plantations.
The Abolition of the Slave Trade
With the growth of the abolitionist movement in Europe, the volume of the slave trade started
to show a marked decline. From the very beginning there had been movements against the slave
trade in Africa. But it was not well-organized at its early stage. Religious people and humanitarians
who had read the accounts of travelers on the evil trade put pressure on their governments for the
abolition of the civil business. However, the European governments ignored the pressure of the
abolitionists. As a mater of fact, it was only when they found that the abolition of the slave trade
served their economic interest that the European governments began to take action against the
slave trade. One of the leading European nations to champion the abolitionist movement was Great
Britain. In 1807, Britain abolished the trade in slaves in her Empire and put pressure on other
European nations to follow suit. This change in the British policy was the result of
industrialization. The profit of the slave trade had helped Britain to build modern industries. British
economic interest shifted from slave trade to the search for cheap labour power, raw materials and
markets for industrial products.
Their economic interest could be served only with the abolition of the salve trade. African
manpower had to remain in Africa to be used by Europeans to extract raw materials inside Africa
for the European industries. Therefore, Britain organized a military campaign which was supported
by the British navy. It was this concerted action that brought the Atlantic slave trade to an end in
the middle of the 19th century.
Consequences of the Slave Trade
The slave trade had many consequences for Africa. In the whole course of the slave trade, more
than 15 million young Africans were exported to the Americas. As a result, Africa lost its most
valuable human resource. With the industrialization of Europe and America, the markets, of Africa
were flooded with cheap industrial products that ruined the traditional crafts of the continents. The
livelihood of African craftsmen had also been ruined.
The political consequences of the slave trade were equally fatal for the continent. African chiefs
and kings acquired a large amount of firearms. The possession of these large quantities of firearms
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intensified war and conflict in Africa. On the eve of European colonial expansion, there was severe
division among peoples and states of Africa. As a result, the Africans could not put up a united
resistance against the European colonizers. In this way, the Atlantic slave trade helped to open the
way for the colonization of Africa.
5.2 Scramble of Africa
Before 1870, the Europeans had trade relation with Africa. The trade items were gold, ivory, coffee,
salve, and so on. But with the development of capitalism (1769-1870), the need for raw materials
and market places for finished goods (surplus products) became very important. Meanwhile, the
slave trade and unexplored parts of Africa became obstacle to fulfill their needs in Africa. On top
of this, the major European powers were preoccupied with domestic problems. For instance,
Germany and Italy did not complete their unification until 1870, France had revolutionary out
breaks in 1789, 1830, 1848, and in 1870-71. Among major powers, Britain did not fall in the
internal political disturbance. Thus, it was busy in colonizing and giving more attention to Far East
and South East Asian region like India, New Zealand, and Australia. This region seemed to be
more attractive, rich and had less resistance than Africa.
Under these circumstances few coastal areas of Africa were occupied by France and Britain. In
1830 France occupied Algeria and later Senegal. On the other hand, Britain also occupied Cape
colony and Gold Coast (Ghana). Portugal was deeply involved in Mozambique and in Angola.
However, all colonial powers did not establish firm administration in the above areas except in
Cape Colony and in part of Algeria. The coastal posts had been established primarily to serve the
purpose of trade particularly, the Atlantic slave trade. The names given to these posts indicated
that the Europeans were more involved in trade activities than colonization before Industrial
Capitalism. Thus, some of these trading posts were named as Slave Coast, Gold Coast, Pepper
Coast and the like.
What intensified the partition of Africa after 1882?
There were two main factors for the growth of the desire for the colonization of Africa in the
middle of the 1880s. The first was the British takeover of Egypt in 1882. Since the opening of the
Suez Canal in 1869, Egypt had become the focus of British and French political and economic
interest. The canal was built by the French engineer called Ferdinand de Lesseps. Thus, France
owned a big share in the Canal Company. Britain had also bought the Egyptian share of the
company from Khedive Ishmael, the then ruler of Egypt, who sold the share to over come the
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bankruptcy he faced as the result of his venture on colonial expansion. Moreover, the opening of
the Suez Canal increased the importance of Egypt especially to Britain. The Canal was a strategic
link with British Indian Empire and the Far East.
To secure their loans, Egypts two big creditors- Britain and France had created Dual Control over
Egypt since 1879. The Egyptian nationalists who opposed foreign influence rose up in armed
rebellion. This revolt was led by a senior Egyptian officer, Colonel Ahmed Urabi (Arabi Pasha).
In May 1882, Urabi and the Egyptian nationalists successfully gained control of certain part of the
country. At this stage of time, the British force intervened in the internal affairs of Egypt and
crushed the force of Urabi. Due to change of government in France, the French could not
participate in the intervention. Therefore, Britain alone intervened and occupied Egypt in June
1882. Then, France as European power moved to act quickly to make colonial conquests in other
parts of Africa.
The Second factor was the involvement of two European powers, Germany and Belgium in the
colonialzation of Africa.
A) Germany involved in colonial rivalry, mainly to intensity the colonial competition between
France and Britain. Thus, Bismarck hoped that the rivalry between the two powers would divert
the French from a war of revenge for their humiliation in the defeat of 1870-71 by Germany. But
after the involvement, national interest and prestige, and hope of economic advantage forced
Germany to continue with policy of colonial conquest.
B) The other power in the colonial, rivalry was King Leopold II of Belgium. Independently of the
Belgian Government, King Leo Pold II had employed H.M. Stanley, the famous explorer to
explore the Congo Basin since 1876.
The appearance of Germany and King Leopold of Belgium made other powers like Britain, France
and Portugal-already engaged in African coastal areas- to move quickly in to the interior before
the whole continent was occupied by the new rivals. Meanwhile, there occurred clash of interests
among these colonial powers in many parts of Africa. The first of such conflicts arose over the
Congo Basin, In order to solve the Congo issue and other crisis, an international conference was
held at Berlin in 1884-85.
What was the main outcome of the Berlin Conference?
In the conference held at Berlin, the representatives of fourteen European powers as well as the
USA were present. This Conference remained in session for six months. At the end the Conference,
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two important resolutions were passed. The first and most important was the part that dealt with
the colonial conquest of Africa. It was agreed that all powers had to notify others about their claim
over a portion of territory and to establish “effective occupation” in these areas. Thus, the Berlin
Conference paved the way for African colonization or “legalized” the partition of Africa. This
Conference enabled European colonialists to partition Africa without going to an armed clash
amongst each other.
The second resolution was about the right to trade on the Congo River. The partition of Africa had
already been started before the Berlin Conference. Thus, Leopold II of Belgium was able to get
international recognition over the Congo Free State in 1884. The Belgian king won recognition by
promising an unrestricted freedom of trade in the Congo Basin for all.
5.3 Colonial Rule
In 1883, France had controlled territories in the Upper Niger. But the same move of France in the
lower Niger failed. In subsequent years, France and Britain partitioned West Africa between
themselves. Between 1883 and 1885, Germany occupied many territories in South West Africa,
Togo land, Cameroon, and East Africa. Britain moved Northward from South Africa to central and
East Africa. Britain also moved southward from Egypt and controlled Eastern Sudan. The rest of
Africa was portioned among Europeans in the last years of the nineteenth century. By 1900, with
exception of Ethiopia, Morocco (until 1912), and Liberia, the whole continent of Africa was
virtually under European colonial rule.
The British Administration Policy
The British Administration policy came to be known as “indirect rule”. The architect of this policy
was Lord Frederick Lugard. He had practiced this policy on large scale for the first time in Nigeria
as a colonial governor there. Due to shortage of administrative staff, he exercised this policy. He
continued this system of indirect rule whenever it served the colonial interest in controlling
Africans. Thus, behind the traditional rulers, the British governors directed the system of
administration. The British also practiced a divide-and- rule policy which was very important to
weaken African resistance against the British colonialism.
The French Colonial Policy
The second form of colonial administration was the one followed by France. The French policy of
colonial administration came to be known as “direct rule”. This policy was designed by the French

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colonial Minister, Albert Sarrout. According to this system, French officials filled administrative
posts in the colonies.
The French also believed in the policy of assimilation or association. This was designed to make
Africans copy French culture and French way of life so as to get French citizenship. In short, this
policy was designed for the elites to denounce their culture and identify themselves with France.
Other European colonial powers like Portugal, Iatly, Belgium and Spain followed the largely
prefered direct rule.

UNIT SUMMARY
Following the period of exploration and discovery, European powers began to establish oversea
colonial territoties where they develop big plantation projects. The plantation projects in America
demanded large number of labour force for which they began to transport slaves from West Africa.
The trade had triangular pattern which engaged the three continents of Africa, America and Europe.
It had three phases, such as Piratic, Monopolistic and Free trade. About 15 million young African
slaves were transported to America and many people were killed in the process of slave raids. The
slave trade created horrors in Africa and depopulated Africa which became one of the reasons for
African underdevelopment.

Later on in palce of transporting African slaves, European colonizers developed interests to directly
control Africa and its resources thorugh establishing their colonial empire. Britain and France
controlled the largest part of Africa. Especially following the Berlin conference that was held in
1884-85, European colonial forces agreed to partition Africa peacefully. Accordingly almost all
parts of Africa fell under European colonizers and its resources were exploited. While the British
government applied indirect rule in its colonies, the French government applied direct rule. The
colonial conquest in Africa caused exploitation, inhuman treatment of Africans by the colonizers,
and African underdevelopement.

Review Questions
Choose the best answers from the following alternatives.
1. Which of the following factors did not initiate Europeans Scramble of Africa?
A. Opening of Suez Canal
B. Direct involvement of Germany and Belgium in colonial process

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 C. The interest of raw materials for their industries due to industrial capitalism
D. National immergence of France and Austria changed balance of power in Europe.
2. Before 1500, Europeans disregarded Africa as the “Dark Continent” because:
A. Africa was home to black nations not known to Europeans.
B. Shores of Africa were not seen with nacked eyes.
C. Africa was not explored and well known.
D. Africa was not well known to use electricity.
3. Which of the following is incorrect about Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade?
A. It depopulated Africa and was the reason for backwardness.
B. The second phase was called Triangular Slave Trade.
C. It marked the industrialization of Europe.
D. It has less effect on social life of Africans than economic impact.
4. All of the following factors boomed slave and slave trade in the 2nd half of the 19th c in
Ethiopia?
A. Introduction of modern fire arms
B. Expansion of Emperor Menilik II to the South, South East and South West
C. Wider spread of industrial revolution in the country
D. Regionalism and frequent wars here and there
5. ‘The sun never sets over our colony’ was scrambling slogan of:
A. Britain B. France C. Italy D. German
6. What did the theory of ‘indirect rule’ refer to in colonial Africa?
A. Rule though propaganda C. Rule through educated African bureaucrats
B. Rule through traditional rulers D. Rule through white appointee
7. The Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 was important because:
A. It facilitated the entrance of King Leopold of Belgium in the scramble for colonies.
B. It declared that Europeans could acquire colonies by force only after peaceful means
has failed.
C. It led to the scramble for Africa since it showed the economic importance for acquiring
colonies.
D. It established various rules for the peaceful resolution of conflicts over colonies.

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 8. The Fashoda incident represented a conflict of interest between Britain and France for
colonial ambition at:
A. Somalia B. Morocco C. Sudan D. Egypt
9. Which of the following is true about Europeans colonial occupation of Africa?
A. Europeans were successful in the conquest of Africa because they were numerically
superior.
B. Resistance to occupation was only made in Ethiopia.
C. Europeans used fake treaties.
D. Missionaries opposed it, whereas traders supported.
10. The Sudanese merchants who dominated the North western trade in Ethiopia in the late
19th C were termed as:
A. Jaberit B. Afkala C. Jelaba D. Saffare
11. Which of the following is incorrect about the second phase of Atlantic slave trade?
A. The business was conducted by monopolistic slave trading organized companieswhich
were supported by the governments.
B. Fire arms were used to raid slaves, and thus, the volume increased and so did the profit.
C. This stage was also known as Triangular Trade because it connected three continents
namely, Africa, America, and Europe.
D. This phase began after the regulation of Britain in free slave trade
12. The course of colonizing Africa is wrongly characterized by:
A. All explores came to Africa for scientific missions.
B. Colonial powers made treaties with local rulers.
C. Colonial powers had cooperation and rivalry with each other.
D. Explorers and missionaries provided information to their states.
13. European powerful states colonized the less developed region for all reasons except:
A. Sources of raw materials C. Settlement for their citizens
B. Markets fro finished goods D. The need for a military base
CHAPTER SIX
6. FORMATION OF THE MODERN STATE OF ETHIOPIA: 1855- 1941
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit students will be able to:
- Examine the roles the three successive kings, Tewodros II, Yohannes IV and Menelik II in the
state formation process
- Explain the political and social developments in Ethiopia in the 19th C and 20th C.
- Analyze the relations among different states and societies in the 19 th C

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- Examine the foreign relation of Ethiopian monarchs with the outside world
6.1. Attempt at Reunification through the Use of Force, 1855-1868
Imperial power had an old history in Ethiopia, despite occasions of considerable resistance and
challenge to central authority. A good example is the period known as the Zemene Mesafint (1769-
1855). During this period, the kings virtually lost their supreme power and authority. Instead they
fell at the mercy of powerful Mesafents (lords). They were indeed puppet kings with very little or
no political, economic and military power. Many regions became semi-autonomous while the
region of Shewa became completely independent from the central government at Gonder. A
parallel development to this decline of imperial power was the simultaneous strength of regional
powers. The shift in the balance of power in favour of regional lords created a fertile ground for
political fragmentation, civil wars and subsequent social, economic and political disorder. This
period of national crisis came to an end with the rise of Kasa Haylu who was crowned Tewodros
II in 1855.
The early career of Kasa Hailu was full of ups and downs, some of which left remarkable influence
on his future imperial policies and reforms. He was born to a family with no claim at all of descent
from the royal house. As a child he grew up in the care of his half- brother Dejazmach Kinfu. Early
in his life, he got church education and military training. As a young man he was denied
governorship over his family fief, the district of Quara. Following the death of Kinfu, Kasa became
a bandit on two occasions in the same region where he later fought against Egyptian troops. In
1848, at the battle of Debarqi, Kasa Hailu suffered the only serious defeat in his early career. This
defeat in the hands of Egyptians shaped the attitude of the future Tewodros with regard to foreign
policy, discipline and modern firearms. His persistent challenges to the regime in Gondar resulted
in a political marriage with Tewabech Ali, daughter of the guardian and the last of the Yeju Oromo
Ras-Bitwededs. He was also given the governorship of Quara intending to appease him.
The sense of mission Kasa Hailu later felt about himself as a man born and elevated for the revival
of a strong Ethiopia might have started from these successive military victories. Probably, he took
the throne name Tewodros considering a prophecy contained in the medieval book, Fekare Iyasus.
In this book, it was prophesised that a king by the name Tewodros would come to rule and bring
peace to the people after a period of troubles. When he was crowned King of Kings of Ethiopia in
February 1855, Kasa used the throne name Tewodros to tell the message that he was the expected
king who would relieve the people from the problems of the Zamana Masafent.
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Building political reunification on the remains of the Zemene Mesafent was, however, a very
difficult project for Tewodros. That was especially true when Tewodros who rushed into its
realization with a rigid approach - the use of force to bring the regional lords under control. The
first military expedition for political reunification was directed against the region of Wollo. But,
Wollo did not easily submit to the imperial army. The first campaign in Wollo, which was fought
even during fasting and rainy seasons, lasted for six months. Even then this campaign failed to
bring about the submission of Wollo. The continued local resistance drove the Emperor to launch
further expeditions accompanied by very harsh treatment of captives throughout his reign. The
campaign in Wollo was followed by another serious war with the autonomous Kingdom of Shoa,
which lasted for five months. Shoa too, experienced harsh treatment in the hands of Tewodros. In
November 1855, Tewodros returned to Maqdala with the belief that he had settled matters in Shoa.
However, local rivals rebelled against a hand-picked appointee of Tewodros, Meridazmach Haile
Michael, and from 1865 on wards Shoa regained its independence with King Menelik, who had
escaped from Maqdela in that year.
The Emperor went on subduing one region after another through protracted and punitive military
expeditions. In all cases, he secured military victories. For some regions, he recognized loyal
members of regional dynasties to administer their respective regions. In other regions, such as
Gojjam, he appointed his own men from high-ranking civil and military officials. Nevertheless,
recognition of local dynasties does not mean continuity with the old practices in the old way.
Unlike the practice during the Zemene Mesafent (1769-1855), local hereditary chiefs during the
time of Tewodros were only those who obtained his approval and thus they were subordinates to
him. The initial military victories of Tewodros did not result in political stability and effective,
central control. The legacies of the Zemene Mesafint did not die out soon and the attempt at
centralization proved to be a difficult task to achieve. Local dynasties did not want to lose their
traditional economic, military and political autonomy. Nor did the hand-picked royal appointees
of Tewodros tolerate too much imperial control over them. As a result, the Emperor’s policy of
reunification met stiff resistance throughout his Empire. Even his former allies turned their backs
against him and rebelled one after the other. This made the Emperor and his army extremely busy
traveling from one trouble spot to the other. He treated rebellious regions very harshly, punishing
most commonly with the cutting off captives’ limbs, burning houses and harvests to ashes and
looting the local people. The more harsh Tewodros became, the more multiplied were the
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rebellions and his unpopularity. This, in turn, provoked more tyrannical measures by the Emperor.
Thus, a vicious circle was created, the cumulative effect of which was a complete failure of his
policy of unification.
The anti- Tewodros propaganda of the clergy, following their conflict over some issues, harmed
the Emperor considerably. Emperor Tewodros actually broke the tradition of exemption of Church
land from tax. He saw that his programs of modernization and reforms such as establishing a
national and salaried army, arms manufacturing, defence of the country against Egyptian
aggression, etc. could only be met by increasing the revenue of the state. To this end he reduced
the number of priests and deacons in each church to a maximum of two and three, respectively. He
also reduced the size of church land that used to be exempted from tax by taking away church land
that he believed was in excess and giving it to tribute paying peasants. His policy on church land
brought the Emperor into direct conflict with one of the potential allies of the state in the work of
empire building and political unification. Church-State conflict reached its peak in 1864. In that
year the emperor imprisoned the bishop Abuna Salama who died in prison three years later.
Modernization and Socio-Political Developments
Tewodros was very eager to build a strong modern national army. Above all, he wanted to import
the technical know-how for manufacturing firearms locally. When his tireless struggle to get
skilled personnel from Europe turned fruitless, he gathered European missionaries living in his
country and persuaded them to manufacture firearms at his gun foundry of Gafat, near Debre
Tabor. Obeying the King's orders, the missionaries repaired broken firearms and manufactured
several cannons, including the mortar named Sebastopol. The captivity of Europeans, however,
provoked anxiety in Europe, mainly in Britain and France. Tewodros was advised to release the
European captives and was “promised” to get the skilled personnel asked for. However, he refused
to do as asked. The British sent their military expedition led by Sir Robert Napier to Maqdala in
the fall of 1867.
The first and last major encounter between the two forces took place on the plains of Eroge in
April 1868. The battle of Erogee was fought between unequals. About 2000 well-armed British
troops and between 4000-7000 ill-armed Ethiopians ended in the shattering defeat of Ethiopians.
The event hastened the downfall of Tewodros which had already been weakened by internal
factors, mainly the opposition of the regional lords and the clergy. Refusing to accept a British
demand for unconditional surrender, Tewodros committed suicide on 13 April, 1868. The British
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were satisfied with the success of their mission, with all European captives of Tewodros released,
began to withdraw the country with out delay.
Far worse than the destruction and the bloodshed, the British expedition caused the organized
looting of the Maqdala treasury that forced the country to lose quantities of historical relics
including the Emperor's crown. Before leaving Ethiopia, General Robert Napier, the commander
of the British expendition, handed over a large quantity of firearms to Kasa Mercha (later Yohannes
IV). He did that because Kasa Mercha had not opposed Napier’s march against Tewodros.
Moreover, Kasa gave guidance and material support to the British troops. This acquistion of
firearms was a major factor in Kasa Mercha’s later victory over Emperor Takla- Giyogis at the
battle of Assam in 1871.
Tewodros attempted lots of reforms many of which did not last longer. He tried to stop divisions
within the Church, the slave trade, banditry and looting of peasants by troops. He also tried to stop
polygamy and other social evils. He wanted to see his countrymen learn from the technical advance
made by west European countries, as could be evidenced by his small workshop at Gafat. Above
all, he worked hard to build a united and very well administered a nation capable of resisting
foreign aggression.
Tewodrose used neither flexible methods nor tried alternative means. His promise to the peasants
to put an end to their sufferings was never realized as not only the rebles but also Tewdrose's troops
continued looting them. As a result, people gave up their support to him. Even the already
controlled regions came out of his hand one after the other. Finally, Tewdrose left Ethiopia as
divided as he got it. However, the idea of unification survived him.
Despite the instability and struggle for power that followed his death, there was no return to the
Zamana Masafent. The war was above all fought for emperorship. Three contenders for the throne,
Wagshum Gobaze of Lasta, Ras Mekowanent Kasa Mercha of Tigray, and Negus Menelik of Shoa,
all aspired to become emperor after Tewodros. They reigned in that order with the throne names
Takla- Giorgis (1868-71), Yohannes IV (1872-89), and Menelik II (1889-1913). The legacy of
Tewodros thus lies in the urgent drive of his successors for imperial leadership over a united
Ethiopia.
6.2. New Approach to Building Imperial Power, 1872-1889
The first three years that followed the death of Tewodros were not eventful. Emperor Takla-
Giorgis (1868-71) had control of the central Amhara regions, but he did not exercise power over
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the rival regions of Tigray and Shoa. His attempt to extend his control over Tigray ended in his
own defeat at the battle of Assam in July 1871. He was defeated and captured by Kasa Mercha. In
consequence, the latter also took over the throne with all the challenges of regional forces and the
threat from outside. Like Tewodros, Yohannes IV began the process of reunification by directing
military expeditions against the regions of Gondar, Gojjam, Yeju, and Hamasen so as to get their
submission. However, the submission of some regions was only temporary, and they rebelled
against the Emperor. In Gojjam, for instance, the local power contender, Adal Tasamma, assumed
power by killing his rival Dasta Tadla who had already obtained royal recognition. Unlike
Tewodros, however, Yohannes was flexible and did not often fight repeated wars with the same
regions. For instance, he made peace with Adal and recognized his authority over Gojjam. By so
doing, the Emperor turned an enemy into a friend. Adal was rewarded by being crowned as King
of Gojjam and Kafa, with the name Tekle Haymanot in January 1881.
What Yohannes did in Gojjam was exemplary of his tolerance for regional dynasties, so long as he
ensured their tributary status. He was ready to share power with regional lords, in as far as they
recognized his over lordship. This was the same even in his relations with the strongest regional
power, Menelik of Shoa. From the time Yohannes was crowned, Menelik was calling himself King
of Kings, expanding his territories towards Wollo and contacting foreign countries independently.
He also did not pay tribute to the Emperor. Yohannes was preoccupied with the threat from
Egyptian aggressors which forced him to postpone a showdown with Menelik. However, the
difference between Yohannes and Menelik was resolved by the Leche Agreement of 20 March,
1878. The peace initiative came from Menelik because of the probable military superiority of
Yohannes. The Emperor, too, did not want to see bloodshed from an internal challenge at a time,
as we shall see below, when his country was invaded by an Egyptian army. According to the Leche
Agreement, Menelik agreed to pay tribute to Yohannes, drop the title King of Kings and to use
only the title King of Shoa, and to stop his independent dealings with foreigners. As a reward, he
got recognition for his authority over Wollo and hereditary kingship over Shoa. In addition, both
Yohannes and Menelik agreed to help each other against common enemies. By this peaceful
arrangement, Yohannes ended the independence of the Kingdom of Shoa which had lasted for
many decades in the past.
However, Yohannes was not able to win the absolute loyalty of Menelik. As later events were
favorable to Shoa, Menelik continued to prepare himself to take the imperial throne for himself.
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Even Takla- Haymanot did not remain loyal to Yohannes throughout his reign. For instance, in
1888, there was a wide-spread rumour about a plot against the Emperor which involved Menelik
and TaklaHaymanot. That was at a time when the Emperor was troubled by the double threat of
Italian aggression and Mahdist hostility in the north and north- west, respectively. Compared to
Tewodros, who had established only a temporary control over Shoa in the south, Yohannes got
permanent control over Shoa through his proxy, Menilik. He was able to get control, of territories
as far as the southwestern provinces of present- day Ethiopia, in addition to the old central and
northern provinces. Yohannes never applied the flexibility and liberalism he showed in the field of
politics over religious issues. In religion, he sought for complete unity as the guiding principle. He
thus ended the century-old religious divisions within the Orthodox Church at the Council of
Borumeda in May 1878. Yohannes gave state support to the upholders of the Karrra Haymanot
(Two Births) camp. While the unity of the Church was maintained through “open discussion”, the
Emperor was very harsh towards Islam. Following the Borumeda Council, all Muslims were
ordered to embrace Christianity under the threat of persecution and confiscation of property. The
Muslims of Wollo were the main victims of compulsory conversion. This severity towards
Ethiopian Muslims in Wollo worked against the Emperor’s policy of political and national unity.

6.3. Imperial Expansion to the South, South-West and South-East

The process of empire building was an agenda of priority for both Tewodros II and Yohannes IV.
Both used different approaches to achieve their goals of national reunification. While Tewodros
failed, Yohannes was relatively successful in building an empire with regional dynasties enjoying
internal autonomy.
The process of Ethiopian empire formation was, however, completed under Emperor Menelik II.
Menelik had learned a lot from the experiences of his predecessors. At the root of his expansion
lay the traditional interest in land, tribute, and control of trade routes.

Menelik’s expansion was directed against independent peoples and states in the area of present
southwestern, southern and southeastern Ethiopia. His expansion was different from that of his
predecessors in its intensity and unprecedented degree of success. Moreover, his territorial
expansion coincided with the colonial expansion of European powers in the Horn of Africa. His
conquests of border regions of present-day Ethiopia were marked by fierce competition with
European colonial powers. Finally, as a contender for the throne for two decades, Menelik needed
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to build up his military muscle through conquest of the prosperous regions of southern Ethiopia,
which possessed valuable items of [Link] process of Menelik's expansion began when he was
King of Shoa. First, he subdued the Oromo of Shoa in the early 1870s. Then, his army got the
peaceful submission of the northern Gurage people known as the Kistane. This peaceful submision
was a result not only to their being co-religionists (Christians) and their geographical proximity to
Northern Shoa, but also owing to their traditional protracted wars with the neighboring Oromos.
The situation in southern Gurage, more properly the Silti, was, however, different from that of the
north. Here, Menelik’s army faced fierce resistance from the Muslim Gurage organized under a
local leader known as Hassan Enjamo. A religious revivalist movement influenced by the Mahdists
and by the Muslim exiles of Wollo, who had faced the forced conversion edict of 1878 by Emperor
Yohannes IV, strengthened local resistance among the Muslim Gurage. Thus, this region was
subdued by the army of Ras Gobena only in 1888 after years of unsuccessful resistance.
The regions beyond the Gibe basin were a bone of contention between the rival troops of the two
kings, Menelik of Shoa and Takla-Haymanot of Gojjam. Actually, the latter was authorized by
Yohannes IV to conquer the region with the intention of stopping the expansion of Menelik to the
region. As a result, the south-western regions became a battle ground for the two rival kings. After
a minor clash between their troops in Limu, a decisive battle was fought at Embabo (in Wallaga)
on 6 June 1882 in the presence of the two kings. The bloody battle was concluded by the victory
of Menelik and the captivity of Takla-Haymanot. Thus, the battle of Embabo allowed Meneilik to
establish a firm control over the southwestern region which subsequently was given recognition
by Emperor Yohannes. Menelik faced no strong local resistance here. Local rulers were persuaded
to accept peaceful incorporation and were rewarded by internal administrative autonomy. Aba
Jiffar II of Jimma, Jote Tulu of Leqa Qellam and Kumsa Moroda of Leqa Naqamte belong to the
list of local rulers who submitted peacefully with their local autonomy respected in the years 1882-
84.
On the contrary, the campaigns of Menelik’s army in the south and southeastern regions were very
costly and bloody. The region of Arsi was subdued in 1886 after four years of struggle, during
which six unsuccessful military expeditions were sent against that region. The final battle of Azule
was won by the army of Ras Darge, the cousin of Menelik, due mainly to its superiority in the
possession of modern firearms. The fate of the Emirate of Harar was no exception. It was subdued
after the bloody battle fought between the army of Menelik and Emir Abdullahi at Chalanqo early
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in January 1887. After Harar, the conquest of new regions was temporarily halted until 1894.
Menelik gave priority first to his ambition for the throne, and after his coronation, to do something
about Italian colonial expansion in northern Ethiopia. Thus, his conquests after he became Emperor
were motivated by the urgent need for preparation against Italian colonialism. Moreover,
expansion to the south was also sought as a solution to the devastating Great Famine (1889-92),
also known by the name Kefu Qan, which had seriously afflicted the northern and central regions
of Ethiopia.
The immediate cause of the famine is attributed to a cattle disease, called rinderpest, imported with
infected cattle from India. The cattle epidemic spread from north to south and killed hundreds of
thousands of cattle and made farming very difficult. This caused famine that, in turn, led to
epidemic disease claiming the life of large numbers of Ethiopians. The famine caused a great
damage disrupting production and trade. It also caused a great population movement from north
to south. Menelik not only recruited soldiers from survivors of the famine-hit northern region, but
also settled northerners in the relatively little affected region of southern Ethiopia. One of the areas
in the south, whose rich resources attracted the army of Menelik, was Wolayta. The conquest of
Wolayta in 1894 was one of the bloodiest of the campaigns of Menelik. Local people under their
King Kawo Tona, defended Wolayta from the combined army of notable war leaders of Menelik
such as Ras Michael, Fitawrari Gebayehu, Liqa Makwas Abate, Dejach Balcha, Ras Wolda-
Giorgis, and Aba Jifar II. It was, therefore, a battle between unequals, which resulted in immense
loss in human life and material wealth, and the looting of tens of thousands of heads of cattle by
the invaders. Kawo Tona was wounded and captured to become a prisoner for the rest of his life.
Similarly, in 1897, the old Kingdom of Kaffa was incorporated after great bloodshed in the war
between the local people, under their ruler Tato Geki Serecho, and the army of Menelik under Ras
Wolde Giorgis. For the campaign, Wolde Giorgis had enlisted the support of the armies of Ras
Damese of Wallaga, Aba Jifar II of Jimma, Ras Tasamma of Illubabor, and the rulers of Kullo and
Konta. Geki Serecho was defeated and captured after nine months of fugitive life and ended up in
prison.
The support of local rulers of newly incorporated regions in the following conquests of Menelik
was also evident in the conquest of Assosa, Beni Shangul, and Komosha areas along the Ethio-
Sudanese border. Here, Dejach Jote of Qelem and Dejach Gebre Egziabher (baptismal name of
Kumsa) of Naqamte gave military support to the army of Ras Mekonnen. The defection of Sheik
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Abdurahman Hojale to the side of Ras Mekonen aborted the united resistance of the local people
against the army of Menelik. Following the conquest, Menelik reinstated loyal rulers to power as
vassals. Expansion into the border regions of Borana and Ogaden, likewise along the western
borders, seems to have been in competition with the neighboring colonial powers which had
adjacent colonies with Ethiopia.
Menelik wanted to create a buffer zone between the fertile interior and neighboring European
colonies by conquering border lowlands. His famous military victory at the Battle of Adwa
intensified his competition with the colonial powers, and by the turn of the 20th century, he had
completed the process of empire [Link] incorporation of the southern, south-western and
southastern regions involved both peaceful submission through persuasion and devastating wars
of conquest. The nature of their administration was related to the way they were incorporated.
Regions that resisted the army of Menelik were treated harshly. Local dynasties were uprooted and
replaced by appointees of the central government. Local people were mostly alienated from their
land. The conquered people were subjected to severe economic exploitation and brutal treatment
by the settlers from the north protected by armed men known as the Neftegnas. Regions that offered
no resistance, however, faced little difficulty. Here, local rulers retained their traditional power and
continued as vassals of the Emperor. However, national oppression was common to all conquered
people.
The political stability that followed the establishment of an expanded empire facilitated the revival
of local and foreign trade. Addis Ababa was founded by Empress Taytu in November 1886, and
became the centre of government and economic activities. Elsewhere in the south, south-west and
south-east, a significant number of garrison centers of the expanding army of Menelik evolved
into administrative and commercial centers.
6.4. Modernization attempts from the Post-Adwa Period, up to 1935
The period that followed the victory of Adwa to the Fasicist Italian invasion in 1935 witnessed
several important developments in Ethiopia. Although peasant socio-economic conditions showed
practically no improvement from the past, modern trends started to be introduced gradually in
certain socio- economic sectors. Indeed, elements of modernization were introduced in transport,
trade, education and urbanization. This is not to mention the still insignificant advance made in
such non-socio-economic sectors like government and the army.

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Socio-Economic Conditions
The first three decades of the twentieth century saw relatively better socio-economic
developments. Those were in one way or another related to the legacy of the major events of the
19th century Empire formation and struggle against foreign aggression. In this section, a brief
discussion of these developments will be given with particular emphasis on socio-economic
aspects which had undergone some changes. The first is the gebbar system which was the basic
means of surplus appropriation of the feudal class. In its pre-twentieth century usage, a gebbar
was a land holding peasant who had to pay gibir or tribute to the state. The type of tribute varied
from one region to another. But, in most cases, it was paid in kind and in the form of unpaid labour
service. Tribute in kind had different titles based on the purpose for which it was paid: like for land
use, for the church, payments to the recipients such as when they received promotions, to
congratulate local chiefs on important occasions, in the fasting seasons and at other times. Free
labour service was given by the peasant and his family in times of grain production, construction,
transportation, guarding prisoners and domestic services like grinding grain and fetching water
and firewood for local chiefs. All these were exacted with little fairness and sense of humanity.
To make matters worse, the formation of the Empire state and the administrative system established
in the newly incorporated regions made the life of peasants very miserable. In the southern regions,
peasants were gradually alienated from their land. This began with the introduction of land
measurement known as qalad. That action resulted not only in the appropriation of much land by
the state, but also facilitated privatization of land. It also increased state revenue, since it classified
land tax based on fertility rates. But it pushed poor peasants down to the status of insecure tenants.
Poor peasants who could not afford to buy land or those driven away from their land were forced
to become landless or migrate to cities to become beggars. However, it does not mean the peasants
remained passive. In some cases there were open rebellions. In others, there were protests to the
local officials or to the Emperor in the capital though they got no fair justice. The cumulative effect
of the exploitative nature of the modes of surplus appropriation was negative on the economic
development of the country. It seriously affected agricultural productivity. Even worse than the
gebbar system, the continuation of the slave trade and slavery was for the peoples of Ethiopia.
There had been a centuries-old history of slavery and the slave trade in Ethiopia. Besides the
economic rewards of the slave trade to both the merchants and rulers, slavery had also a social
aspect. The possession of many slaves signified the high status of the owners. Slaves were also
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used for different kinds of domestic services. Although the practice was old, it was the frequent
wars or conquest in the process of Empire formation that gave additional encouragement to the
practice of the slave trade and slavery. Thus, in the first two decades of the 20 th century, members
of the royal family and the nobility were reported to have had “thousands” of slaves at their
disposal, though, this may seem a little exaggerated.
The overall effect of the slave trade had been disastrous. To start with, it depopulated the most
productive elements of the defeated, as it was the youth who were sought more than the old ones.
It also killed the morale for production as there was no security of life and property in the regions,
which were targets of slave hunting expeditions. The prevalence of the slave trade also brought
foreign interference over the country. The European colonial powers which had colonies adjacent
to Ethiopia, imposed an arms embargo, accusing Ethiopia of using modern firearms for slave
hunting expeditions. Of course, their major concern was that slavery was an obstacle for their
capitalist investments and the markets they foresaw in Ethiopia. That is why they tried their best
to make the abolition of slavery a precondition for Ethiopia’s admission into the League of Nations.
As with slavery, the gebbar system met both internal and external opposition. Internally, it was
criticized by the early Ethiopian educated elite as one of the major factors responsible for
Ethiopia’s backwardness. Thus, a combination of internal and external challenges brought some
changes to the two institutions (slavery and the gebbar system). A year after Ethiopia's admission
into the League of Nations, on 31 March, 1924, a decree which freed slaves and prohibited the
purchase and sale of slaves was enacted. Forced labour service was abolished in 1935. The same
is true of the payment of honey as tribute. Moreover payment of tribute in cash was introduced at
the rate of 30 birr per gasha.
The consequences of slavery and the gebbar system on the network of trade was, however,
relatively less negative than their direct effect on productivity and social security. Indeed, from the
turn of the twentieth century, a variety of factors seems to have contributed to the revival of internal
and external trade. Trade revived mainly because of the general peace and political stability that
followed the completion of the process of Empire formation and the Adwa victory. Moreover, the
colonial powers surrounding Ethiopia also encouraged external trade as part of their capitalist
interest in the region. The extensive diplomatic relations established between Ethiopia and
different countries also created fertile ground for more trade links than before the Adwa victory.
In fact, the direction of trade changed gradually to the east and west, owing first to contemporary
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military and political factors. The Shoan victory at the battle of Embabo in 1882 was followed by
the political centrality of Shoa during the reign of Menelik. As a result, the northern trade was
pulled to the south, so that the main trade routes tended to pass through the Shoan region.
Furthermore, the Mahdist invasions, for a time discouraged the trade through the old northern
outlets. All these factors combined with the opening of the Djibouti-Addis Ababa Railway, made
the port of Djibouti the major outlet for Ethiopia's external trade throughout the first half of the
20th century. Besides Djibouti, there were other outlets through the British colonies of Sudan,
Kenya and Somalia. The British trading station, established at Gambella in 1902, was a major
outlet of Ethiopia’s external trade only next to Djibouti. Around 1920, the Gambella trade
constituted a large part of Ethiopia’s external trade, due mainly to the export of coffee, produced
in western Ethiopia. Unlike the port of Djibouti, the major entry for imported goods, Gambella
was mainly an export outlet. The items of trade also saw some changes. The old major exports like
ivory and civet began to be dominated by coffee, while on the import side textiles and beverages
began to dominate.
The merchants that had dominated the import-export trade were mainly foreigners from different
countries who flocked into Ethiopia after the Adwa victory. They consisted of French, Indians,
Greeks, Americans and Jews. On the Ethiopian side, local traders were mainly engaged in domestic
trade. Although they represented only an insignificant number, some members of the ruling classes
were attracted to business, mainly in the first quarter of the 20th century. Menelik and Taytu are
known to have been money-lenders. The Empress also opened the first hotel in Addis Ababa,
which bore her own name (Itege Hotel) in 1907. Moreover, Taytu is known to have established a
local bank for the development of trade and agriculture in cooperation with the bigger nobility.
The governor of Gojjam, Ras Hailu, is known for beginning a cinema and a taxi business in the
capital. The son-in-law of Emperor Haile Selasie, Ras Desta Damtew, was involved in selling
water. Ras Teferi himself is said to have been business-minded, and was a shareholder in some
companies.
As a simultaneous process to the revival of trade and Empire formation, urbanization also saw a
relatively fast development. Some garrison centers, established during the expansion of Menelik,
grew to become important towns such as Gore and Goba. Moreover, the construction of the
Djibouti-Addis Ababa railway, which reached Addis Ababa in 1917, also resulted in the emergence
of railway towns such as Dire Dawa, Nazreth and Modjo. Of course, the railway did more than
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encourage trade and urbanization. It became a means of modern transportation for people and a
channel for the import of modern ideas, luxury goods and fashions.
On the whole, the first three decades of the twentieth century are known to have been years during
which the foundation for modern Ethiopia was laid. Modern novelties introduced in the early 20th
century included the motor car (1904), printing machinery (1912) and the aeroplane (1929).
Telegraph and postal services were introduced before the close of the 19th centuray. A hospital
was founded in 1910. Besides the above, some factories like those for timber, ammunition, and
food processing were opened during the same decades.
One means of combating backward traditional outlooks and the spread of modernization is the
introduction of modern education. It was during the post-Adwa period that modern education was
introduced, and groups of modern intellectuals started to appear in Ethiopia. At first, modern
schools were established by European missionaries in the country, at the end of the 19th century.
And the foundation of such schools continued in the period after. European missionaries in
Ethiopia sent to Europe some Ethiopian students for further education.
The Ethiopian state, too, was interested in establishing modern schools in the country. That was
because the expanding bureaucracy needed not only educated officials for service in the diplomatic
field but also various types of clerks, accountants, etc. Therefore, schools were established by the
state which were to serve as means to produce educated civil servants.
In 1908, the first modern school, Menelik II School, was opened in Addis Ababa. It was staffed by
Egyptian Coptic Orthodox Christian teachers. In Dire Dawa and Addis Ababa the Alliance
Francais schools were established in 1912. In 1925, the Tafari Mekonun school was founded by
Ras Tafari Mekonnen (later Emperor Haile Selassie I).The school had French directors. In the
curriculum of the time, there was greater emphasis in languages than in other subjects. Unlike the
period after 1941, during the pre-1935 period, French was the medium of instruction in the schools.
By 1930, a Ministry of Education had been created and it opened a number of schools, both in
Addis Ababa and the provinces. It must also be remembered that a few Ethiopian students were
sent abroad for education, and about 200 students finished their studies in Europe, between 1920
and 1935.
During the period, the spread of modern education, however modest, trained some skilled
manpower for the state bureaucracy. It also contributed to the spread of modern ideas in the
country. The early modern educated intellectuals called for changes. Among them were Hakim
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Workineh (Dr. Charles Martin), Professor Tamrat Amanuel, Afework Gebre Iyesus (the author of
the first Amharic novel, Tobia), Takala-Hawaryat Tekle Maryam (the man who drafted the 1931
Constitution of the Imperial Ethiopian Government), Heruy Wolde Selassie, Deressa Amante, and
Gabre Hiywot Baykedagn (the author of the two Amharic books Atse Menelik ena Ethiopia, and
Mengist ena Ye-hizb Astedader, written in 1912 and 1919, respectively). They asked for changes
and modernization in the socio- economic order. They called for improvement in peasant
conditions, using the Berhanena Selam newspaper (founded in 1925) and other means.
Political Conditions
Between the years 1896 and 1953, major political developments took place in the Ethiopian
Empire. Initially, between 1896 and 1930, consolidation of power by the state and the ruling class
was the major political pre-occupations. With that settled, between 1930 and 1935, the autocracy
of Emperor Haile Selassie I was in full force leading to the emergence of an absolutist state in
Ethiopia. Another aspect of political developments concerning Ethiopia was the revival of Italian
colonial designs that led to the Fascist Italian aggression of 1935. You will examine all of those
developments on the next pages.
Consolidation of Political Power
During the immediate post-Adwa years, between 1896 and 1909, the ruling class of Imperial
Ethiopia, headed by Menelik II, enjoyed the triumphant mood the Adwa victory created. It was
secure in its position. The sovereign independence of the country was recognized by states near
and afar, including Italy. Following the Adwa victory, European nations opened legations in Addis
Ababa and were interested, above all, in peaceful trade. The United States and Germany sent
diplomatic missions, in the first decade of the 20th century.
During this same decade, Ethiopia’s boundaries with neighbourly countries were delimited by
boundary agreements with the European colonial powers that were in control of those colonies.
The boundary with the Italian colony of Eritrea was delimited by a series of agreements concluded
with Italy in 1900, 1902 and 1908. Similarly, by the agreement with France in March 1907, the
boundary with French Somaliland (Djibouti) was delimited. The boundaries with Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan and British East Africa (Kenya) were delimited by a series of agreements with Britain in
1902 and 1907, respectively. In 1908 the boundary with Italian Somaliland was delimited by an
agreement with Italy. Therefore, Ethiopia had secured her borders and gained international
recognition for them.
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The ruling class centered itself at Addis Ababa. It collected tributes in various forms from the
newly incorporated areas of the south, south-east and south-west. Prominent members of the ruling
class resided in Addis Ababa and began to enjoy the comforts of urban life. Addis Ababa, which
had been founded as capital in 1886, got permanence due to the following factors:
* Issue of land charters to land owners in Addis Ababa by the state starting from 1970 guaranteed
security of tenure. This led owners of land in the city to invest in the construction of buildings as
well as other desirables.
* The introduction of the eucalyptus tree from Australia helped to solve the problem of the
shortage of fire wood in Addis Ababa. Had that not happened, it would have been difficult for
Addis Ababa to remain as capital city for long.
* The railway connection between Addis Ababa and the outside world since 1917 gave Addis
Ababa great importance as a centre of commerce, new ideas, etc.
* The residence of foreign merchants in Addis Ababa also helped in the increased importance of
the city.
* The opening of foreign legations in Addis Ababa increased Addis Ababa’s importance as a
diplomatic centre for the country.
Inception of Political Rivalry and Foreign Threat
By 1906, though the monarchy was strong, power struggle among the members of the ruling class
started beginning from 1906. One major factor that led to the power struggle in the palace was the
issue of succession. The problem of succession began to disturb the political stability of Ethiopia
following the illness of Menelik in 1906. From then on, Menelik no longer exercised his usual
political authority until his final death in 1913. Even worse, the expected heir of Menelik, Ras
Mekonnen, died in 1906. This crisis of leadership paved the way for a serious power struggle.
Equally worried about the problem of succession were the European powers having colonies
adjacent to Ethiopia: Britain, France and Italy. Germany, a strong rival of Britain and France in
Europe had come to Ethiopia and opened her legation in 1905. This had already upset these powers.
They were concerned with the smooth running of their economic interests in Ethiopia. They did
not like the challenge Germany might pose and anticipated a political crisis upon the death of
Menelik.
As a result, the Tripartite Treaty was signed by Britain, France and Italy in December 1906. The
main objective of this treaty was to avoid possible conflict of interest among the signatory powers
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in case a crisis situation set in, and shut off other rivals such as Germany from economic activities
in Ethiopia. But, for Ethiopia it was the first serious challenge to her independent status after the
victory of Adwa. The treaty contained mutual recognition of the signatory powers for each other’s
zone of economic influence in Ethiopia. The area through which the railway line passes was given
for France. The Nile basin and its source came under the influence of Britain. Italy was allowed to
construct a railway connecting her two colonies - Eritrea and Italian Somaliland.
Though sick, Emperor Menelik was not passive when confronted by threats, both internal and
external to his Empire. He did two things in order to ensure the efficient running of government
and the political stability of his state in the event of his death. Firstly, in October 1907, he
established the first Council of Ministers consisting of nine ministries for War, Commerce and
Foreign Affairs, Public Works, Agriculture, Finance, Justice, the Pen, the Palace, and the Interior.
Ministers were recruited from high-ranking civil and military officials. There was no new group
of educated personnel for this modern bureaucratic arrangement. The newly appointed ministers
were largely the same old palace officials assuming European style titles. Thus, there were
confusions of duties and responsibilities among the different ministries. Yet, the establishment of
the cabinet not only ensured continuity of government but also laid the ground for the birth of
modern bureaucracy in Ethiopia.
Secondly, in May 1909, Menelik designated heir to his throne and a regent aiming at a smooth
power transition upon his death. However, he did not find it easy to make his decision public due
to the clash of interests between his wife, Empress Taytu, and the Shoan nobility.
The Challenge of Taytu
Empress Taytu had no offspring and thus saw future political power for herself and her relatives
in the candidate for the throne. That was why she had already married her niece, Mentwab Wolle,
to Ras Mekonnen. But Mekonen’s death upset her long term plan. Similarly, she married her
nephew, Gugsa Wolle, to the daughter of Menelik, Zewditu, considering her candidature for the
throne in the event of Menelik’s death. She hoped to secure political power for her family through
this marriage tie. Menelik seems to have understood that the political ambitions of Empress Taytu
would bring a challenge to the political supremacy of the Shoan Dynasty. Therefore, in 1909
Menelik designated his grandson, Lij Iyasu Michael, as heir. Iyasu was the son of Shewareged,
(Menilik's daughter) by her husband Ras Michael, the ex- Muslim chief of Wollo. As Iyasu was
only 12 years old, Menelik also appointed Ras Bitwaded Tessema Nadew as regent. The different
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legations in Addis Ababa were formally told to acknowledge Menelik’s chosen heir and the regent.
The decree was announced in 1909, years before the death of Menelik in 1913.
Both choices of Menelik were based on his genuine attempt at satisfying different interest groups
in general, and Taytu and the Shoan nobility in particular. The Shoan nobility were not happy with
Iyasu, as he was the son of the strong regional lord of Wollo. They feared that Ras Michael might
use the position of his son, who was still a minor, for his own political ascendancy. Yet, the fact
that it was the order of Menelik and the choice of a Shoan noble as regent minimized their fear.
For Taytu, however, the choice of Iyasu was a source of great anxiety. His father Ras Michael had
hostile relations with her brother and ruler of Yeju, Ras Wolle. Menelik tried to appease the
Empress by a marriage arrangement of her grand niece, Romanworq Mengesha Yohannes, with
Lij Iyasu. However, this effort bore no fruit. Taytu worked hard to build up a power bloc centred
around her family through arranging webs of political marriages, and after 1909 through making
shum shirs (promotions and demotions). Indeed, against the interest of the Council of Ministers,
Taytu behaved as an actual head of state making decisions on behalf of her sick husband. Her
shum-shirs included the old nobility like Fitawrari Habte Giorgis and Negadras Haile Giorgis,
Ministers of War and Commerce, respectively. On the other hand, her relatives and those related
to her by marital ties were promoted to key positions.
The Shoan nobility, therefore, saw Taytu as a threat to their political power in the central
government. Ras Michael of Wollo was also worried about the future of his son and thus joined
the Shoan nobility in a secret plan to remove the Empress from power. The nobility, disappointed
by Taytu’s shum-shir, formed the nucleus and stood at the forefront in the opposition against Taytu.
Moreover, in an attempt to give the opposition the character of a public movement, the Mehal
Sefari were agitated to lead a demonstration. The latter consisted of different military units
attached to the palace. The opponents of Taytu obtained the blessing of the then bishop, Abuna
Mathewos, to remove Taytu. In March 1910, Empress Taytu was removed from government
affairs; she was restricted to taking care of her dying husband.
The first response of Taytu was bitter. She expressed her resentment to the bishop, the regent and
some of the spokesmen of the mass protest. Then, she requested the permission of her opponents
to retire back to her northern kinsmen. The Shoan nobility refused to allow her to go to the north.
The Empress then appealed to the major churches of Addis Ababa and the different legations to
help her convince her opponents. Both responded to Taytu that they had no intention to intervene
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in government affairs. Thus, disgracefully removed from politics, Taytu stayed in the palace with
her sick husband for sometime. And since 1910, she was exiled to the Church of St. Mary at Entoto,
where she stayed until her death in 1918.
The coup against Taytu was followed by reshuffling of political power on behalf of the Shoan
nobility. The powers of the regency and the cabinet were reinstated. However, the regent, Ras
Tesema Nadew died in April 1911. Unexpectedly Lij Iyasu refused to accept another regent. This
situation marked the beginning of a second phase of power struggle and political instability in the
leadership.
6.5. Lij Iyasu 1913-1916: Reforms and the Coup de’etat against Him
The death of Ras Tessema gave Iyasu the opportunity to exercise political authority on his own.
But, he was not crowned even after the death of Menelik. Despite this, however, he exercised full
political power from 1911 to1916. The only serious challenge to his power came from Ras Abate
Buayalew, a Shoa nobleman.
Abate attempted to break into the palace forcefully, but failed because of the strong defence put by
the Imperial Guard. A possible bloodshed was avoided by the intervention of the bishop. Abate
was imprisoned at Mekdalawhere he stayed until the fall of Michael (1916), who from the desire
to support his son, strongly stood against Abate.
The reign of Lij Iyasu lacks fair and objective documentation in the existing literature, written
mainly during the reign of his successor Emperor Haile Sellassie. Indeed, there was emphasis on
his weaknesses, such as lack of responsibility, play-boy character and polygamous marriages. In
reality, however, though too young to rule an empire, Iyasu introduced significant social and
economic reforms. To his credit, Lij Iyasu tried to give Ethiopian Muslims equal status through
integrating them into his administrative hierarchy. He gave financial support for establishing
mosques, and later on, establishing marriage alliances with local Muslim dynasties. These
polygamous marriages of Iyasu, however, seem to have had some elements of political motive.
Moreover, Lij Iyasu established a system of auditing government property, and formed a municipal
police nicknamed Terunbule. He established a separate Department of Education. Before that,
arrangement had been made by Menelik in which the affairs of education were placed under the
control of the archbishop. Iyasu’s measure was the first attempt at the secularization of modern
education in Ethiopia.

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Other reforms of Lij Iyasu included those related to the improvement of traditional practices of
Leba Shay (method of thief detection) in which a young boy took a drug and was let loose in the
neighborhood of the house from where things had been stolen. The owner of the house in front of
which the drug-intoxicated boy might fall was then accused of the theft. This unreliable method
was slightly improved by searching for reliable evidence in the house indicated by the boy. Iyasu
also ended the practice of Quragna in which both the accuser and the accused were chained
together until justice was delivered. The ruler also stopped the abuses of Asrat Safari, by which
government tax known as Asrat (tithe) was collected based on the estimation of a government
official before harvest. Obviously, the practice aimed at controlling possible cheating by some
taxpayers, who used to report a yield reducing the total amount of their harvest. Under Iyasu,
however, the peasants were allowed to harvest before their fields were visited by government
officials. Unlike before, the tax would be collected based only on the amount reported by the
taxpayers who, of course, swore to the reliability of their report.
The above progressive measures of Lij Iyasu were, however, overshadowed, partly by some of his
weaknesses and partly by the opposition coming from victims of his reforms. For instance, his
friendly gesture towards Ethiopian Muslims was a radical departure from the past tradition of very
close church-state relations. It was later interpreted as a challenge to the predominant position the
Orthodox Church enjoyed. The auditing of government property exposed the embezzlement
carried on by old officials, who became enemies of Iyasu when they were ordered to pay back
what they had misappropriated. Iyasu's choice of the company of younger officials in his frequent
tours of provinces, in place of members of the old nobility, created among the latter a feeling of
being unwanted whose total elimination was fast approaching. These victims of Iyasu thus worked
hard to accuse him, using his weak points. To the advantage of his opponents, Iyasu did not bother
at all to improve his weaknesses. Nor did he appease his potential rivals through some
reconciliation. Indeed, Lij Iyasu continued to build a polygamous family, continued his adultery,
and showed disrespect and contempt for the old nobility. He was absent from the capital so often
owing to his frequent wandering in the provinces. All these were issues taken up by his enemies
to charge him with immorality and irresponsible leadership. However, his personal weaknesses
were not the real causes for his conflict with the Shoan nobility. Rather, the latter saw Iyasu as a
serious challenge to their political power. This challenge seemed more threatening, when he gave

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high position to his father Mikael. In 1914 Lij Iyasu crowned his father as Negus over the northern
provinces of Tigray, and Wollo. In 1915 Gojjam and Begemdir were added to them.
Lij Iyasu did more than this to threaten the political future of the Shoan Mekwanints (nobility). His
relatives, friends and those with whom he had marital ties were promoted at the expense of the old
nobility. He took Sidamo from Dejach Balcha Safo, and gave it to a new ally and brother-in-law,
Negadras Haile Giorgis. The latter was also given the top rank of Chairman of the Council of
Ministers which had been held by Fitawrari Habte Giorgis Dinagde. The son of Ras Mekonnen,
Dejach Teferi, was removed from his family fief, Harar, and transferred to Kaffa. The combination
of these actions dissatisfied the nobility in general, and the Shoans in particular to unite in the
common cause of removing Lij Iyasu. The plot that ultimately removed Iyassu was not the work
of local opponents of the young ruler alone. It also came from the tripartite powers who rallied
behind the Shoan nobility in the struggle against Iyasu. These colonial powers had good reason to
seek the removal of Iyasu from power. Firstly, Iyasu appeared to become a close friend of Ottoman
Turkey and Germany, who were mortal enemies of the Tripartite Powers in the First World War
(1914-18).
Iyasu’s friendship to the Central Powers might seem insignificant, but it was considered by the
Tripartite Powers as a dangerous move in the region where they had colonies. Even more offensive
to the Allied Powers was Lij Iyasu’s moral and material support to the leader of a Somali nationalist
movement, Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan. As the Somali leader was operating in the
colonial possessions of Britain, France, and Italy in the Horn of Africa, the three powers allied
with Ethiopian internal forces against Lij Iyasu. Their help ranged from forging pictures as
evidence against Iyasu to giving some munitions to his opponents in support of the coup d’etat
against him. As in the anti-Taytu move, the Mahal Sefari acted against Iyasu, and the Abun and
the Echege, too, blessed the coup. With all these support, Iyasu was deposed on 27 September
1916.
Lij Iyasu was not ready to defend his power. He was in Jijiga when the coup was being carried out
in the capital. He made an attempt to reverse the coup but he was defeated at the battle of Mieso,
located on the way to Harar. The Shoan army defeated his troops heading to the capital. His father,
Negus Michael, also made a more determined attempt to reinstate his son to power. In command
of about 80,000 troops from Northern Ethiopia, Michael scored a minor victory in the initial
encounter at the battle of Tora Mesk on 17 October 1916. But he was completely defeated and
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made captive at the decisive and bloody battle of Segele near Sheno, town on 27 October 1916.
Negus Michael died after two years of captivity and imprisonment. Iyasu remained a fugitive, until
he was finally captured in Tigray in 1921 and imprisoned first at Fitche. In 1932 he attempted to
escape but failed. Therefore, he was transferred to Garamulata, in the province of Hararge, where
he died in prison in 1936.
6.6. The Diarchy Rule (1917 – 30)
The battle of Segele, which claimed the life of more than 12,000 troops from both sides, marked
the bloody completion of the struggle against the challenge of Lij Iyasu. The fall of Negus Michael
brought an end to the administrative autonomy of the province of Wollo. The fall of Iyasu also
marked the restoration of Shewan political supremacy. The coup makers crowned the daughter of
Menelik, Zewditu, as Empress on 1 February 1917. Ras Teferi Mekonnen was made heir to the
throne.
For the Shoan nobility, Zewditu was an ideal choice because she was the daughter of Menelik and
was politically conservative. She had no son, and to avoid succession disputes, an heir was chosen.
Teferi was the best choice as heir. He was himself a member of the great Shoan nobility and of the
Shoan royal family. He had administrative ability, shown particularly in his governorship of Harar.
He was young and active. His modern education and interest in modernization were regarded as
valuable assets in dealing with foreigners and their legations. For some years, Zewditu and Teferi
worked well together. Zewditu presided over all deliberations in which important decisions were
taken, and Teferi referred all major issues to her for decision. Therefore, at first at least, the diarchy
or dual rule marked the unity of Shoan forces in the central government. The Council of Minsters
was reorganized under the chairmanship of the Minister of War, Fitawrari Habte Giorgis.
However, problems came as the power of Ras Teferi started to grow up progressively at the expense
of the Empress and the Council of Ministers. Though only an heir, Ras Teferi began to exercise
the role of a ‘regent’. His influence in administration and military affairs and external relations
exceeded that of the Empress. Indeed, more and more power began to concentrate in the hands of
Ras Teferi. In the long run, the political ascendancy of Ras Teferi not only worried the Empress,
but also was a threat to the old nobility, in general, and members of the Council, in particular.
The traditionalists nobility represented by the Empress turned to be conservative disliked Teferi's
modernizing activities. Teferri represented the interests of a progressive group of the young
educated Ethiopians and the more ''enlightened'' feudalists.
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While the traditionalists had the spiritual support of the bishop, Teferi and his supporters had the
appreciation and support, of the European legations. The latter saw in the rise of Teferi a bright
prospect for capitalist investment in Ethiopia. Thus, the struggle between the conservative and the
progressive groups came to be a dominate feature of the diarchy for several years, until the balance
of power gradually shifted in favour of Teferi as time went on.
Ras Teferi’s natural gifts of patience, capacity to hide his motives and plans, determination and
cunning, added to his rich political experience made significant contributions to his rise to power.
His successful use of diplomacy and the group of the young educated elite around him explainደ
his constant successes against the people who stood in his way. The chief events in his rise to
power were the following, in chronological order.
* In 1918, though the role Teferi played behind the scene is not clear, the most formidable
opponents of his growing power, consisting of twelve members of the Council of Ministers, were
removed from power by order of the Empress in response to a public demonstration represented
by the Mehal Sefari. The ministers were accused of corruption and embezzlement. Only the
Minster of War, Fitawrari Habte Giorgis, remained in power.
* The capture of Lij Iyasu in 1921 eliminated one rival for the throne.
* In 1923 Ethiopia became a member of the League of Nations under the precondition of abolition
of the slave trade and slavery. To this end, two decrees were issued in 1923 and 1924,
respectively. Other than the advantage of collective security, Ethiopia's admission into the
League was a step forward in facilitating Teferi's extensive diplomatic relations. In 1924 Ras
Teferi and some of his nobility made a grand tour to Europe, seeking first hand exposure to
western civilization as well as trying to get access to the sea for Ethiopia. The latter objective
did not materialize. But the visits made to Britain, Greece, Jerusalem, France, Italy, Belgium,
Luxemburg, Switzerland, Sweden and Egypt, mainly focused on schools, factories, hospitals and
churches, and were sources of great inspiration to the Ethiopian visitors. Ras Teferi’s interest in
modern technology, administration, military training and other institutions, though strong before
his overseas visits, became even stronger after the tour of Europe.
* The natural deaths of Fitawrari Habte Giorgis and Abune Metewos in 1926 were also a golden
opportunity for Ras Teferi, as the two very strong military and religious challengers to his
political ambitions were removed in succession. He took over the army of Fitawrari Habte
Giorgis and distributed his large tract of land to allies.
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* In 1927 Ras Teferi succeeded in getting the unconditional surrender of another strong opponent
to his growing power, Dejach Balcha Safo, the governor of Sidamo. That prosperous province
was given first to an ally and then to the son-in-law of Ras Teferi, Ras Desta Damtew.
* In 1928 Dejach Aba Wuqaw, commander of the Imperial Bodyguard, revolted against Ras Teferi
in defence of the decreasing power of Empress Zewditu. But, he was soon forced to surrender
and was at first sentenced to death, though later this was changed to life imprisonment. This was
skillfully done by Teferi, who persuaded the Empress to intervene, accusing Aba Wuqaw of
disturbing the palace and provoking bloodshed while encamped at the mausoleum of Menelik.
Meanwhile, the Mahal Sefari pressed Zewditu to crown Teferi as Negus. In October 1928
Zewditu formally crowned Tefer Negus. He was made “King of Ethiopia, Heir to the Throne” The
last serious opponent to Ras Teferi from the traditional group was the ex- husband of Empress
Zewditu, Ras Gugsa Wolle. The divorce of Zewditu and Gugsa in 1917 is said to have been effected
by the Shoan Mekwanints at the time of her coronation. Though Zewditu made Gugsa the governor
of Begemdir in 1918, he remained hostile to Teferi whom he suspected of having been responsible
for the divorce. There was also a conflict over the tax from Metemma that was under the
jurisdiction of Gugsa, which Teferi wanted to centralize. The rise of Teferi to the top of the political
hierarchy was thus a threat to Gugsa. On his part, Teferi was waiting for a pretext to eliminate
Gugsa, and this came when Gugsa refused to carry out the order of Ras Teferi to assist the
suppression of the 1929 rebellion of the Raya and Azebo Oromo. The Raya and Azebo in southern
Tigray and northern Wollo were used to have a measure of local autonomy in administration.
Whenever, they felt that was threatened, they often became rebellions. The 1929 rebellion was one
such occassion. Zewditu intervened to try to avoid bloodshed between Teferi and Gugsa but she
failedas Gugsa refused to surrender. On 31 March 1930, the Imperial Army under the command of
the new Minister of War, Ras Mulugeta Yigezu, fought the army of Gugsa at the battle of Anchem,
near the Lasta- Begemdir border. The first two air crafts of Ethiopia were engaged in dropping
bombs and leaflets. Gugsa died in action. Two days later Zewditu died, reportedly of diabetes.
Teferi was crowned Emperor Haile Sellassie I of Ethiopia on 2 November, 1930 by an impressive
coronation ceremony.
6.7. The Emergence of the Absolutist State, 1930-35
Right after his coronation, Haile Sellassie embarked upon laying the ground for an absolutist state
in Ethiopia. The essence of his absolutism was the formation of a highly centralized unitary state.
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In this state, the regional dynasties (Mesafints) had to submit to the supreme authority of the
Emperor in exchange for royal recognition of their economic privileges, i.e, hereditary right over
tributary lands known as riste gult. By so doing, Haile Sellassie was trying to do away with the
forces of regionalism and build his own autocratic power on a firm economic basis.
To this end, the Emperor took very significant measures. First, in 1931 he laid a legal basis for the
absolutist state by issuing the first written Constitution for Ethiopia. The Constitution was claimed
to have the objective of bringing political modernity, stopping the traditional problem of
succession and building national integration. It was also claimed to have aimed at providing “fair
justice” for the Ethiopian peoples. The content of the Constitution, however, shows major
emphasis on building the absolute power of the Emperor and guaranteeing the right to succession
to his descendants. Other provisions included, such as a parliamentary system and civil rights,
were not put into practice and were included in the document only to impress Europeans by
showing signs of modern political transformation.
Therefore, the Constitution confirmed the Emperor’s divine right to rule as well as the right to
issue laws for his people by his own will. It established a Bicameral Parliament having a Senate,
which was an upper chamber of nobles appointed by the Emperor, and the Chamber of Deputies
elected by local notables from among the local feudal lords. The Emperor’s absolute power also
included the right to appoint and dismiss members of Parliament and other civil and military
officials, to declare or end wars, and to grant land and honours.
Secondly, based on his absolute constitutional right, Haile Sellassie completed the process of
building centralized administration. Most of the southern regions, it is to be recalled, had already
fallen into the hands of royal appointees during the reign of Menelik. A similar process of
centralization was also pursued by Haile Sellassie. As a result, the autonomous province of Wollo
was given to his eldest son, Asfa Wossen, after the battle of Segele. Following the battle of
Anchem, Begemdir came under the appointee of Haile Sellassie, Ras Kasa. Similarly, the local
autonomy of Gojjam and Jimma came to an end in 1932 and 1933, respectively. The hereditary
rulers of these regions, Ras Hailu Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam and Abba Jobir Abba Jiffar of Jimma
were removed and the regions came under direct control of the central uthority. The region whose
autonomy remained intact was Tigray, which continued to be ruled by two grandsons of Emperor
Yohannes IV: Ras Seyoum Mengesha and Ras Gugsa Araya. Though he did not succeed in winning
their absolute loyalty, Haile Sellassie tried to tie the Tigrean princes with the Shoan Dynasty,
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through arranging political marriages with the Shoan royal family. Thirdly, the absolutist state
worked hard at fiscal centralization, mainly in customs administration. The government thus
eliminated the old provincial kellas (customs posts), and replaced them by a few recognized and
centrally controlled customs posts. The government also controlled the customs from external
trade.
Finally, the emerging absolutist state gave due attention to the modernization of its army. The
process of administrative and political centralization laid the basis for the establishment of a
modern national army. But its effective transformation called for modern training. The process of
modern military training had already begun in 1920, by sending young educated Ethiopians
abroad. In 1930, Belgian officers were put in charge of training the Imperial Bodyguard consisting
of three battalions of infantry. Moreover, in 1934, the Ethiopian government opened the first officer
training school at Holeta Gannat by recruiting its teaching staff from Swedish officers. This cadet
school had a programme of three years training which was, however, interrupted by the Italian
invasion of Ethiopia in 1935.
6.8. Defending sovereignty and territorial integrity
Resistance to Egyptian and Mahdist Aggressions
Foreign threat against Ethiopian independence, though manifested even earlier, reached a peak in
the second half of the nineteenth century. It came from several directions: Egypt, Mahdist Sudan,
and Italy. The causes, course and consequences of the first two aggressions will be discussed in
this section, and the latter in another section, farther below.
Ethiopia and Egypt had a long history of relationships which involved cultural, commercial and
religion. This relationship was affected since the turn of the 19th century as Egypt embarked on a
vigorous expansion into the Horn of Africa, which included Ethiopia as the source of the Blue
Nile.
The age-old ambition to control the Nile drainage system was the main interest of Egyptian rulers.
Thus, in 1821 Egypt occupied Sudan. Despite fierce resistance, the military superiority of the
Egyptian army and internal conflicts among the local people left Sudan an easy prey to the
Egyptian conquerors. As the source of the Blue Nile, Ethiopia was also victim of Egyptian
expansion. Indeed, Sudan served as a base for Egyptian encroachment into the north-western
Ethiopian regions like Semen, Dambya, and the Sheikdoms of Assosa and Beni –Shangul. Early
Egyptian threats coincided with the period of the Zamana Masafent. The internal crisis of the
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period provided an opportunity for Egyptian periodic attacks and penetrations into the Ethiopian
border regions. In the absence of a well organized national defence, the individual attempt of local
chiefs to check the advance of Egyptian troops in their respective regions could not bring a lasting
solution. Consequently, for over half a century Egypt posed a serious problem on the social,
economic and religious life of the peoples along the Ethio-Sudanese border. Egyptians imposed
heavy taxes on regions they occupied. They looted and enslaved the local people, and burnt fields
and homes to ashes, when they faced resistance to their expansion.
Ethio-Egyptian conflicts were intensified during the reign of Emperor Tewodros. In 1865 the
Egyptians took over the possession of the port of Massawa from the Ottoman Turks on the basis
of a lease contract. The Egyptians then began to collect heavy taxes from Ethiopian merchants and
blocked the import of firearms. Even worse, from 1872 onwards Egyptian troops began to advance
into and control other Red Sea ports and coastal regions, as well as the border provinces of
Matamma and Bogos.
The then ruler of Egypt, Khedive Ismail (1863-79), intensified the traditional Egyptian expansion
to a more aggressive attempt at occupation of all Ethiopia. The grand ambition of Egyptian rulers
was to build a Greater Egypt in North-East Africa. They aimed at becoming masters of the Nile
basin and the Nile sources. The pretext of eradication of the slave trade and “extension of western
civilization” into Africa were used by the rulers of Egypt to justify expansionist ambitions.
Khedive Ismail was able to get support from European powers using these arguments. Indeed, the
strategic significance of Egypt, due to the newly opened Suez Canal in 1869, was more attractive
to Europeans than Christian Ethiopia.
However, Egyptian rulers seem to have underestimated the military strength of Ethiopia. Egyptians
were misled into believing that Ethiopia was weak. Their calculations were based on the
observation of the ease with which the 1868 British military expedition to Maqdala had been
completed and the subsequent internal political conflicts, following the death of Tewodros. But by
the middle of the 1870s, Ethiopia was not anymore politically divided and weak as before. The
Egyptian image of a weak and disunited Ethiopia, and the absence of European opposition towards
Egyptian expansion in the Horn of Africa encouraged a large scale invasion of Ethiopia in 1875.
The ports of the Gulf of Aden and Massawa served as launching pads for the three-front invasion
of Ethiopia by Egyptian troops in 1875. An Egyptian army commanded by Mohammed Rauf Pasha
occupied the Muslim City State of Harar in October 1875 with very little difficulty. A Swiss-
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German named Werner Munzinger, often referred to as the architect of Egyptian aggression in
Ethiopia, advanced to the center from the direction of Tdjura. However, Munzinger and his army
of about 500 men were ambushed and destroyed by the Afar people on their way to Shoa. Another
very well armed Egyptian contingent led by a Danish colonel, Arendrup, moved into the interior
Mereb Melash region from the port of Massawa. By late October 1875, his army had reached the
banks of river Mereb.
In July 1872, Yohannes had written to Khedive Ismail a letter in which he defined his boundaries
in the north and coastal regions. He also demanded the withdrawal of the Egyptian troops from his
country. In the absence of a positive response on the part of Egypt, Yohannes turned to seeking
European diplomatic intervention. He sent letters to the rulers of France, Germany, Russia, Austria
and Britain. He let them know the unlawful invasion of his country by Egypt and the intention of
the Egyptian ruler, as he claimed, to Islamize and enslave his people. With full confidence, he
expressed his hope that Christian European nations would not tolerate the ‘Muslim unjust attack’
on a Christian nation and requested fair justice for his people.
Nonetheless, the Emperor’s expectation of Christian solidarity was no more than wishful thinking.
Europeans gave deaf ear to his protest. Consequently, Yohannes resorted to a defensive war against
Egypt. On 23 October 1875, he issued a mobilization order. In command of 20,000 troops,
Emperor Yohannes crossed the River Mereb. On 16 November, he fought with the Egyptian army
at the battle of Gundet. About two hours of effective attack on the encircled Egyptian troops
resulted in an instant victory for Ethiopians. Colonel Arendrup and about 1320 Egyptian troops
were killed in the battle. A large number of Egyptian troops and firearms fell into the hands of
Ethiopians. Although Egyptians suffered a humiliating defeat, Ethiopian victory at Gundet did not
result in the restoration of the Ethiopian regions occupied by Egyptian forces. Instead, Khedive
Ismail began preparations for another attack on Ethiopia to avenge his earlier setback. The
following year, about 15,000 well-armed Egyptian troops under the command of Mohammed
Ratib and the American General Loring invaded Ethiopian territories in the north. Thus the second
Ethio-Egyptian battle was fought on 7-9 March 1876 at a place known as Gura, not far from
Gundet.
The battle of Gura resulted in heavy losses on both sides, but once again victory went to Ethiopians.
With the loss of about 3500 dead and 2500 taken as prisoners, the surviving Egyptian troops
retreated. Ethiopians, too, lost about 4000 dead but with no prisoners of war lost to the enemy.
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Ethiopians collected a significant booty of arms. Egypt's military defeat in Ethiopia had resulted
in a grave political consequence for the country. The fall of Khedive Ismail in 1879 and the British
occupation of Egypt in 1882 were partly the results of the Ethio-Egyptian war.
The military victories of Gundet and Gura, however, failed to bring about significant gains to
Ethiopia considering the reasons for which they were fought. The Egyptians remained in control
of occupied regions and ports. Yohannes did not want to risk his victory by continuing his attack
on Egyptian troops with an exhausted army. He also wanted to know the reaction of the European
powers to the crisis. Thus, he preferred postponing further war and pushing his victory to its logical
conclusion. Instead, he once again chose to try a peaceful solution.
The strange thing, in the immediate post-war year, was that Egypt behaved like a victor. Although
Ethiopia showed an unreserved interest for a peaceful solution, Egypt proposed terms unacceptable
for a sovereign country like Ethiopia. Egypt demanded reparation payment, release of prisoners of
war and cession of occupied Ethiopian regions. These terms made the conclusion of the conflict
by a formal peace treaty far from being achievable. Eventually, a period of no peace and no war
continued for the next eight years.
From the early 1880s, however, Egypt sought a diplomatic alliance with Ethiopia. Two events
accounted for this change of stand. Firstly, Egypt fell to British occupation in 1882. Secondly, the
rise of a religious revivalist and nationalist movement in the Sudan by the Mahadists began to
dismantle Egyptian control of that country. Starting from western Sudan, the Mahdist attack
defeated Egyptian troops in the Sudan. In the process, some of the Egyptians could not make it out
of the Sudan; rather they were encircled along the Ethio-Sudanese border. Both Egypt and its
protector, Britain, were not able to stop the energetic Mahdist attack. Instead they sought another
means to relieve the trapped Egyptian troops. Hence, they wanted to sign a peace treaty that would
end the Ethio- Egyptian conflict, and make use of Ethiopian assistance in this endeavor. To this
end, a British envoy, Rear – Admiral Sir William Hewett signed a treaty, which was later called
the Hewett Treaty, with Yohannes on 3 June 1884. The Hewett Treaty is also known, from the
name of the place where it was signed, as the Adwa Treaty. It ended the Ethio-Egyptian conflict
through British diplomatic intervention. The first two major articles of this treaty promised to
Ethiopia free-transit via the port of Massawa and restoration of occupied regions to Ethiopia
following the withdrawal of Egyptian troops. By the third article, Ethiopia promised to facilitate

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the evacuation of the Egyptian troops from their encircled position in eastern Sudan, through
Ethiopian territory to Massawa, and then to Egypt.
On the surface, the Hewett Treaty seemed to be more rewarding for Ethiopia than the military
victories of Gundet and Gura. It promised restoration of occupied regions and opening a sea outlet.
Yohannes thus chose to become an ally of Egypt. But this earned Ethiopia a serious enemy,
Mahdists of the Sudan. For Yohannes, what he needed further was British diplomatic support to
restore the port of Massawa to Ethiopia. Yohannes wrote to Queen Victoria of England to help him
get back Massawa.
On his part, in fulfillment of the terms of the Hewett Treaty, Yohannes ordered Ras Alula to rescue
the Egyptian army trapped in the Sudan. Ras Alula accomplished his mission fighting with Mahdist
troops at the battle of Kufit in January 1885. However, this Ethio-Egyptian alliance provoked a
number of Mahdist attacks on north-western Ethiopian territories. The Mahdists launched a series
of attacks characterized by looting, material destruction and enslavement of people. Egypt only
partly fulfilled her promise. Bogos was returned to Ethiopia, but Massawa was handed to Italy.
Egyptian troops also withdrew from Tajura, Zeila and Berbera. But, shortly after the withdrawal
of the Egyptians, these coastal regions fell easy preys to colonial European powers competing in
the region. The British, who had already been in control of Aden since 1839, occupied the ports of
Zeila and Berbera. They expanded into the interior and created their colony of British Somaliland.
The French did the same and formed their colony of French Somaliland by expanding from their
1862 possession of Obock. The port of Assab which was purchased by a private Italian Shipping
Company (the Rubbatino Company) in 1869 had already been taken by the government of Italy
in1882. Against the claim of Yohannes and in violation of the Hewett Treaty, the British
government secretly invited Italy to occupy Massawa. Italy took control of Massawa when the
Egyptians left it on 5 February 1885. Even worse, it blocked import of arms to Ethiopia, collected
heavy customs duties and began to expand into the highland region of Mareb Melash of present
day Eritrea. The British who wanted to check the French expansion in the Red Sea region wanted
to strengthen Italy and favoured her expansion in the region, which was contrary to the terms of
the Hewot Treaty. However Yohannes did not give up hope of a diplomatic solution. He once again
wrote to Queen Victoria protesting the violation of the treaty and the unlawful Italian advance into
his territory. He sought explanation on whether or not the British were backing this Italian

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adventure. The response of Britain was negative. Yohannes was advised to live in love and peace
with the powerful Italians.
But, in 1888 the Mahdists, again, started attacks through the western borders. The danger
intensified in 1889, and Yohannes turned towards the Mahdist threat and marched to Matamma.
On his way, he tried a peace initiative but there was no positive response on the part of the
Mahdists. War became inevitable, and on 9 March 1889, the Ethiopian army and the Mahdist
troops or Ansars fought at the battle of Matamma. Despite initial success, the Ethiopians lost the
battle because Yohannes was fatally wounded and his army retreated. Yohannes died the next day.
His corpse was beheaded by the Ansars as a sign of Mahdist revenge and they seemed to be content.
In any case, they, too, had suffered heavy loses.

Italian Aggression against Ethiopia and the Battle of Adwa

During the second-half of the 19th century, a third and major source of aggression against Ethiopia
was Italy. Italy had colonial designs over Ethiopia. Therefore, her colonial ambitions led her to
occupy territories in the north, establish the colony of Eritrea and fought the Battle of Adwa against
Ethiopia in 1896.
First Strongholds of Italy in Ethiopia
As indicated in the pages above, the Italian Government took control of Assab from the Rusbatino
Shipping Company in 1882. Then, in 1885 Italy occupied Massawa, and began attempts to
penetrate into the interior from the coast. The Italian attempts to encroach into the highlands of the
Mereb Mellash (Eritrea) region were unacceptable both to Emperor Yohannes IV and his
commander, Ras Alula Engida. Alula was also Governor of the province of Mereb Mellash.
Therefore, the Italians came into direct conflict with Yohannes and Alula. On 26 January 1887,
Alula, at a place called Dogali, crushed an Italian contingent consisting of about 500 Italian
soldiers, which were going as reinforcements to the Saati fortress that he had attempted to attack.
This was actually the first serious blow to Italian colonial advance in Ethiopia. Thus, it created
great anxiety and provoked Italian desire for revenge. It equally offended the British government.
However, while Italy wanted military revenge, Britain intervened as a peace broker, of course, on
behalf of the aggressor. A British envoy, Gerald Portal, met Yohannes in November 1887 and
proposed a war indemnity for Italy, official Ethiopian apology for Alula’s attack, and cession of
occupied coastal regions to Italy. Portal’s mission failed. Yohannes declared his choice of war
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rather than accept these proposed terms of peace. He also wrote to Queen Victoria condemning
British diplomatic dishonesty and unfairness. Ras Alula’s rejection of conceding Ethiopian
territory to Italy was also firm and made war inevitable. Shortly afterwards Emperor Yohannes
called his people to arms.
Within a few weeks, about 80,000 men followed Yohannes on his march across the Mereb River
to fight the Italians at their fortress of Saati in March 1888. The Saati confrontation did not turn to
actual fighting, however, because the Italians refused to come out of their fortified position and
meet the Ethiopian army in the open field. A deadlock was created that lasted for a month. The
Ethiopian army, consisting largely of peasants with short supplies, could not stay long at Saati.
They had to return home to their farms. Nor was the supply of provisions enough to keep up the
confrontation for long. Yohannes had to choose between retreat or strike on the Italians in their
fortress.
The arrival of news from the other direction reduced the options to one. Yohannes was informed
of the destructive invasion of Mahdist troops as far as Gondar, as well as the rebellion of Negus
Menelik and Negus Takla-Haymanot against him. He also heard about the friendly relations
Menelik of Shoa and the Italians which was established on the basis of the Convention of
Neutrality they signed in October1887. All these things, combined with the un-willingness of
Italians to come out for an open battle, made Yohannes decide to postpone the war with Italy. He
chose first to punish the internal plotters and then fight the Mahdists.
Yohannes attacked Gojjam first and after a bloody destruction got the submission of its King. The
plan to fight Menelik was dropped, however. Instead, the Emperor and Menelik made an agreement
to help each other against their common enemies. Both had mutual interest in peace, because
Yohannes did not want a bloody civil war at a time when his country was invaded by two foreign
enemies- the Mahdists and Italy. Menelik, too, realized the military superiority of Yohannes. The
Italians, who aimed at subverting Menelik against Yohannes, had already won his neutrality in the
event of war between them and the Emperor. This was agreed in the
Convention of Neutrality signed in October 1887, in which they promised to give Menelik 5000
rifles. Nevertheless these rifles had not reached Menelik. Therefore, Menelik had good reason not
to fight with Yohannes.

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The Birth of the Italian Colony of Eritrea
It is often claimed that the Treaty of Wuchale, signed between Emperor Menelik and the Italian
envoy Count Pietro Antonelli on 2 May 1889, directly led to the creation of the Italian colony of
Eritria. But that was preceded by long years of Italo-Shoan friendship. The official contacts
between Menelik and the Italians go as far back as 1876, with the coming to Shoa of an Italian
Geographical Society led by Marquis O. Antinori. Antinori’s mission had the objective of
investigating the chances for colonial expansion under the cover of scientific study. As a region
close to the Italian base at Assab, and since the Shoan king was a rival of Emperor Yohannes, Shoa
was considered as another appropriate base or ally for Italian colonial ambitions. On his part,
Menelik needed the friendship of Italy as a means of acquisition of firearms from abroad with
which he could fight his way to the throne.
Thus, while Menelik gave a resting place near Ankober called Let Marafya to the Italians, the latter
agreed to post an agent at Assab who would buy firearms for Menelik. This initial alliance was
further cemented by the Treaty of Commerce and Friendship. This treaty was signed between King
Menelik and Antonelli of Italy in October 1883. The treaty included provisions about consular
exchange and an agreement on free trade, free movement of their nationals and freedom of
religious propagation. The third Italo- Shoan treaty came in 1887, following the Dogali Incident
when Italians needed the help of Menelik more than he needed theirs. It appears that the Italians
tried to win the consent of Menelik to help them in future unavoidable war against Yohannes. Due
to his unwillingness to fight Yohannes, however, the Italians persuaded him at least to remain
neutral in the event of war between Italy and Yohannes. As indicated above, he agreed to this
through a treaty later called the Convention of Neutrality, which was signed in October that year,
1887.
The above friendly relations between Menelik and the Italians seem to have been based on their
interest in securing each other’s support for the Ethiopian crown and colonial expansion,
respectively. Though Menelik did not support Italian colonial expansion in principle, the presence
of Yohannes as an obstacle on his way to the imperial throne gave Menelik the drive to seek the
friendship of Italy. The Treaty of Wuchale, although signed after Menelik declared himself
Emperor, was an extension of their old mutual interest and friendship. The Wuchale Treaty was
drafted by Antonelli and signed by Menelik and Antonelli in May 1889, in Menelik’s current camp,
in Wollo.
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The Treaty of Wuchale had twenty articles, but the two very significant ones in terms of their
contribution to the subsequent Italo-Ethiopian conflicts were articles III and XVII. Article III,
delimited the boundary between Italian-occupied regions of Mereb Melash and the rest of Ethiopia.
The villages of Arafaili, Segeneiti, Asmara, Adi Yohanis-from east to west-served as a boundary
line for the Italian possessions. Thus, the Italians got legal recognition over much of the lowland
and some of the highland regions beyond the river Mereb.
The territorial cessions of Menelik to the Italians were far from satisfactory to the Italian colonial
dream. They began to push beyond the borders defined in Article III of the Wachale Treaty. Even
more, they cheated Ras Mekonnen, the cousin of Menelik, who went to Italy to get the ratification
of the whole treaty. They persuaded him to sign an additional Convention on 1 October 1889. This
was aimed at advancing further towards the River Mereb under the cover of delimiting the
boundary, on the basis of effective occupation. Indeed, against the protest of Menelik, the Italians
occupied the whole region as far as the Mereb River, which they declared as their colony of Eritrea
on1 January 1890.
Italian Ambition over the Rest of Ethiopia
To make matters even worse, the Italions pursued a diplomatic campaign to make the whole of
Ethiopia their protectorate. To this end, they used a calculated contradiction in the Amharic and
Italian version of Article XVII of the Wuchale Treaty. The Amharic version of this article reads
that Ethiopia can use the help of Italy in her diplomatic relations with other European powers.
However, the Italian text contained an obligatory commitment of Ethiopia to use the good offices
of Italy for her relations with Europe, thereby denying Ethiopia her sovereignty. Furthermore, Italy
notified the great powers of Europe that, by Article XVII of the Wuchale Treaty, Ethiopia had
become an Italin protectorate.
Menelik learned of the Italian tricks when response to his letters, written directly without the
knowledge of Italy, came from Britain and Germany. In these letters from Europe he was advised
to contact them only through his “protector”. This led to a major friction between Italy and
Ethiopia. Menelik wrote to King Umberto of Italy protesting against the Italian claim. He asked
the Italian government to correct Article XVII. Italy was not willing to correct it. Menelik,
however, turned to a wider diplomatic campaign, and in April 1891, he dispatched a circular letter
to all European powers. He informed them about Italian diplomatic dishonesty and that he had no
obligation to respect Italian protectorate rights. That was because Ethiopia was independent and
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not a protectorate of Italy. Even more, he defined the Ethiopian boundary as extending as far as
the sea. And Menelik requested the help of Christian powers to get at least an outlet to the sea. But
there was no help from Christian Europe. On its part, the Italian government followed the twin
policies of persuasion and subversion in Ethiopia. The first refers to the Italian unsuccessful effort
to induce Menelik to agree to the Italian version of Article XVII. This effort was completely
aborted when, in February 1893, Menelik abrogated (cancelled) the Treaty of Wuchale. Italian
subversive activities among dissatisfied nobles did, however, have initial success mainly in
northern Ethiopia. For instance, by the Mereb Convention of December 1891, the Italians achieved
the temporary defection of the Tigrean chiefs under the leadership of Ras Mengesha Yohannes, the
person chosen by Emperor Yohannes as his successor.
Nonetheless, the subversive activities of the Italians proved a complete failure. Ethiopian
collaborators of the Italians soon understood the hidden colonial motive of the Italians. This
became even clearer, with Italian racist attitudes in the settlement pattern of their citizens in Eritrea.
The first significant blow to the subversive plan of Italy came in June 1894, when Ras Mengesha
and Ras Alula renewed their loyalty to Menelik. Even worse for the Italians, in December 1894,
Dejazmach Bahta Hagos, their former collaborator and governor of Akale Guzay in Eritrea, started
a peasant rebellion against the Italians. This rebellion was suppressed, but it gave the spark to an
armed resistance that followed against Italian colonialism. Ras Mengesha and Ras Alula crossed
the river Mereb and fought the Italians at Qoatit and Senafe early in 1895. As revenge, the Italian
army invaded the whole of Tigray, in September 1895. Italy openly began to use military means
to realize the dream of becoming a colonial master over Ethiopia.
On the Ethiopian side, the inevitability of war had already become obvious. Apart from the
Emperor, his wife Empress Taytu herself was an advocate of an armed solution to the Italian
diplomatic dishonesty. Thus, Menelik began preparing for the final showdown with Italy.
Internally, he continued his expansion into the prosperous regions of present day southern Ethiopia,
mainly to build up his human and material resources, as you have seen in the preceding pages.
Internationally, Menilik did his best to win allies mainly for the import of firearms, particularly
from France and Russia. On 17 September 1895, Menelik issued a mobilization order in which he
stated the Italian unlawful invasion of his country. He got a positive response from his people
which enabled him to lead an army of about 100,000 recruited from all classes, ethnic groups, and
regions including the newly conquered areas of south, south-west and south-east.
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Indeed, Menelik led a united Ethiopia against Italy. An Italian writer who saw the positive response
of soldiers, peasants, young and old men and women, for Menilik's mobilization order wrote, “It
looks as if the whole population was moving for war.” The then bishop and the clergy themselves
accompanied the army to the battlefield. Empress Taytu had started preparation for war long ago.
She had gathered women in the palace to prepare food, drinks, utensils, traditional medicines,
bandages, etc. She had already sent messages to her vassals of northern Ethiopia to supply food to
the army while passing through their respective regions. She also mobilized an army of 5000 troops
under her command, and followed her husband to the campaign. The total number of Ethiopian
women who went to Adwa is not exactly known. But one French writer reported that there were
about 1200 women. These women not only gave moral support to the combatants, but also gave
service as fighters, nursing the wounded, supplying food and drinks to fighters, clearing roads,
guarding camps, etc.
The Battle of Adwa
Before the final decisive encounter at Adwa, the Italian and the Ethiopian troops fought at two
places. The first battle was fought on 7 December 1895 at Amba Alage, in southern Tigray, between
a contingent of the Ethiopian vanguard force led by Fitawrari Gebeyehu and an Italian force under
the command of Major Toselli. The Italians were completely defeated and lost about 2000 troops,
including Major Toselli himself, from the total of 2350 Italians troops. Local sources suggest 286
dead and about 300 wounded on the Ethiopian side. Thus, the Italians were forced to retreat
northwards to their strong fortification at Maqale which was defended by 4 cannons.
Under the command of Ras Makonnen, the Ethiopian army, which consisted of the combined
troops of different regional lords, encircled the Italian fortress of Maqale. Attacks on the enemy
began later when Menelik reached the fortress, but this brought no immediate success since the
Italians had built a strong fortress difficult to break into. Meanwhile, the Ethiopian army was
advised to control a small stream near the fortress, which was the source of water for the Italian
troops. The author of this tactic is said to have been Empress Taytu; and indeed, the stream was
then controlled by 900 soldiers from her own contingent. Between 7-21 January 1896, Maqalle
was under siege. The Italian army stationed there suffered a great deal from shortage of water. The
Italians were forced to surrender the fortress. Menelik allowed the Italians a safe evacuation. That
was done not only hoping for a peaceful solution for the conflict, but also as a plan to advance
further within Tigray under the cover of a peace gesture, if the war was to continue.
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The Italians did not, however, agree to any peace. About 20,000 troops formed into four brigades,
under the supreme command of General Oreste Baratieri, were ready for war. Half of the Italian
troops consisted of askaris from Eritrea. Numerically, the Italian army was only one fifth of the
Ethiopians. But the Italians had the advantage of better firearms than the Ethiopians. They had also
modern training and professional military leadership. Three Italian brigades were led by Generals
Albertone, Arimondi, and Dabormida. General Albertone was in charge of the rearguard. Despite
good preparations, however, the Italian military leadership had no exact knowledge about the
number and the tactics of the Ethiopian army. The role of the local people as double agents to both
the Italians and the Ethiopian side was very helpful to the Ethiopian army. They helped by
providing faulty information to the enemy. For instance, Sunday March 1,1896, the day of
commemoration of St. George, was selected as the date of the major battle, after two weeks of
tension and confrontation between the Ethiopian and the Italian troops. This decision was made
by General Baratieri misled by a wrong advice by the double agents. A delusive advice that
Ethiopian armies never fight on holidays was given to him by Basha Awalom, (a double agent).
The general was also told of internal conflicts among the generals of Menelik and shortage of food
among his troops.
At Adwa, the battle began at day break on 1 March 1896 with the Italian strike on the Ethiopian
camp. An extremenly bloody battle was fought until mid-afternoon. The Ethiopian army fought
bravely and scored a smashing victory. The Italians lost about 7000 of their men dead, 2500 badly
wounded and 3500 made prisoners of war. The Ethiopian army also suffered heavy casualities but
with no prisoners of war. Losing the battle, Baratieri ordered a general retreat and his surviving
troops cleared out of the whole province of Tigray. The Italian dream of reducing Ethiopia to a
colony ended in failure. Therefore, Italy was left only with her control over Eritrea.
Factors for the Ethiopian victory at Adwa were Italian faulty reading of maps, false information
from local “spies”, underestimation of Ethiopian unity, wrong military strategy, and poor
leadership. Many of Menelik’s army was also well equipped with good imported firearms. There
was serious lack of coordination among the different Italian brigades. On the contrary, the
Ethiopians had the advantage of strong unity, strong morale and commitment to the cause of
Ethiopia’s sovereignty. There was efficient co-ordination among the different troops of regional
lords. The moral support rendered by the clergy, women, minstrels (traditional singers), etc, and

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the proper knowledge of topography also contributed a great deal to the victory of Ethiopian
troops.

The Consequences and Historical Significance of the Adwa Victory -

Ethiopia entered the twentieth century as one of the very few independent nations in Africa.
Liberia, and until 1911-12 Morocco, were the other independent states; though Liberia did not
fight any war of independence as Ethiopia did. However, it must be remembered that a part of
Ethiopian territory (Mereb Mellash Eritrea) remained in Italian hands when Ethiopia entered the
twentieth century. The sovereign status of Ethiopia got international recognition. This recognition
was expressed in two ways. Firstly, different powers opened their legations in Addis Ababa: Italy
(1896), Britain and France (1897), the USA (1903), Germany (1905), etc. Secondly, European
powers possessing colonies adjacent to Ethiopia delimited their respective common boundaries
between Ethiopia and their colonies, in the years between 1897and1908. This gave birth to the
present shape of Ethiopia.
Adwa seems to have drawn the attention of the international community to Ethiopia, the country
that had scored the first major black victory over the whites. It is true that in southern Africa the
Zulus had also scored a victory in a battle against whites in that century. Although the Zulus had
defeated and destroyed a British force in 1879 at Isandhlwana, Britain succeeded in winning the
overall Zulu War. On the one hand, journals and newspapers published in Europe for some weeks
after Adwa produced the pictures of Menelik and Taytu on their front pages. They criticized, from
many angles, the “tragedy” (for Italy) of the loss of the colonial battle. On the other hand, after
Adwa, foreign travelers, merchants and other Europeans from different nations came to Ethiopia.
Therefore, the Adwa victory has been a symbol of national pride. Indeed, it has made succeeding
generations of Ethiopians more determined to guard the independence of the country at all costs.
The effect of military defeat for Italy on the other hand, was disastrous. It created a profound shock
and anxiety in Italy and there were widespread disturbances. In major cities of Italy, there were
demonstrations, some of them bearing slogans like, Viva Menelik! Viva Taytu!. The demonstrators
demanded the court-martial of General Baratieri, the release of Italian prisoners of war and the
withdrawal of Italy from Africa. The government of Crispi, the Italian Premier, fell amid abuse
and serious criticism. In consequence, Crispi resigned immediately. Baratieri had to leave the army
and ended up in prison.
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An Italian diplomatic mission came to Ethiopia and signed the Treaty of Addis Ababa with
Emperor Menelik on 26 October 1896. The treaty concluded the Italio-Ethiopian dispute. Italy
agreed to the cancellation of the Wuchale Treaty and recognized the complete independence of
Ethiopia. Ethiopia, too, agreed to the continuation of Italian colonial control over Eritrea and the
release of Italian prisoners of war. Of course, the government of Italy did not withdraw from Africa,
despite the anti-colonialist protest at home. But it was forced to reduce the colonial budget for
some years and postponed its colonial ambitions in Ethiopia.
The echo of Adwa was very well heard in Britain as well. The concern Britain showed to this black
victory against a white colonial power was understandable. Britain had many colonies in Africa in
general, and was a colonial neighbor of Ethiopia, in particular. Moreover, the success of the British
plan of blocking possible expansion of France towards the White Nile became questionable with
the defeat Italy suffered. Therefore, Britain was forced to revise her former policy of wait and see
with regard to Mahdist Sudan (1885-96). As a result the British government hastened to conquer
Sudan in the name of Egypt, and a joint army of Britain and Egypt invaded the Sudan in 1896. The
Battle of Omdurman (1898) marked the fall of the Mahdist state and the establishment of the so-
called Anglo-Egyptian Condominium rule over the Sudan.
Nonetheless, this British success did not stop the French from moving to the White Nile,
simultaneously from west and east Africa. Menelik wanted to exploit the Anglo-French rivalry
over the White Nile for his own plan of expanding his empire. From West Africa, a French capitain
named Marchand led an expedition to the upper Nile. A small French force under
Marchand and a large British force faced each other at a place called Fashoda in the Sudan in
1898. Bloodshed at Fashoda and war between Britain and France were avoided by the withdrawal
of the French. This left Sudan to the colonial rule of Britain, though it was called Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan. Thus, it could safely be said that the fear and anxiety the Adwa victory created among
European colonialists precipitated the colonization of Sudan, an African neighbor of Ethiopia.
Another expression of the value given to Adwa victory as a torch-bearer of black nationalist
struggle was the emergence of religious separatist movements collectively known as Ethiopianism.
At face value, the movement seemed religious, using such names like Coptic, Abyssinian and
Ethiopian. The essence of the movement was, however, firm resistance against white domination.

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 UNIT SUMMARY
Empire building and the struggle for the survival of Ethiopian independence were two of the major
events of the second half of the nineteenth century. Emperor Tewodros’ attempt to reunify Ethiopia
was not successful. He faced resistances in different provinnces which led him to take very harsh
measures. Externally he engaged in conflict with Britain due to the imprisonment of the British
diplomat, Consul Camerron. The British government sent an army led by Robert Nappier to evacuate
the imprisoned diplomat and other European citizens. Tewodros’s army fought against the British force
at the battle of Eroghe, near Meqdella. His army was defeated and finally he committed suicide on
April 13, 1868. After the death of Tewodros, there were three contenders to assume the throne, namely:
Dejzmach Kassa Mircha of Tigray, Wagshum Gobezie Gebre Medhin of Lasta and Menelik Haile
Melekot of Shewa. Tewodros’ unsuccessful attempt to reunify Ethiopia was resumed by his successors,
particularly under Emperor Yohannis IV and Emperor Menelik II. Emperor Yohannes IV applied
different strategy than Tewodros, giving political autonomy for regional lords, which enabled him to
bring internal peace and unity. Externally Emperor Yohannes IV fought against Egypt, Italian and
Mehadist forces. Finally at the battle of Mettema, he was killed by the Mehadist forces on March 10,
1889. Emperor Menelik II conducted a large-scale territorial expansion and incorporated many areas.
At the battle of Adwa, the Ethiopian people under Menelik II defeated the Italian army in 1896 and
maintained Ethiopian independence. The death of Emperor Menelik was followed by a power vacuum
which Taytu, Iyasu, Zewditu and Teferi attempted to fill. The question of royal succession to Menelik’s
throne was finally and conclusively settled only with the accession to power of Teferi Mekonnen as
Emperor Haile Selassie I in 1930.
In 1935 Italy launched a war of aggression against Ethiopia to satisfy its desire for colonial possessions
and to avenge the humiliating defeat it suffered at Adwa. Although the Ethiopian forces were defeated
in conventional warfare, they conducted a nationwide struggle which confined the Italian rule only to
the major urban centers. Following Italy’s declaration of war against Britain and France in June 1940,
the British intervened in the war of liberation against the Italians. The combined troops of the British
and the Ethiopian patriots defeated Italian colonial army which marked the regaining of Ethiopian
independence in 1941.

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Review Questions
Choose the best answers from the following alternatives.
1. In the struggle for power between Empress Zewditu and Ras Tefari, who supported the
empress?
A. The Shoan nobility C. The young
B. Commercial class D. Peasant
2. The period between 1916 and 1930 in Ethiopia:
A. Saw the rise of absolutism
B. Was dual rule between Empress Zewditu and Ras Tefari
C. Was an increasing of decentralization
D. Was marked by continuous civil wars
3. Which of the following regions welcomed Menelik peacefully?
A. Wolaita C. Harar
B. Keffa D. Jimma
4. Ethio-Italian relation reached its climax during:
A. The signing of Neutrality in 1887
B. The Italo-Menelik friendship in 1876/83
C. The Wuchale treaty of 1889
D. After the Battle of Adowa and Addis Ababa Treaty
5. ______ was an American war general who fought against Yohannis IV being a staff of Egyptian
at the battle of Gura.
A. General Kitchener C. Geneal Kilnton Arrendrup
B. Genneral Werner Muzniger D. General Loring
6. Which of the following battles affected the foreign policy of Tewodros II?
A. Maqdala B. Deressge C. Ayshal D. Debarqi
7. The main issue discussed in the article XVII of Wuchale treaty of May 1889 was:
A. The right and duties of Italian residents in Ethiopia
B. How to facilitate trade between the two countries
C. Ethiopia’s relation with neighboring countries
D. The role of Italy in Ethiopia’s foreign relations

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8. The main objective of Menelik’s territorial expansion in the post- Adwa period (1896-1906)
was to:
A. Create buffer zone between Italy and Ethiopia
B. Control areas that are rich in natural resources.
C. Strengthen his military power in relation to Europeans
D. Reincorporate the medieval Ethiopian territories
9. Ethiopia’s agreement of help in the safe evacuation of trapped Egyptian army via Massawa to
Egypt was stipulated in the articles of:
A. Wuchale Treaty of 1889 C. Addis Ababa Treaty of 1896
B. Borumed Conference of 1878 D. Adwa Treaty of 1884

10. What led to the overthrow of Iyasu from his political power in 1916?
A. Desire to undermine the Ethiopian Orthodox religion
B. Conversion to Islam
C. Conflict with the Turks and the Germans
D. Conflict with the Shewan nobility
11. The constitution of 1931 was designed to:
A. Grant political rights to the people
B. Restrict the influence of the church
C. Increase the power of the nobility
D. Grant legal ground for the power to the monarchy
12. Which statement best describes the problem of succession in the early 20th century
Ethiopia?
A. The country was disturbed by internal power struggle.
B. Ethiopia had peaceful relation with foreign powers.
C. Internal peace had lasted longer.
D. Ethiopia was politically disintegrated.
13. What was the reaction of Emperor Menelik to problems that arose during his illness?
A. He established a Council of Ministers
B. He officially announced Ras Tefari as regent
C. He appointed Habte Giorgis Governor of Sidama
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 D. He opened embassies in Europe.
14. What was the main cause for outbreak of Kifu Qan (1888-92)?
A. Famine B. Drought C. Cattle epidemics D. Italians invasion
15. Why did Tewodros II fail in his realization of attempted reforms?
A. The reforms were too radical.
B. The Europeans did not support him.
C. He was considered to be an illegitimate ruler.
D. He faced stiff resistance from the Church and regional lords.
16. Which of the following measures of Emperor Yohannis IV brought total opposition against
him?
A. Administrative decentralization and religious centralism
B. Religious decentralization and political centralization
C. Absence of religious tolerance and insecularism
D. His favor for British diplomacy and safe evacuation of trapped Egyptians
17. The enmity between the Mahadists and Emperor Yohannis IV began after:
A. Ethiopia took away Gallabat in the Sudan from them.
B. Ethiopia defeated their invading army near Gondar
C. Ethiopia allied with France and Italy against them.
D. Ethiopia helped Egyptians surrounded by them to escape
18. Why did Emperor Yohannes IV not take any action against the challenges of Menelik
immediately after his coronation in 1872?
A. To solve his conflict with Menelik peacefully
B. To meet first external threat from Egypt
C. To strengthen his power before facing Menelik
D. To isolate Menelik from his northern supporters
19. Which one was not a factor for the defeat of Ethiopian troops by Fascist forces in 1935-36?
A. Italians’ air superiority and use of mustard gas(yiprirght)
B. Ethiopians’ poor military logistic and lack of coordination
C. Competition among patriots in order to hold throne of the emperor who was exiled
[Link] of enough geographical knowledge and updated information about Italians

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20. Ethiopia’s agreement to help the safe evacuation of trapped Egyptian army via Massawa to
Egypt was stipulated inarticles of:
[Link] Treaty of 1889 B. Burumeda Conference of 1878
C. Addis Ababa Treaty of 1896 D. Adowa Treaty of 1884
21. Which one did Tewodros II achieve in the early times of his reign?
A. Abolishment of slavery and slave trade
B. Completion of forming modern empire
C. Establishment of national army
D. Repeated victory over regional Lords
22. Which one of the following is correct about the Council of Borumeda?
A. It facilitated the outbreak of Muslim resistance led by ShaykhTolha.
B. Ethiopian Muslims were allowed to practice their faith fairly.
C. Amede Liban and Mohammed Ali rejected conversion to Christianity.
D. Soset Lidet and Tewahdo were declared as official doctrines.
23. One of the following had no relevance to the long-distance trade of Ethiopia in the 19th C.
A. The wide use of paper money
B. Exchange of ideas and beliefs among people’s trade relations
C. Connecting the inland trade with sea out lets
D. Generating armed conflicts for monopoly of trade routes
24. The reign of Tewodros II was characterized by:
A. Politically united and peaceful Christian Empire
B. Church-state conflict emanated from the land reform of Tewodros
C. Completion of the process of empire formation
D. British colonial occupation of Ethiopia
25. British diplomatic intervention in Ethiopia, on behalf of the aggressor nation, was evident first
in:
A. Gordon’s mission C. Hewett treaty
B. Napier’s expedition D. Portal’s mission
26. Identify the wrong combination of Egyptian army commanders and their directions in their
attempt to invade Ethiopia.
A. Mohammed Rauf pasha - Zeila to Harar

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 B. Munzinger - Tajura to Afar
C. Arrendrup - Adulis to Axum
D. Mohammed Rattip Pasha and General Loring - To Gura
27. Which of the following battles of the 19th c Ethiopia was between two regional lords of Menilik
and Teklehaymanot?
A. The Battle of Deberqi C. The Battle of Dogale
B. The Battle of Embabo D. The Battle of Kufit
28. All of the following are issues passed by the Treaty of Lich agreement except:
A. Yohannis recognized King Menelik as ruler of Shoa.
B. Menlik agreed to pay annual tribute to Yohannis.
C. Yohannis agreed to stop the title King of Kings
D. Menelik agreed to stop independent contact with foreigners.
29. Egyptian aggression over Ethiopia was encouraged by all of the following developments
except:
A. Success of British at Euroghe in 1868 considered Ethiopia as weak.
B. They believed that internal political turmoil and regional rivalries following the death of
Tewodros weakened Ethiopia.
C. The opening of Suez canal had strategic and economic advantage.
D. It was realized that Europeans might not assisted Ethiopia.
30. A period of no peace no war between Ethiopia and Egypt ended when:
A. Hewett Treaty was signed C. Battle of Gura
B. Massawa was restored to Ethiopia D. Mahadists were defeated at Kufit
31. Which of the following was an immediate result of Ethiopians victory at the Battle of Adwa?
A. Popular call in Italy for revenge against Ethiopia via demonstration
B. The recognition of Ethiopian independence by Italians
C. Official declaration by Italy that it would end its colonial adventures in Africa
D. The signing of an agreement to fix the boundary between Ethiopia and Eritrea
32. What was the first stronghold of Italy in East Africa?
A. Assab B. Massawa C. Saati D. Adwa
33. Who was the architect of Egyptian aggression to Ethiopia?
A. Colonel Arrendrup C. General Lorring
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 B. Werenar Munzinger D. Sir William Hewett
34. On 26 October 1896, Italy recognized the absolute independence of Ethiopia by the Treaty of;
A. Addis Ababa B. Rome C. Brussels D. London
35. Before the rise of Tewodres II, the Christian kingdom went through a period of great crisis called;
A. Dark Age C. Era of ward lords
B. Golden Age D. Great famine (kifu Qan)
36. The Battle of Mettema paved the way for the;
A. Withdrawal of Egyptians from Ethiopia
B. Coronation of Menelik as Emperor of Ethiopia
C. Withdrawal of Mahdists from Egypt
D. Fall of the Mahdist State
37. The aim of the 1906 Tripartite Treaty of Britain, France and Italy was to:
A. Protect Ethiopia from Egyptian expansion
B. Recognize Italy as colonizer of Ethiopia
C. Partition Ethiopia into their spheres of influence
D. Delimit Ethiopia’s boundary lines
38. In order to be accepted as member of the League of Nations, Ethiopia was required to:
A. Sign a treaty of peace and friendship with Italy
B. Eestablish a government that is acceptable to Europeans
C. Eradicate slavery and slave trade from her territory
D. Pay war indemnity to Italy
39. Which of the following was a measure taken by Lij Iyasu?
A. Abolition of the tradition of Lebashy and Quaragna system
B. Establishing the first hospital in the country
C. Establishing the first bank in the country
D. Abolition of the Gebbar-system
40. According to the Hewett (Adwa Treaty), Ethiopia agreed to do one of the following; which one?
A. To help the safe evacuation of Egyptian forces trapped by the Mahdists
B. To help the establishment of British naval base at Masswra
C. To stop importing firearms through the port of Assab
D. To give the region north of the Mereb River to Egypt

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41. In what sense can it be said that the Ethiopian victory at Adwa was incomplete?
A. In the sense that the Ethiopians suffered greater casualties
B. In the sense that the victory at Adwa was not followed up diplomatically
C. In the sense that it did not force the Italians out of the territories beyond the Mereb
D. In the sense that Menelik severely punished too many Ethiopians for collaborating with
the enemy
42. What was the main factor for the failure of Lij Iassu to consolidate power?
A. His failure to accommodate the wishes of Europeans
B. His casual treatment of Shoan notables
C. His friendship with Somali chiefs
D. His favoritism towards Islam

43. Menilek’s expansion to the South was different from that of his predecessors in that:
A. It was directed against the imperialists.
B. It was only against his rival Negus T/Haymanot.
C. It was interested in spreading Christianity.
D. In its intensity and unprecedented degree of success
44. The Italian aggressors entered into the bloody battle of Adwa because of:
A. Article III of the Wuchale treaty of 1889
B. Their unpreparedness to challenge Ethiopia
C. Menelik’s attempt to evict them from Eritrea
D. Their colonial ambition of expansion as manifested in article XVII of the Wuchale Treaty
45. Which of the following is true about the creation of the Ethiopian Empire in the 1880s and
1890s?
A. It brought peace and tranquility to the conquered regions.
B. It was supported and encouraged by European colonialists.
C. It was achieved through a combination of war and diplomacy.
D. It endangered the survival of Ethiopia as an independent state.
46. Which of the following explains the defeat of the Italians at the Battle of Adwa in 1896?
A. The Ethiopians had superior armament.
B. Both parties had equal numbers of soldiers and military weapons.

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 C. The gallant Ethiopian soldiers were highly committed to fight a just war in defence of
their motherland.
D. The Italians were not trained enough to fight an unjust war launched by Mussolini.
47. Who was the last king of Kafa who surrendered to Menelik’s rule in 1897?
A. Tato Graki Serocho C. Abba Jifar
B. Kawo Tona D. Kumsa Morada
48. Who was the commander- in- chief of the Italian forces at the Battle of Adwa?
A. Dabormida B. Baratieri C. Arimondi D. Grazziani
49. Identify the incorrect statement:
A. Emperor Tewodros II united all of the present-day Ethiopia though he lost control of some
parts towards the end of his reign.
B. The 1931 Constitution of Ethiopia democratized the country and ended the autocracy of
H/Selassie I.
C. The Orthodox Church stood against Emperor Tewodros, chiefly, because he took away
Church land and limited the number of priest and deacon per church.
D. As a result of the Battle of Adwa, Ethiopia recovered all her territories which had been
lost to Italian colonialists.
50. One of the following is not true about Emperor H/Selassie I?
A. He introduced the first written constitution
B. He built-up military power at his service
C. He attempted to systematize revenue collection
D. He established the first Council of Ministers
51. Auditing of government property started during the reign of :
A. Tewodrous II B. Yohannis IV C. Lij Iyasu D. Menelik II

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 CHAPTER SEVEN
MAJOR GLOBAL DEVELOPMENTS
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit students will be able to:
- Examine the causes, courses and consequences of the two world wars
- Analyze the feature of the global system in the interwar period
- Analyse how and why the world powers created the League of Nations and United
Nations
- Discuss the main features and process of the cold war
7.1 The Two World Wars
I. The basic causes of the First World War were:
A. Imperialist rivalries
B. Colonialism
C. Militarism
D. Creation of military alliances (blocs)
E. Nationalism
A. Imperialism and rivalry for colonies
One of the basic causes of the First World War was the economic and political rivalries among
industrialized nations of Europe. The economic and political rivalries were the result of the
development of capitalism. The development of capitalism gave rise to an intense economic
competition among the major powers of Europe to establish and expand empires. In Europe,
countries like Germany, France, Britain, Austria- Hungary, Russia, and Italy competed one another
over economic interests, territory, recognition, great power status and prestige. All except Austria-
Hungary and Russia also competed outside Europe for the control of overseas colonial possessions.
These developed countries also competed for raw materials, new opportunities of investment and
profitable market for their finished goods.
This conflicting interests and overlapping ambitions inevitably led them to clashes. On several
occasions before 1914, conflicting interests drew several European countries to the brink of a
large-scale war. For instance, France and Britain were in bad terms when Britain established a
unilateral control over Egypt in 1882. The relation between these two countries went from bad to
worse which culminated into the Fashoda crisis of 1898, in the Sudan where the armies of the two
countries were about to fight. In 1911 and 1912, Italy and Turkey fought for the control of Libya.

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Germany and France were on the verge of fighting for the control of Morocco. Britain later
intervened on the side of France in 1911. This incident came to be known as the Agadir Crisis.
These and other similar incidents further strained the existing tension.
B. Militarism and the arms race
The growing contradictions and strained relations created a sense of insecurity among European
powers. At the turn of the century, the leading European powers were in a state of fierce
competition to get themselves ahead of their rivals in terms of armaments and military power. The
main subject of discussion in many parliaments of Europe was the issue of military budget. France,
after her defeat in the Franco-Prussian war (1870 - 1871), was busily engaged in building her
military power. The French nationalists criticized the government for the defeat France suffered.
Moreover, they demanded the government regain the provinces of Alsace and Lorriane which they
lost to Germany in 1871. Following its unification Germany became one of the most powerful
countries in Europe. In order to maintain its position, Germany increased its military budget more
than ever before.
Early in the 19th century, Germany expanded her navy, much to the delight and pride of German
nationalists and to the alarm of the British. Britain's economy depended on her trade routes. The
safety of these routes depended on the strength of the Royal Navy, the British Naval force. A
remarkable achievement along this lines was the fact that Britain built the most powerful battleship
in 1906. On the other hand, after three years, in 1909, Germany also built a similar battleship.
The European powers carefully assessed each other's strength in terms of armed forces. They
increased the size of their respective armies and improved their war materials. In almost all
countries of Europe, national military services had been made a standing obligation for citizens.
In addition to these there was propaganda, which stirred up the national feelings of each citizen.
C. Creation of military alliance
After the Franco-Prussian war, Bismarck followed a policy of isolating France. He put this policy
into effect by approaching his former enemy, Austria-Hungary, in 1879. Austria- Hungary and
Germany concluded a treaty of friendship that came to be known as the “Dual Alliance”. Three
years later, Italy joined hands with members of the Dual Alliance to form a stronger military bloc
called “Triple Alliance”.
The formation of the Triple Alliance created fear on the part of other European powers. In 1907

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Britain, France, and Russia signed a friendly understanding in what was later called the “Triple
Entente”. Thus, Europe was divided into two hostile military camps. In both blocs, the members
pleged themselves to give military aid in case of aggression against one of the members.
However, Britain’s commitment was not clear and formal to its partners. Italy was also an
unreliable member of the Triple Alliance. Ofcourse, Italy stayed as member of the Triple Alliance
only until 1915. She joined the Triple Entente in that year.
D. Nationalism
In the nineteenth century Europe, nationalism proved to be the main source of armed conflicts. In
Italy and Germany, nationalism had achieved national unity. But it had affected other European
countries in some ways. For instance, the German unification had humiliated the French people.
After this victory over France in the Fraco-Prussian war (1870 - 1871), Germany forcefully took
the French provinces of Alsace and Lorriane. Moreover, the coronation of Wilhelm (Willhelm) I
as the Emperor of United Germany was conducted in the French palace of Hall of Mirrors at
Versailles. This created a desire for revenge among the French and waited for an opportune time
to regain their lost provinces.
More than any part of Europe, nationalism and national discontent was very high in the Balkan
region. This made the region a storm center at the eve of WWI. Beginning from the 1820s, the
people of the Balkans had fought wars of liberation against their oppressor, Ottoman Turkey. As a
result, five Balkan states namely; Greece, Bulgaria, Rumania, Serbia and Montenegro appeared
on the map of Europe as independent states. However, many of these states felt that their
independence was incomplete. This was because a large number of their fellow nationals were in
provinces such as Bosnia, Herzegovina and Macedonia. The first two provinces had been under
Austria-Hungary’s control since 1878. The other, Macedonia was still part of the Ottoman Empire.
Russia supported Serbian nationalism and with Russian approval, the Balkan states Serbia,
Motenegro, Bulgaria, and Greece formed a league that was known as the Balkan League. In the
First Balkan War of 1912, the Balkan League defeated Ottoman Turkey and took Macedonia.
Shortly after, members of the League quarreled among themselves over the division of the territory
which they acquired from Ottoman Turkey. This quarrel led to the Second Balkan War of 1913. As
a result of this war, Bulgaria lost almost all her gains from the first Balkan War. Serbia became
bigger and stronger and now wanted Bosnia, which was still part of Austria-Hungary. This became

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the main cause for the quarrel between Austria- Hungary and Serbia that finally led to the outbreak
of the First World War (W.W.I).
The Balkan crises of 1912 - 1913 brought Russia and Serbia closer together, and intensified the
hatred of Russia and Serbia for Austria.
II. The immediate cause of the war
The immediate cause for the outbreak of the First World War was the assassination of the Austrian
crown prince, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie on June 28,1914, at Sarajevo, the
capital of Bosnia. The assassin was Gavrilo Princip, a 19 year- old Serb nationalist. Although the
assassination did not take place in Serbia, Austria-Hungary held the Serbian government
responsible. This was because of the existing tension between the two that resulted from the
continuous Serbian nationalist agitation against Austria. Before taking any action against Serbia,
Austria- Hungary sent her envoy to Germany to know the attitude of Germany regarding the
situation. Emperor Wilhelm I of Germany assured the envoy that Germany would support any
action Austria-Hungary might take against Serbia. This statement of assurance Germany gave to
Austria-Hungary came to be known as a diplomatic ''Blank Cheque''. Thus, Austria-Hungary sent
an ultimatum to Serbia. Serbia refused to accept a demand which appeared to violate its
sovereignty. This was the demand for the involvement of Austria-Hungary's officials in the
investigation of the assassination and trail of the assassin. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia
on July 28, 1914. Following the declaration of war on Serbia, the European powers in hostile
military blocs joined the war one after another. Russia, which considered herself to be the protector
of the Slavs and Orthodox states of the Balkan, came on the side of Serbia. Russia also wanted to
uphold her great power interests and prestige in the Balkan region and started war mobilization
order. In response to Russia's war mobilization, Germany sent an ultimatum to Russia and then to
France. Russia refused to halt its mobilization and France refused to promise the neutrality required
from her.
Following these developments, Germany declared war first on Russia and then on France, on 1
August 1914 and 3 August 1914, respectively. Britain had not decided whether to stay neutral or
join the war on the side of Russia and France. However, Germany invaded Belgium on August 3,
1914, an action which threatened Britain's own security. Britain declared war on Germany and her
allies on August 4, 1914. Britain’s declaration of war marked the official beginnings of the First
World War.
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The Course of the War
The War was fought between two major military blocs- the Allied Powers and the Central Powers.
By the end of 1914, the warring nations had:
Allied Power Central Power
Britain (bloc leader) Germany, (bloc leader)
France Austria-Hungary
Russia Bulgaria (until 1917)
Belgium Turkey
Serbia
Italy (joined in 1915)
USA (joined in 1917)
The First World War was fought in different parts of the world. However, the main theatre of the
War was Europe. In Europe, the War was fought on two fronts: western and Eastern. The Central
Powers, situated in between the British and French forces in the West and Russia in the East, were
compelled to fight on two fronts. This was the situation which Germany had planned to avoid in
its war strategy that was drawn sometime before 1905. This war strategy was known as the
Schlieffen plan, named after its author Alfred von Schlieffen, Chief of Staff of the Germany army.
The plan assumed that Russia would mobilize slowly and the Belgians would give little or no
resistance. Therefore, the Germans would inflict a sudden and crushing defeat on France, forcing
her to make peace, and then would turn to the Eastern Front against Russia.
On the basis of the Schlieffen Plan, Germany started the First World War on the Western Front
with a massive attack on France by going through Belgium and Luxemburg. Contrary to the
assumptions of the Schlieffen Plan, the Belgians put up a heroic resistance and delayed the
Germans for a little time. However, the Germans managed to push back the British and French
forces that had been sent into Belgium and defeated French attacks along the Franco-German
frontier. By September, a month after the beginning of the War, the Germans were close to Paris.
The French government evacuated Paris and moved to Bordeaux. At this critical moment, the
French commander, General Joffre, gave battle to the advancing Germans on the Marne River.
The battle of the Marne lasted for nearly a week (September 6 -12, 1914) and finally the Germans
were driven back, though not very far.

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Despite their success at Marne, the French generals were unable to follow and expel the Germans
from the area. This was the second mistake of the War in the very first week. The French believed
that attacking was best than defence, thus had thrown their best troops against the advancing
Germans in the center and south. For this reason, they were beaten and pushed back. Meanwhile,
on the Eastern Front, Russia moved faster than the Germans had expected. The Russians invaded
East Prussia from the south and east. They also invaded the province of Galicia in Austria-Hungary.
This victory did not last long and the Russians made the third mistake. In August, the Russians
and the Germans fronted one another at Tanenberg, north- eastern part of present Poland. The
outcome of the battle was heavy loss and defeat for the Russians.
Why did Italy join the war?
On the Western Front, the two sides searched for each others weak points to break through. They
found none. They built a long trench which ran from Belgian coast across northern France to the
Swiss border. This long trench covered nearly 600 miles. By 1915, the war had reached a deadlock.
It became clear that neither side could defeat the other quickly. During this time, many battles were
fought, but no side could claim a conclusive victory. The only significant event of 1915 was that
Italy joined the war on the Allies side. The Allies bloc won Italy by promising, that if they achieved
victory, Italy would get her lost territories from Austria (her claims from Austria). They had also
promised to give certain parts from the Turkish Empire. Then, Italy declared war on Austria-
Hungary in May 1915.
In the east, the Germans advanced into Russia and the Russians advanced into Austria. In 1916 the
deadlock continued. With the entry of Italy, the Allies got little advantage. In four battles with
Austria, the Italians gained little ground. The Russians also faced heavy loses in battles they fought
with Austria- Hungarian and German armies in 1915-1916. The only success so far by the Allied
forces was the conquest of Germany's overseas colonies. Soon Britain decided to open the
offensive to the Dardanelles by taking the peninsula of Gallipoli (Turkey). The offensive was
aimed at taking Constantinople. This was to put out the Ottoman Turkey from the war and it was
decided that offensive would make it easier to supply Russia and strengthen Serbia and possibly
leading to the collapse of Austria-Hungary. However, the Gallipoli campaign failed due to strong
resistance of the Turkish army. This Turkish force was led by General Mustapha Kemal. The Allies
had to give up their offensive war in 1916.

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Besides this, the great fleets of Germany and Britain clashed once at the Battle of Juteland in the
North Sea in 1916. Defeat for one side would have meant much more than the loss of a fleet. This
would have given to the other side complete control of the trade routes to and from Europe. So
they developed a war of blockade. Both sides tried to disrupt each others trade routes and prevent
vital foods and raw materials reaching the enemy. This was by laying minefields at sea and by
using a new kind of warship, the Submarine. The German submarines had caused huge damages
on the British ships until mid-1917. The British defended its merchant ships by escorting safely
across the seas by war ships. While the German navy forced the British government to ration their
people's food, the British navy ensured that Germany’s people suffered even worse shortages.
The year 1917 was crucial in the course of the War. In this year, two significant events took place.
One of these events was the outbreak of a popular revolution in Russia, in March 1917. The main
factors for the outbreak of this revolution were economic hardships, and disastrous defeats the
Russian army suffered on the war fronts. This brought about the down fall of the Tsarist regime
and the establishment of a Provisional Government. This Provisional government was a bourgeois
government. It had seized power in March 1917. This government continued the War against the
will of the Russian people who were already exhausted of the War.
The Bolsheviks, who won the support of the masses, staged the second revolution on November
7,1917 and overthrew the Provisional Government. Immediately, they signed an armistice
(ceasefire) with the Central Powers. This armistice was signed on March 3,1918 at the town of
BrestLitovsk. (hence the Brest-Litovsk Treaty) resulted in Russia’s withdrawal from the First
World War.
Another event of great importance was the entrance of the USA into the War on the side of the
Allies. Up to then, the USA had remained neutral in what was considered a European War. The
policy of the USA which stuck to American neutrality was changed as a result of the War at sea.
In the War, as mentioned above, the Allied powers aimed at blockading the Central Powers so as
to force them to surrender from lack of food and supplies. But Germany responded by sinking both
war ships and merchant ships by its submarines. The German U-boats (submarines) sank many
passengers and freight vessels which had many Americans on board. This inflamed American
public opinion against Germany and led the USA to declare war on Germany on April 6, 1917.

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America's entry into the War dramatically changed the balance of power in favour of the Allies. It
boosted the morale of the Allied forces. America’s fresh resources, both human and material,
arrived in Europe and devastated the war efforts of the Central Powers.
In the spring of 1918, the first Unified Allied command was created in the west under Marshal
Foch. The Allied forces crushed the last desperate offensive of the Germans and pushed them back.
Hence, the Central Powers began to crumble one after the other. Bulgaria was the first to surrender
on September 30, 1918. In October, some of the subject peoples of Austria-Hungary broke away,
and Emperor Charles fled the country. The same month, the Ottoman Empire surrendered. In
Germany, on November, a revolution forcedEmperor, William II (Wilhelm II) to abdicate. The
next day, he fled to Holland. Finally, on 11 November 1918 at 11.00 A.M on the 11th day of the
11th month, (11,11,11,1918) the Germans signed an armistice (cease -fire).
End of the War and its Consequences
Peace Treaties
The purpose of the cease-fire agreement (Nov. 11, 1918) was to stop the fighting as it did. It had
been followed by a peace treaty/treaties signed by the warring nations through which they would
settle their disputes and establish an enduring peace. To this effect, a series of treaties were signed.
The peace talks started with the Paris Conference held in 1919. The dominant figures in the peace
conference were the so called ''Big Four'' namely, Prime Minister Lloyed George of Britain, Prime
Minister V. Orlando of Italy, Premier Clemnceau of France, and President Woodrow Wilson of the
USA.
Allies held the view that the Central Powers were responsible for the destruction of the War caused
and they had to be punished for it. With this in mid, the Big four came up with their own proposals.
Clemenceau insisted on imposing harsh terms on Germany so as to prevent it from becoming a
strong military power again. Orlando of Italy demanded the rest of the Allied powers to fulfill what
they had promised to Italy when she joined the War in 1915. Lloyed George hoped to maintain a
balance of power in Europe without weakening Germany too much. President Wilson stood for an
enduring world peace that would be realized by applying his Fourteen Points. On the whole, the
final settlement seems to have more or less satisfied British and French interests, though France
was bitterly disappointed at not being allowed to annex German territory up to the River Rhine.
It was against this background, the Allies signed the Treaty of Versailles, in June 1919, with the
leading member of the Central Powers, Germany. The treaty turned out to be harsh and dictating
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as the victors liked it to be. According to this treaty, Germany lost all her colonies in Africa. These
colonies were given to Britain, France, Belgium and South Africa as trust territories (Mandatory
rule) to be administered under the supervision of the League of Nations. Germany also lost her
colonies in the Pacific Ocean, which were divided among Japan, Australia and New Zealand.
Alsace and Lorriane were given back to France.
In the East, Germany surrendered almost all lands of Poland which she had gained during the
partition of Poland in the 18th century. Danzing with a predominantly German population was
incorporated in the Polish tariff system (nominally) as free city. Germany also lost upper Silcsia
to Poland although a plebiscite (1921) indicated a German majority throughout the greater part of
the disputed territory. Some small districts like Eupen, Morcsnet, and Malmedy were transferred
to Belgium and a plebiscite in the province of Schleswig gave part of Schleswing back to Denmark.
The German army was reduced to 100,000 men and the army would not possess heavy artillery,
tanks and aircraft. The German navy was limited in size and number of ships and could have no
submarines. Germany was also forced to pay a financial compensation called reparations that
amounted to $ 6,600,000,000. Infact, it did not pay even half of this amount. The Rhincland was
made a demilitarized zone. This treaty had imposed harsh terms on Germany.
Subsequently, the Allies signed similar treaties with other Central Power partners. On September
10, 1919, the Treaty of Saint German was signed between the Allies and Austria which had already
become a state on its own.. This treaty limited the Austrian Republic to an area one tenth the size
of the former Habsburg Empire. Some of Austria-Hungary's former territories went to the new
republics of Poland and Yugoslavia, and to the Kingdom of Italy. On June 4, 1920, a separate
settlement called the Treaty of Trianon was signed between the Allied Powers and Hungary which
was formed as separate from the dismembered of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
The treaty of Sevres was signed between the Allies and Ottoman-Turks on August 10, 1920.
According to this treaty, the former Ottoman territories in the Middle East were given to Britain
and France as trust territories. Syria and Lebanon went to France, while Iraq, Palestine and Trans-
Jordan were given to Britain. The Allies even tried to partition Asia Minor, the heartland of Turkey.
However, a successful movement of Turkish nationalists, led by Mustapha Kemal (Kemal Ataturk,
as he was known since then) aborted this plan and established an independent Turkish Republic in
1923. The Allies signed the treaty of Lausane in 1923 with the new republic. In general, the terms
of most of these treaties were harsh and unjust which caused strong reaction and resentment in the
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defeated nations. Especially, the Versailles Treaty was extremely harsh which was denounced by
the Germans as the 'diktat' i.e, a dictated peace forced on Germany. Indeed, as it is pointed out by
many scolars, the Treaty of Versailles sowed sees of future war rather than establishing peace in
Europe.
The Second World War
After the end of World War I, there was a general belief that it was the end of all future wars. Many
of the Allied statesmen also thought that the Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations would
ensure a lasting peace. Contrary to these expectations, however, the two decades which followed
the end of World War I witnessed widespread conflicts. The post - war governments in almost all
European countries had to face political, economic and social problems. Particularly Italy was hard
hit by these crises.
In the years immediately after the War, there was widespread popular unrest in Italy. The unrest
was the result of popular uprisings. Workers in leading industries went on strike. In others, they
shut down production and took over factories after the example of the Russian Bolsheviks.
Peasants also revolted against wealthy land owners. Meanwhile, the wealthy landowners and the
town middle class feared a communist revolution. Italian nationalists and soldiers who served in
the Italian army were also dissatisfied with the terms of the peace settlement.
Although Italy was one of the Allied Powers and a victor nation, it faced various problems after
the war. Among the problems were the accumulated war debts, economic depression and
unemployment. These problems caused widespread political and social unrest. The post - war
government of Italy was unable to control the situation. The prevailing dissatisfaction and chaos
created a favourable condition for the rise of Fascists to power in Italy in 1922.
What do you understand by “fascism”?
The leader of Italian Fascists was Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) who had fought in the First
World War as a corporal. Before the War Mussolini was a socialist. But, during the War, he
abandoned socialism and became an ardent nationalist. In the war years, Mussolini developed new
ideas about government which he called "fascism". The word "fascism" originates from the Latin
term "fasces", which was a bundle of sticks bound together with an axe, that served as a symbol
of power and unity in ancient Rome. Fascism was a political movement that propagated "the unity
of all social groups under the control of a nation state". According to Mussolini, fascism was the
dictatorship of the state over many cooperating classes. Fascism was extremely nationalistic.
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Fascists maintained that whatever the cost, the cause of the nation had to be promoted. According
to fascists, national goals could be advanced by means of war and conquest.
Mussolini used all the discontents and fears of the people for his own political end. He promised
to establish strong law and order, to end social unrest and protect private property. To nationalists,
Mussolini promised to restore Italy's greatness. To capitalists and landlords, Mussolini's movement
was a defence against communism. In addition, Mussolini won the support of some of the workers
by promising job security and other benefits such as old age pensions and insurance. By doing so,
Mussolini and his Fascist Party won popular support which encouraged him to take state power.
Accordingly, in October 1922, the Fascists organized a big march to Rome. The government was
divided on the action to be taken. Some urged King Victor Emmanuel III, the then King of Italy,
to declare martial law. But the King rather appointed Mussolini as Prime Minister. At this time,
the Fascists did not have a majority in the parliament. Therefore, Mussolini made arrangements
for an election to be held in 1924. In this election Fascists won majority seats in the Italian
parliament. Using this situation to his advantage Mussolini then swept into power. He called
himself "Il Duce" or "The Leader" and took into his hands the destinies of Italy, as dictator, in the
following years.
Germany was another country where the consequences of the War gave rise to Fascism. Nazism
was the German version of Fascism. When Germany lost WWI, her Emperor, Wilhelm II fled to
Holland. The government which took power after Wilhelm's departure was weak. The weakness
of the government was further worsened when groups of Communists known as the Spartacist
League staged an armed rising in January 1919. The rising was crushed, but there remained the
fear of another communist revolution in Germany which lasted to 1923.
What did the situation look like in Germany of the immediate post-war years?
The suppression of the communist insurrection was followed in 1919 by elections to a Constituent
Assembly. The Assembly held its meetings in the town of Weimar and carried out the task of
writing a new constitution for Germany. After six months in session, the work on the constitution
was completed and a republican regime was set up. The republic was called the Weimar Republic,
after the town where the Constituent Assembly held its meeting.
The Weimar Republic had to deal with a range of problems. One of the problems was related to
severe economic set backs. According to the Versailles Treaty, Germany had to pay a huge sum of
reparations to the Allied Powers. The reparations were fixed at £6,600,000,000. In 1922 the
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German government announced that it was not able to pay the reparations. To enforce payment,
France sent troops to occupy Germany’s industrial Ruhr area, to collect reparations in the form
coal and steel. Opposing French occupation, German workers went on strike. The German
government tried to cover the expense by printing more and more paper money. The consequence
was a serious inflation, a situation where the amount of money in circulation was very high with a
very weak buying power. Although inflation was finally stopped and the economy recovered, it
ruined German economy and weakened the Weimar Republic politically. There was a wide spread
blame on the Republic for resentment to the Treaty of Versailles and the inflation which followed
the War.
During these troubled years, several parties emerged in Germany. One of those parties was the
Nazi Party. The full name of the party was the National Socialist German Workers’ Party. The party
grew in power especially after Adolf Hitler (1889 - 1945), a veteran of World War I, became its
leader. He joined the party in Munich, a city in southern Germany where Hitler settled after serving
in the German army during the First World War.
As soon as Hitler became the leader of the Nazis, he organized a private army known as the
Stormtroopers (SA) or “Brown Shirts”, named after the colour of their uniform. The members of
the Brown Shirts were recruited mainly from young German war veterans and street hooligans. In
November, 1923 Hitler and his Brown Shirts staged a coup de’ etat (German: putsch) to take power
in Munich. But the German police suppressed the coup. Upon the failure of the coup, Hitler was
brought to trial and sentenced to serve a five- year prison term. Is it possible to argue that Mein
Kampf was a blue print to Hitler's future actions? Why?
The time in prison was important in the political career of Hitler. This was because, during his time
in prison, Hitler wrote an autobiography entitled Mein Kampf (My Struggle). The book described
the ideology of Nazism and Hitler’s future plan to make the Germans dominant in Europe.
According to Hitler, the Germans were a “master race” who deserved to rule. He blamed the Jews
and the Communists for Germany’s defeat in the First World War. On the whole, all policies and
practices the Nazis carried out after taking power in Germany were already stated in Mein Kampf.
The years that followed Hitler’s release from prison in December 1924 marked the period of
economic recovery and political stability in Germany. Under such conditions, Hitler and the Nazis
could not get the support of the general public. However, the period of economic recovery and
political stability was short lived. In 1929 German economy collapsed because of the economic
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crisis that hit the whole world. The economic crisis was the result of the Great Depression which
lasted from 1929 to 1933. The immediate cause of the depression was the Wall Street stock market
crash in America in October 1929. The fundamental causes of the depression are still controversial.
Periodic economic crisis had been common in the capitalist economy. But the economic crisis
caused by the Great Depression of 1929 – 1933 was exceptionally severe. All industrialized and
other nations of the world were hard hit by the Great Depression. It was very severe in the United
States. In many countries workers lost their jobs. In the USA alone around 16 million Americans
were unemployed in the early 1930s.
How did Hitler get the chance to become German Chancellor in 1933?
The Weimar Republic was one of the European states which were bitterly affected by the Great
Depression and the economic crisis it resulted. The Great Depression stopped foreign loans,
especially US loans. Workers lost their jobs. Many enterprises went bankrupt. The desperate
situation brought Hitler and the Nazis once again to the political scene. Many Germans began to
listen to and appreciate Nazi propaganda, and became Nazi supporters. But until 1932 the Nazis
were a minority in the Reichstag, the German parliament. In the election of 1928, for instance,
they won only 12 seats in the Reichstag. But in the election of 1932, they won 230 seats. Although
the Nazis became the largest party in the Reichstag, they were still short of a majority. In 1933,
there was political deadlock among the political parties in Germany. This was because none of the
parties obtained a sufficient majority to form government. To solve the crisis, Paul Von
Hindenburg, the President of the Weimar Republic, offered Hitler the office of Chancellor, that is,
head of the government (Prime Minster).
After taking the office of Chancellor, Hitler arranged for a new election to be held in 1933. The
aim of the election was to win a sweeping majority for the Nazis in the Reichstag. To achieve this
aim, communist influence among the workers had to be reduced. A week before the election, the
Reichstag building caught fire and burned. Without any evidence, Hitler accused communists as
being responsible for this criminal act. It is important to note that on one occasion Hitler wrote:
“The great masses of people . . . will more easily fall victims to a big lie than to a small one.”
(Mein Kampf). Whoever was really responsible for the Reichstag fire, Hitler intended to reduce
the support communists had among the workers. In this he was successful. Civil rights were
suspended, and many communists were arrested. As a result, in the election the Nazis obtained
sufficient seats in the Reichstag that gave Hitler full powers to rule, in effect, as a dictator. Hitler
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took the title “Leader”, Fuhrer in German. Soon afterwards, Hitler started to take aggressive
measures which ultimately led to the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939.
How did the peace settlements made at the end of WWI instigate another world war?
The fundamental cause of the Second World War was deeply rooted in the peace settlements made
at the end of World War I. As has been argued by many writers, the peace settlement sowed the
seeds of a future war. Public opinion in Italy and Germany was strongly opposed to the peace
treaties. The fascist regimes which came to power in both countries were determined to reverse
the peace settlement and restore their lost glory through war and conquest. In Japan also militarist
groups who took power in the early 1930s followed a similar policy of achieving greatness through
territorial expansion, which targeted East and South East Asia and the Pacific. Thus, the aggressive
policies of Italian fascists, German Nazis and Japanese militarists finally forced the world to face
another destructive war in the twentieth century.
Japan took the lead in waging aggressive war on its neighbors. In September 1931, the Japanese
army conquered Manchuria, the northern province of China, and set up a puppet government
named Manchukuo for Manchuria. China appealed to the League of Nations. When the League
condemned Japan as an aggressor and told it to withdraw from the Chinese territory, the Japanese
announced their withdrawal from the League of Nations on 27 May, 1933. Further aggressive
expansion of Japan against China finally led to the outbreak of open war between Japan and China
in July 1937.
The Japanese boldness in 1931 encouraged Italy to make a similar move against Ethiopia. In
December, 1934, the Fascists unleashed the Walwal Incident which was followed by a full scale
invasion of Ethiopia in October, 1935. Emperor Haile Sellassie appealed to the League of Nations
upon which the League condemned Italy as an aggressor and imposed certain sanctions on it. But
the League’s action did not stop Mussolini from his military conquest in Ethiopia. He achieved a
quick victory over Ethiopia by using poison gas which was against international law. An
international agreement of 1925 had forbidden the use of poison gas. Italy had signed this
agreement but Mussolini had no intention of keeping it. In fact large stocks of mustard gas had
been sent to Eritrea prior to 1935 ready for use in the war against Ethiopia. In May 1936 the Italian
army led by Marshal Badoglio occupied Addis Ababa. On the whole, the Failure of the League of
Nations and the western powers to take effective action against militarist Japan and Fascist Italy

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for their criminal act in Manchuria and Ethiopia meant the end of collective security, and a return
of the old principle of "might is right."
Then came the turn of Hitler, whose aggressive actions were responsible for the outbreak of the
Second World War in Europe. Hitler took the following aggressive actions against the Treaty of
Versailles as well as against international law:
i) The introduction of national military service in 1935 violating the Treaty of Versailles which
limited the German ground force to only 100,000 men and prohibited conscription.
ii) The German armies occupied the demilitarized zone of the Rhineland in March 1936. It is to
be recalled that the German army had been forbidden entry into this part of Germany by the
Treaty of Versailles. Germany continued to rearm at a rapid pace.
iii) In March 1938 German armies annexed Austria. For a long time, Hitler had dreamed of an
“Anschluss” that is, the annexation of Austria. As early as 1924, Hitler wrote in Mein Kampf that
“German – Austria must return to the Great German mother country . . . one blood demands one
Reich. [state]” This dream was realized when Austria was annexed by the German army in March
1938.
iv) In 1938 and 1939, Czechoslovakia became a target for Hitler’s policy of German expansion.
The crisis over Czechoslovakia marked the last phase in the move towards the war, and therefore,
it is important to treat this subject at length.
Czechoslovakia held a strategic position in Eastern Europe. In particular, the Sudetenland, an
economically important and heavily fortified region in north western Czechoslovakia along the
German border, was the target of Hitler’s aggression. There were about 3 million Germans who
lived in the Sudetenland. At the time, these Germans were on bad terms with the Czechoslovak
government which provided Hitler a pretext to move against Czechoslovakia. Hitler in fact
encouraged Sudeten German leaders to complain of Czech "oppression" and make demands. On
12, September 1938, Hitler demanded the Czechoslovak government to give the right of self –
determination to the Germans of the Sudetenland. The Czechoslovak government not only refused
to accept Hitler’s demand but also declared martial law in the territory. In an effort to avert war,
the British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, agreed to meet Hitler to discuss the problem. The
French government also gave support to Chamberlain’s effort. The issue was discussed at the
Munich Conference in September 1938. How was appeasement put into action at the Munich
conference?
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In what came to be known as the Munich Agreement, Germany was allowed to annex the
Sudetenland. In return, Hitler promised to respect the sovereignty of the rest of Czechoslovakia.
He also promised to settle future disputes by peaceful means. Britain and France should, in part,
be blamed for Hitler’s bold moves that finally ended with the outbreak of the Second World War.
In dealing with Hitler, they followed the policy of “appeasement” or satisfying Hitler’s demands.
Above all, Chamberlain was the leading proponent of the policy of appeasement. He hoped to
maintain peace and stabilize Europe by making concessions to Hitler. However, it did not take
much time to prove that appeasement was ineffective in dealing with Hitler and Mussolini. It rather
encouraged Hitler to continue with his plans of aggressive expansion. Moreover, the attitude of
the western power at Munich confirmed his opinion that the west would not go to war with
Germany in defence of an East European power.
Why did Britain and France refrain to react to Mussolini's invasion of Ethiopia? When Hitler
violated the Treaty of Versailles by introducing national military service and occupying the
demilitarized Rhineland, Britain and France did nothing. After the Italian invasion of Ethiopia,
Britain and France refrained from taking effective action. They feared to antagonize Mussolini and
push him into alliance with Hitler. Despite their caution, however, the Fascist military bloc was
formed. In 1936 Mussolini announced the formation of a Rome – Berlin Axis, which was the
alignment of Italy and Germany. In the same year the two powers as well as Japan signed the Anti
– Comintern Pact (an anti – communist alliance). Soviet Russia was willing to join the western
powers against Germany and its allies. Britain and France refused to accept this policy because
they feared that the formation of such a front would provoke war. In addition, the British and
French governments and their bourgeosie elite disliked the USSR as much as Nazi Germany. When
Hitler invaded Austria, Britain and France refused to be involved in the crisis. Finally, in the
Munich Agreement, they attempted to satisfy Hitler at the expense of Czechoslovakia. On his way
home after the Munich Agreement, Chamberlain was confident that there would be no more
trouble from the Nazis. He trusted that Hitler would keep his promises. However, far from keeping
his promises, Hitler was encouraged to make further moves. On 15 March, 1939, only six months
after the Munich Agreement, Hitler sent his armies into Czechoslovakia and occupied the western
part of the country. In eastern Czechoslovakia a German puppet state called Slovakia was set up.
In the same month, Hitler turned toward Eastern Europe where he annexed Memel from Lithuania.
It was clear that Poland would be the next victim.
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What were the major terms of agreement included in the Soviet- German Non-Aggression Pact of
1939?
Now it became clear to the British and French governments that the policy of appeasement had
utterly failed, though Chamberlain himself still hoped he could get a firm agreement with Hitler.
Therefore, they decided to increase their armaments and also pledged themselves to give military
assistance to Poland, Greece, Rumania and Turkey, if these countries were invaded by Nazi
Germany. Moreover, despite mutual distrust between the Soviets and the Western powers, the latter
wanted to consolidate the anti-German alliance by including Soviet Russia. When they requested
the Soviet Union to join them against the Nazis, the Soviet leader, Joseph Stalin, asked in effect a
free hand for the USSR in Eastern Europe, especially in the Baltic republics and
Poland. Chamberlain refused to accept Stalin’s terms. This pushed Stalin to turn to Hitler. The
consequence was the agreement known as the Nazi – Soviet Non – Aggression Pact which was
signed on 23, August 1939. In the agreement the two sides pledged to remain neutral if one of
them was at war with a third power. They also agreed to divide Eastern Europe into their spheres
of influence. In this respect, Poland was to be partitioned into west and east to be occupied by
Germany and Soviet Russia, respectively. In addition, Finland and the Baltic republics of Estonia,
Latvia and (later) Lithuania were recognized as part of the Soviet sphere of influence.
Except its diplomatic value, both Stalin and Hitler from the very beginning knew that the pact
would have no lasting effect. Stalin calculated that the agreement would give him time to
strengthen Soviet military power. Hitler also wanted the agreement because it would relieve him
of the need to fight the Soviets while Germany fought a war elsewhere, without having to worry
about an eastern front against the USSR. The British and French leaders realized that the Nazi –
Soviet Pact destroyed the last opportunity of stopping Hitler without war. But Hitler still hoped
that the West would not act against him.
Military Aspects of the War
i. The "Blitzkrieg", the "Sitzkrieg" and German Success on the Western Front.
Did the "Blitizkrieg" result in the desired effect in Poland? How?
September 1, 1939 was a historic date as regards to the Second World War. On this day, Hitler’s
army crossed the Polish-German frontier from different directions and invaded Poland. This event
marked the beginning of the Second World War. Two days later Britain and France declared war
on Germany. Whether this declaration of war rescued Poland is a matter to be seen in the
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subsequent paragraphs. In spite of its numerical superiority, the Polish army could not stand the
well armed German attackers. In their invasion of Poland, the Germans employed a war strategy
known as "blitzkrieg", which means a lightning-war. The key principle in this strategy was to win
a quick and decisive victory through the coordinated attacks of the German air force and fast
moving ground forces. The Germans made effective use of this strategy in their invasion of Poland
where a massive aerial strike was followed by a swift advance of the German infantry and
armoured divisions.
The "blitzkrieg" shattered whatever Polish resistance, and in less than a month, much of Poland
was overrun by the German army. On the 30th of September, German troops entered into the Polish
capital, Warsaw. Thus, the poles, with no direct assistance from their western allies which
nominally declared war on Germany, were defeated. Germany annexed Danzig and over 30,000
square miles of Polish territory.
In the meantime, the Soviets advanced quickly into Eastern Poland to get its share of the spoils.
Russia took over 77,000 square miles of Eastern Poland. At about the same time, Soviets also
forced the Baltic states to accept the establishment of Soviet military bases inside their territory
and later incorporated the Baltic states into the USSR (1939-40). Moreover, the Soviets fought a
difficult but finally victorious war with Finland and annexed some Finnish territory. These moves
gave the Soviets some measure of security against the Nazi invasion. But the USSR did not use
the time gained by the Nazi- Soviet Non- Aggression Pact as well as it should have done, for which
Stalin is now blamed.
For about seven months after the Polish surrender, there was no real fighting on the Western
Front. This period has been termed as the “Phony” war. It was also called the “Sitzkrieg” or Sitting
War. The Phony war period came to an end on 29 April, 1940 when the German army invaded
Denmark and Norway. Denmark surrendered after only a few hours but the Norwegian resistance
took the Germans longer to overcome. They overcame the resistance only after the strength of the
German navy was considerably reduced. The next victims of German invasion on the Western
Front were the Netherlands, Belgium and France. On 10 May 1940, the Netherlands was attacked.
At the same time, the Germans attacked Belgium and France along the Meuse River and through
the Ardennes hills, which Britain and France believed, wrongly, to be impossible terrain for tanks.
The French and British High Commands did not anticipate German war strategy. They expected
the Germans to attack through the plains of Belgium as they had done in 1914, in World War I.
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Because of this, British and French forces moved into Belgium to defend what they thought to be
the main German line of attack. But the Germans broke into France through the Ardennes. In only
a few weeks the Germans, having broken through the French line and trapped the Allied army in
Belgium, compelled this Allied force to retreat to Dunkirk, a port in northern France. This army,
numbering more than 300,000 troops, was saved from falling into German hands by evacuating
across the English Channel, but all the equipment was left behind.
Why did Mussolini declare war on Britain and France at the time he did?
The rapid success of the Germans on the Western Front prompted Mussolini to declare war on
Britain and France on 10 June, 1940. Mussolini mistakenly calculated that the War was closer to
its end, while it was just beginning, and wanted to be on the winning side. Four days later, on June
14, Paris surrendered to the Germans. Then the French signed an armistice with Germany, which
came to effect on 22 June, 1940. According to the terms of the armistice, Germany occupied
northern France, including the territory along the Atlantic coast to the Spanish border. In southern
France a puppet government was set up under Marshal Henri Petain in the town of Vichy, hence
the "Vichy government".
ii. The Battle of Britain
After the fall of France, Hitler gave orders to open attack on Britain. The offensive was to be
launched from the air. What forced Hitler’s decision in favour of an aerial strike was the fact that
Germany had to win air supremacy before a full scale invasion of Britain. Therefore, Hitler aimed
at weakening Britain’s defence capacity by destroying the British Royal Air Force (RAF) and its
airfields. The British government was now led by Winston Churchill who had replaced Neville
Chamberlain as Prime Minister of Britain in May 1940. In his first speech to the House of
Commons, Churchill clearly stated his government’s policy in favour of war against Nazi Germany
as follows:
You ask, what is our policy? I will say: It is to wage war, by sea, land, and air, with all our might
and with all the strength that God can give us: to wage war against a monstrous tyranny, never
surpassed in the dark, lamentable catalogue of human crime. That is our policy. You ask, What is
our aim? I can answer in one word: Victory – victory at all costs, victory in spite of all terrors;
victory, however hard and long the road may be; for without victory, there is no survival.
This certainly was a clear message about the firm stand the British government had already adopted
by the time Germany’s air attack inaugurated the Battle of Britain.
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The Battle of Britain had two phases. It started in early August when the “Luftwaffe” (the German
Air Force) began bombing southern Britain. During the first phase, i.e., in August and September,
the Luftwaffe launched its attack in daylight. The aim of this attack was to wipe out British airfields
and fighter planes. But the British RAF used the new detection instrument,
“Radar” (then called RDF – Radio Direction Finding) to locate the attackers beforehand.
Consequently, by counter-attacking, the RAF considerably reduced the German bomber and
fighter planes in air battles. The decisive air actions of the first phase took place between 15 and
21 September, during which the Germans lost some 120 planes.
What was the tactical change the Germans introduced in the second phase of the Battle of Britain?
The second phase of the Battle of Britain started in early October, 1940. At this stage the Germans
changed their tactic from attacking in daylight to night bombing. Through night bombing of
London and British industrial centres, Hitler wanted to destroy British industrial production and
to terrify the population which might induce the British government to ask for peace. Despite large
scale destruction, however, the “Luftwaffe” was unable to paralyse production or break the morale
of the British people. By the end of November, it became clear that Germany had lost the Battle
of Britain. This was Hitler’s first major defeat since the outbreak of World War II. Although Britain
could defend itself from German invasion, it was not strong enough to send an army back into
Europe. Hitler could, therefore, turn against the USSR in the East.
iii. German invasion of the Soviet Union
After his army's failure in the Battle of Britain, Hitler decided on the invasion of the Soviet Union
whose defeat he thought would be accomplished before winter. Of all things, he did not want to
share his hegemony over Europe with a communist dictator, Stalin. From his invasion,
Hitler hoped to get what he called the “Lebensraum” or living space which the vast Soviet territory
could provide for German settlers. He also planned to take the wheat of Ukraine and the oil fields
of the Caucasus. With these aims, the Germans started their attack on 22 June, 1941. The Soviets
responded with a so-called scorched earth policy, which called for destruction of everything that
could be of use to the invaders, while fighting hard as they were pushed back to the interior of the
country. The Germans advanced very fast and in November 1941, they had already penetrated
about 960 kms deep into the Soviet Union. By then, Kiev, the capital city of Ukraine, had fallen.

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Leningrad, one of the major cities, was cut off from any land connection with the rest of the Soviet
Union and put under siege. The Germans were at the outskirts of Moscow. Although the Soviets
were hard pressed by the enemy, they fought with the utmost patriotism. They rallied to the cry
“Behind us is Moscow – there is no room left for retreat!” Consequently, in December 1941, when
the Russian winter set in, the Germans were prevented from taking Moscow and Leningrad.
Hitler's "blitzkrig" failed to bring the desired results in Russia.
Why was the "blitkrig" ineffective in the Russian compaign?
[Link] Attack on Pearl Harbour
Since the conquest of Manchuria in 1931, the Japanese had been engaged in the task of achieving
their ultimate goal of expansion in Asia and the Pacific. In 1937 they launched a full scale invasion
over China which resulted in the establishment of a Japanese-dominated government in part of
China in March, 1940. In the months that followed the Japanese government made it official that
its plan was to establish a “New Order in Greater East Asia”. To this end, the
Japanese adopted the slogan “Asia for the Asians”. They declared that the goal of the Japanese
government was to establish a “Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere”. In fact, the Japanese aim
was to replace Western imperialism by Japanese imperialism and "Co-prosperity" for other Asian
peoples was only a cover. As a step in fulfilling this goal, Japan invaded the Tonkin province in
Indochina. In response, the United States extended a loan to China and stopped the export of scrap
iron to Japan. This prompted Japan to sign a Tripartite Treaty with Germany and Italy widely
known as the "Berlin -Rome-Tokyo Triangle". In the treaty the three powers pledged to assist one
another in the event of attack on any one of them.
When and how did relations between Japan and the USA start to get sour?
In July 1941, Japan extended its control over the southern part of Indochina. This measure strained
relations between Japan and the United States, and soon trade relations between the two countries
were seriously affected. The USA put increasing economic pressure on Japan so as to force its
withdrawal from Indochina and China. Imports of oil and other essential raw materials were denied
to Japan by the USA, and later by Britain. Japan had only two choices: to abandon her conquests
or seize oilfields and areas with raw materials in South East Asia. Japan obviously chose the latter.
But to seize and hold the oil and raw materials which Japan needed in South East Asia, Japan
would need to destroy US power in the region. Therefore, Japan decided to smash US naval and

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air power in the Pacific and East Asia, if negotiations could not change US policy in favour of
Japan.
When the negotiations failed to bring about the expected changes, on 7 December1941, Japanese
bombers launched a surprise attack on the American naval base at Pearl Harbour, in Hawaii. In the
attack of December, 1941, the Japanese sank 19 American ships and destroyed 188 planes.
However, the US aircraft carriers, not present in Pearl Harbour at the time, were saved. The attack
also killed more than 2,400 people and wounded another 1100 or more. On the following day the
United States declared war on Japan. On 11 December, 1941, Germany and Italy, in keeping with
their agreement in the Tripartite Treaty, declared war on the United States. Japan for a time, made
rapid advances in the Pacific and South East Asia. Hong Kong, the Philippines, Burma, Malaya
were occupied.
The World at War
The Pearl Harbour incident made the war fully a world war. The Japanese raid on Pearl Harbour
and the consequent entry of the USA into the war upset the balance of power in the ongoing war.
Until then, Japan's expansion had gone virtually unopposed. This attack had the immediate effect
of solidifying the alliances on both sides. On 8 December, America's declaration of war on Japan
was accompanied by a British declaration of war. On 11 December, Germany and Italy declared
war on the USA. In August, 1942 the war was being fought in several theatres situated in Eastern
Europe, North Africa and the Mediterranean, Burma and China, and the Atlantic and the Pacific.
In the meantime, Italian troops had already invaded Egypt and Greece.
In the winter of 1941-42 Soviet forces opened a counter-offensive and pushed the Germans back
some distance from Moscow. But in the summer of 1942 the Germans opened a new offensive
against the Soviet Union in the south. German troops mounted a major attack against Stalingrad,
a major industrial centre on the Volga River. The city also served as one of the Soviets' lines of
communication. This city was named after the Soviet leader, Joseph Stalin. The fall of the city to
the Germans would have a severe psychological impact on the Soviets’ national pride. Given this,
Stalin and the Soviets were determined to hold the city. Hitler, on his part, was equally determined
to take the city and kept on ordering German forces to continue with their assault. For weeks, fierce
battles were fought at each building, or street. In November 1942, the Soviets launched a major
counter-attack against the Germans fighting in and near the city. In the counterattack the Soviets
encircled the Germans fighting in Stalingrad. At the time, the Germans were already suffering
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from the Russian winter. On 1 February, 1943, the Germans were forced to surrender. This brought
an end to the battle of Stalingrad in which a large part of the German army was destroyed. The
Stalingrad battle was a decisive turning point in the course of World War II. In Europe, the heaviest
fighting was done by the Soviet armies, and the Soviet armies had the heaviest losses.
How did the Allies win the war in Africa?
Elsewhere, fierce battles were still raging. In North Africa, the German forces commanded by
General Erwin Rommel had dominated the desert war since 1941. In 1942 they had nearly taken
Egypt. In late October, 1942, the British and Commonwealth troops under General Bernard
Montgomery launched a major attack against Rommel’s troops. Allied forces landed in Algeria
and Morocco in November 1942. Fierce battles continued in the desert and in Tunisia which came
to an end with the victory of Allied troops. In May, 1943, the Axis forces in North Africa
surrendered to the Allies. Then followed the invasion of Italy in July 1943. Victor Emmanuel III,
King of Italy, deposed Mussolini and appointed Marshal Pietro Badoglio as Prime Minister of
Italy. Although Marshal Badoglio promised Hitler that Italy would continue in the war on the Axis
side, he signed a secret act of surrender to the Allies. Suspecting this, Hitler sent German forces
into Italy which occupied Rome and rescued Mussolini who was put in control of northern Italy.
Heavy fighting went on in Italy until the end of the War but on 4 June, 1944, Allied troops occupied
Rome. Near the end of the War, Mussolini was captured by Italian communists and shot by them.
End of the War
The landing of US, British and Canadian forces at Normandy (North France) or, the invasion of
Normandy, on 6 June, 1944, was a major break through in the Allied reconquest of Europe. This
invasion was named Operation Overlord. The commander of the Allied troops, the American
General Dwight Eisenhower, organized around 150,000 troops, 5,300 ships and 12,000 planes for
the invasion. In preparation for the attack, Allied forces and its war machines and supplies had
assembled in southern England. The Germans knew that there would be an invasion. Nevertheless,
they did not know when and where the invasion would take place. Because of this, they spread
their armies all along the French coast facing the English Channel. The Allied troops launched the
attack along a 96 kms stretch of the Normandy coast. Within a month and a half, they had liberated
almost all of France. In the meantime, General Charles de Gaulle, the leader of Free France,
triumphantly entered Paris on 25 August 1944.
When did the Japanese suffer a major setback in the Pacific war?
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Meanwhile, on the Eastern Front, the Soviets made rapid advances. They liberated the Soviet cities
and territories one after the other. In July 1944, they crossed into the Polish territory. Between
August and October 1944, the major part of Eastern and Central Europe was under Soviet control.
In the Pacific, US forces were in a life and death struggle against the Japanese. The battle of
Midway Island in 1942, fought entirely by carrier borne aircraft, was a decisive defeat the Japanese
navy suffered. From then on, the US forces were pushing the Japanese back in the Pacific and by
1944 were getting ready to invade mainland Japan.
At the end of 1944, the Allied troops advancing from the west, invaded Western Germany. Hitler
decided to mount a counter - attack against the Allies through the Ardennes in order to halt their
advance. Accordingly, the Germans launched the counter-attack in mid-December 1944 but failed
to check the Allies' advance. Indeed, this was the last desperate offensive the Germans made before
they surrendered to the Allies. In the East, the Soviet Red Army had already reached the German
frontier liberating East European countries on their way. On 16 April, Marshal Zhukov,
commander of the Russian forces, launched what proved to be the final attack on Berlin.
Adolf Hitler did not live to see Germany’s surrender to the Allies. He committed suicide a week
before the capitulation of Berlin on May 2, 1945, to the Soviet troops. One of Hitler’s last measures
was to make Admiral Karl Doenitz his successor. On May 7, 1945, Karl Doenitz authorized
Germany’s surrender to the Allies. On that same day, General Alfred Jodl surrendered the German
forces in the West to General Eisenhower. The next day, the German forces in the East surrendered
to Marshal Georgi Zhukov. Thus 8 May, 1945 became VE (Victory in Europe) which marked the
end of the War in Europe.
Despite Germany’s surrender, the Second World War was not yet over. The Allies had to fight the
Japanese in Asia and the Pacific who continued fighting after VE day. The Japanese surrender was
forced by the use of the newly invented atomic bomb. On 6 August, 1945, the first of the atomic
bombs, was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. On August 9, the second bomb was
dropped on another Japanese city, Nagasaki. The bombs caused immense human and material
destruction.
On the days of the bombing, 80,000 people in Hiroshima and 40,000 people in Nagasaki lost their
lives. Long after the bombing, victims continued to suffer and die from radiation sickness.
As a result, the death toll rose to about 200,000

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According to the US President, Harry S. Truman (Roosevelt had died in April 1945), the atomic
bombs were used to hasten Japanese surrender. However, Soviet historians argue that in terms of
military strategy the use of the bombs was not required. Since Japan was the only Axis power still
in the war, its surrender could have been forced without those bombs. Therefore, they concluded
in using the bombs the US intended to demonstrate its power to the Soviets which would have an
impact on post-war international relation. Soviet and some non-Soviet historians have also argued
that the USSR's declaration of war on Japan in August 1945 did more to make Japan surrender
than the use of the atomic bombs. Apart from this, the US might have used the atomic bombs
against Japan to take revenge for, the Pearl Harbour catastrophe. In any case, on 15 August 1945,
the Japanese Emperor, Hirohito, signed the unconditional surrender of Japan that put an official
end to the Second World War.
Consequences of the War
Compared to World War I, the Second World War caused far more damage to material property,
and even greater loss of human life. Several factors accounted for this. First of all, the Second
World War was fought in several theatres (areas). Secondly, in addition to the deaths in the fighting,
there were mass killings in concentration camps. Thirdly, air raids, starvation and disease made
civilian casualties very high. Finally, the air raids caused serious destruction on material property.
It has been estimated that more than 70 million people fought in the war. It is impossible to give a
conclusive figure about war deaths, but probably about 50 million might have died in action. The
USSR lost over 20 million of its population and China probably several millions but the figure for
China is uncertain.
Material destruction caused by the Second World War was far greater than in the First World War.
Almost all ports in Germany, France and other countries were destroyed. Roads and railways were
damaged by repeated bombings. Many bridges were destroyed together with a large number of
locomotives and railway waggons. Many cities and towns and industrial centres such as the Ruhr
were ruined. Warsaw had to be totally built anew. In general, material damages to property have
been estimated at more than two thousand billion dollars ($ 2,000,000,000,000).
What do we mean by the "Holocaust"?
Perhaps the most painful memory of the War was the “Holocaust”. Literally, holocaust meant
wholesale, complete destruction. But in World War II, it meant the mass murder of European Jews
by the orders of Hitler and Nazi officials. As a result of Hitler’s plan of eliminating Jews and other
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minorities, 12 million people were slaughtered. Of these, about 6 million were European Jews,
while the rest were minorities like Gypsies, and Slavs. The mass killing was carried out in
concentration camps, among which the most infamous were Auschwitz, Dachau, Buchenwald,
Belsen and Nordhausen. In these camps the Jews and others worked and lived under horrible
conditions. Many died of starvation and disease. Others were made victims of cruel experiments
conducted by Nazi doctors. Jews, however, were usually marched into gas chambers where they
were killed with poison gas. Such Nazi atrocities had been generally unknown at least in their full
extent, until they were revealed towards the end of the war.
Other Consequences of the War
Another important consequence of W.W.I was that the USA emerged the most powerful country in
the world. But the USA was not willing to use this power in a global scale. It soon started the
traditional policy of ignoring European problems, and stayed out of the League of Nations. The
War took a little more than four years, 1914-1918. It was fought in almost all continents except on
Australian and American soil. About 65 million men were mobilized. Of this figure 8.5 million
were killed, about 21 million were wounded. The civilian casualties were incalculable. The
aggregate expenditure of the belligerent nations was estimated at 35,000,000,000. This figure does
not include the cost sustained in material destruction (roads, machines, factories, domestic and
farm buildings, etc).

The Second World War had also far–reaching political consequences. It helped to accelerate the
struggle for national liberation from colonialism in Asia and Africa, hence, the emergence of many
new independent states in Asia and Africa after World War II. The war also led to the development
of new international alignments. The USA and the USSR became the super powers of the post-
1945 period. Since 1945 there has been a series of crises in almost all parts of the world. In such
crises, the super powers always took opposite sides. On the whole, the great problems created by
the Second World War took many years to solve and in fact, some of the problems have not yet
been solved.
Birth of the League of Nations
More than once, in earlier centuries, proposals aimed at the establishment of a permanent group or
an international organization had been drown up. Such an organization was expected to promote
world peace. Many European statesmen had drafted plans to achieve this goal. Their dream came

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true when the League of Nations was established at the end of the First World War. The League of
Nations emerged as the first international organization meant to keep world peace. In fact, the
covenant of the League, that is its constitution, had already been incorporated into the Treaty of
Versailles. The underlined objective of the League is stated to be settling disputes through peaceful
means such as conciliation, arbitration and judicial procedures. The formation of the League of
Nations was the result of the tireless efforts of President Wilson of the USA and his famous 14
points.
“A general association of nations must be formed under a specific covenant for the purpose of
affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small
states alike". Although W. Wilson succeeded in realizing the formation of the League, he was
unable to get the approval of the US senate on America’s membership into the League. Thus the
US did not become a member of the League. All big nations finally became members of the
League. In 1921 the League membership rose to 51, in 1932 to 57 and in 1934 to 60. However,
Germany was not allowed to join League membership until 1926, and Russia until 1934.
The League's headquarter was located in Geneva, Switzerland, where the first Assembly that
inaugurated the birth of the organization, met in 1920.
The League consisted of different organs, namely:
* General Assembly
* Council
* Permanent Court of Justice or Court of Arbitration
* Secretariat
The Various commissions and committees
In principle, the Assembly was the highest organ of the League. In reality, however, the Council
was the most decesive organ of the League. The council dealt with issues related to peace and
security. Members of the Council were: Great Britain, France, Italy and, Japan and later the number
increased to nine. This council was dominated by the Big Three. For the reason that the USA
declined to join the League and the Soviet Russia had not been accorded official recognition, the
places reserved for these powers on the Council remained vacant. But Germany was granted a
permanent seat on her admission to the League in 1926. In 1933, Japan and Germany announced
their intention to withdraw from membership and in 1934, Russia was admitted and received a
permanent seat in the council. The Permanent Court of Justice was also concerned with legal
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issues, while the General Assembly was primarily an administrative organ. The commissions and
committees were responsible for issues related to labor, the mandated territories and many other
issues from time to time. During the first years of its existence, the League successfully handled
the mediation of some national disputes. However, as years went by the weaknesses and
inefficiency of the League began to manifest as it had no effective mechanism for averting war or
stopping aggression. This was because it had no armed force to enforce its decisions. Thus, when
some states began to violate the principle of the League by following aggressive policies, the
League was unable to stop war and this brought an end to any influence of the organization
(League). For instance, it failed to stop Japanese aggression on Manchuria in 1931 and the Italian
aggression on Ethiopia in 1935-36. In 1931 Japan occupied the Chinese province of Manchuria
and turned it into a puppet Manchu state called Manchuko. The League criticized Japan but nothing
else and the only result was that Japan simply left the League in 1933. The League also failed to
do anything effective about the Italian aggression of Ethiopia.
Some other short comings which discredited the League were:
* The world big power, the USA was not its member (neutrality of the USA).
* Germany and Soviet-Russia were not at the beginning admitted to the league.
* The league was dominated by France and Britain.
* The General Assembly had no effective power.
* The League had no armed force to stop aggressors or to enforce its decisions.
7.2 The Formation of the United Nations Organization (UNO)
In August 1942, President Roosevelt of USA and Prime Minister Winston Churchill of Britain held
a historic conference on the Atlantic coast of Canada. In this meeting they made a joint declaration
known as the Atlantic Charter in which they expressed their commitment to the creation of an
international organization. This laid the foundation for the establishment of the United Nations
Organization.
In January 1942, twenty six nations that took part in the war against Germany met in Washington
and agreed to accept the Atlantic Charter. The following year, China, Great Britain, the Soviet
Union and the United States, met in Moscow and pledged to set up an international organization
that could take the place of the League of Nations.
Between August and November 1944, a conference of delegates from Allied countries met at
Dumbarton Oaks, (near Washington D.C) to implement the Moscow declaration of 1943. In June
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1945, at San-Francisco, representatives of 50 nations approved the charter of the future United
Nations Organization UNO. Then the UNO was formally set up on April 25, 1945.
The goals of the UN are to:
1. Maintain international peace and security;
2. Take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace and
suppress acts of aggression;
3. Encourage international cooperation in solving economic, social, cultural or humanitarian
problems;
4. Develop friendly relations among nations; and
5. Prormote respect for human rights without distinction as to race, sex language, or religion.
The Structure of the United Nations Organization
The General Assembly: It is composed of all member states. Each member nation has one vote
in the Assembly, though it may send up to five delegates to its meetings. It elects the non-
permanent members to the Security Council and the members of other councils and committees.

Security Council: This is the leading organ of the U.N.O. It has five permanent members: Britain,
Russia, the USA, France and China (after 1971). The number of non permanent member states
originally were six, later grew to ten and then fifteen. The non-permanent members are elected
every two years. The permanent members have the right of Veto.

The Council has a military staff committee and has the power to mobilize an armed force under
U.N control. The council may also order the imposition of economic sanctions against offending
nations. The Council controls the election of the Secretary General and the admission of new
members into the organization. It has also the power to send commissions to investigate problems
in areas of conflicts or crisis.
The Secretariat: The secretariat draws its 15000 workers from various member nations. It is
seated at the headquarter in New York. Its major duties include:
Implementing the decisions of the Assembly and Councils;
Bringing issues of major concern to the attention of the General Assembly;
Drawing up an annual report of the organization; and
Coordinating the activities and directing funds for the many specialized agencies.

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The Secretary General
The Secretary General is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the
Security Council for a period of five years. The first UN Secretary General was Trygive Lie of
Norway. In 1952 he was followed by Dag Hammarskjold of Sweden who died in 1961 in a plane
crash, in Congo. U-Thant of Burma, who succeeded Hammarskkiold, served the office for two
terms until 1966. Kurt Waldheim of Austria succeeded U-Thant in 1971 and was succeeded by
Perez de Cuellar of Peru. Then Butros Butros Gali of Egypt came to power. Kofi Anan of Ghana
held the Secretary Generalship since 1997.
The Economic and Social Council
It is assigned by the General Assembly for a three-year term. Its responsibility is to handle matters
related to economic and social affairs. It discusses, and makes recommendations on social,
economic, humanitarian and environmental issues. Through its specialized agencies, it
accomplishes remarkable works. These specialized agencies are the International Labour
Organization (ILO), the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), the World Health
Organization (WHO), the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) and others.
UN-Successes and Limitations: Since 1945, the UN has achieved impressive successes. It stopped
the Civil War in Greece, and the Korean War (1950-53). It halted the religious bloodshed between
India and Pakistan and arbitrated the Arab - Israeli conflict. It also mediated the Suez Canal crisis
of 1956 among Britain, France, Egypt and Israel. In 1948 the General Assembly had adopted the
Declaration of Human Rights- a world charter that gave recognition to the natural rights of man.
In the same year, it approved the Genocide Convention to protect any ethnic group from extinction.
However, the Veto Power enjoyed by some members affects the UN’s very principle of the equality
of member nations. UN’s inability to establish a permanent international armed force is one other
limitation of the Organization. Within the UN, there were political blocs (American bloc, Soviet
bloc, Afro-Asia bloc). This hindered its internal unity and effectiveness.
7.3. The Emergence of the Antagonistic Super-Powers: the U.S.A. Vs the U.S.S.R
World War II was mainly fought in Europe. It resulted in greater destruction in the continent. The
economies of the leading Europeans powers, i.e France, Britain, and Germany were seriously
affected by this war. Thus, their attempts at economic recovery turned out to be a challenging task.
Politically and militarily, they were exhausted and weakened as a result of the war. Unlike the
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above group of states, however, the U.S.A and the U.S.S.R came out of the Second World War
much stronger than they had been before. As a result, they styled themselves as the super- powers
of the post-World War II era.
Before the Second World War, the U.S.A had been following the policy of isolationism. That policy
was based on the assumption that the U.S.A could live in peace if it avoided involvement in the
affairs of Europe and the world. But the two World Wars proved that this policy was wrong, as you
have learned in Units Four and Six of this textbook. Therefore, after 1945, the U.S.A adopted a
policy of active engagement in Europe as well as in other parts of the world.
Except for the island of Hawaii, the territories of the U.S.A had not been battle - grounds for World
War II. Indeed, the U.S.A had served as supplier of war materials, food and manufactured goods
for the Allied forces and states, during World War II. As a result, its agriculture and industry had
expanded during the War. Consequently, it came out of the Second World War richer and more
powerful than it had been in the pre-war period.
Between 1928 and 1945, the Gross National Product (G.N.P) of the U.S.A had grown from 91
billion dollars to 213 billion dollars. After the Second World War, the average income of an
American citizen was two times greater than that of a Briton (British citizen) and seven times than
that of a Russian. In 1950, more than a half of the world’s total motor vehicles were found in the
U.S.A. But this is not to deny the existence of poor quarters (slums) and very poor Americans in
the U.S.A, owing to the uneven distribution of wealth. Nonetheless, the U.S.A was, by far, the
richest country in the worldduring the immediate post-war period.
In 1945, the U.S.A. developed the atomic bomb, the most destructive weapon that mankind had
ever made. It was these atomic bombs that were dropped at the two Japanese cities of Hiroshima
and Nagasaki at the end of World War II. No other state had this weapon until the U.S.S.R built its
own in 1949. Consequently, the USA became a super-power in every sense of the word.
The U.S.S.R had suffered greatly from World War II. It lost twenty million of its citizens, and
many more millions were wounded. Its economy was also in ruins. Russia’s war economy had to
be changed into peace-time economy. Its industries, about 100,000 collective farms, 5 million
homes and some 65 thousand kilometers of rail roads had to be restored and built. Reconstruction
and re-settlement were a policy priority in the immediate post-war period. In
1945, the Gross National Product of the Soviet Union (Russia) amounted to a third of that of the
U.S.A. But by 1953 the gap was considerably narrowed. Since 1949, the U.S.S.R became the
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second country competing for the great power status the USA had already enjoyed. By 1949, two
super-powers could be said to have existed in the world. Those were the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R.
No nation, other than the two, possessed the atomic bomb at the time, though later more states
developed it.
Moreover, the U.S.A and the U.S.S.R. followed two different ideologies (political philosophies)
that were opposed to each another. The U.S.A followed the road of capitalism and the U.S.S.R.,
that of communism. Each was the leader of a group of nations that followed similar ideology.
Each one tried to strengthen itself, and spread its ideology at the expense of the other.
7.3. Division of the World into East and West and the Cold War
At the end of the Second World War, nearly all the countries liberated from Nazi German and
Fascist Italian rule in Eastern and Central Europe became socialist (communist) states. Those
countries were Poland, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Rumania, Czechoslovakia, Albania and
Eastern Germany. Each of them took the official label of “People’s Democratic” state. Later,
nations like China (Bejing), Cuba, North Korea, North Vietnam, etc. joined the socialist group of
states. The socialist states of the world made up the Eastern bloc. They were led by the U.S.S.R
upon which most of these states relied for support and protection. However, later Yugoslavia, and
China shook off dependence on the U.S.S.R. But, the rest of the socialist states remained under
the guidance of the U.S.S.R.
The West was made up of the capitalist nations of the world. The major states in this camp were
the U.S.A., the United Kingdom (Britain), France, the Federal Republic of Germany, (West
Germany), Canada, Italy, etc. The champion of the capitalist world was the U.S.A. Thus, the world
was divided into two camps (blocs), known as the East and the West, since the end of the Second
World War. The East (the socialist camp) and the West (the capitalist camp) were rivals. There was
a persistant struggle between the two to expand their ideology and sphere of influence in the
immediate postwar period. It was this struggle, between the East and the West and the state of
tension that came to be referred to as the Cold War.
As the leader of the socialist bloc, the U.S.S.R had all the Central and Eastern European states
behind it in the Cold War. The socialist states of Europe were all under the rule of communist
dictators. European communist governments shut off their peoples from the rest of the world.

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That was why Winston Churchill of Britain commented in 1946 saying that an “iron curtain” was
drawn between the European East and West.
In 1945, the U.S.S.R. announced to the world that it was prepared to face the West. Malenkov, a
notable diplomat and a future Prime Minister of the U.S.S.R. speaking on Soviet foreign policy
said: There (are) cases in history when the fruits of victory slipped out of the victor’s hands. This
must not happen to us . . . We must, in the first place, consolidate (build) and strengthen further
(our) Soviet Socialist state . . . And we must remember that our friends will respect us only so long
as we are strong . . . There is no respect for the weak ones, and the weak ones get beaten.
In the same manner, in what came to be known as the Truman Doctrine, the American President,
Harry Truman, made it clear to the world that his country’s relations with the U.S.S.R. would be
carried on the understanding that: Unless Russia is faced with an iron fist and strong language, war
is in the making. Only one language do they understand --- “How many divisions have you?” ---
I’m tired of babying the Soviets.
In 1947 elaborating on the above U.S. policy of containment, Truman further added:
It would be the policy of the United States to support free peoples, who are resisting attempted
subjugation (dictatorial rule) by armed minorities or by outside pressure.
The main features of the Cold War were the following:
* A war of words (strong propaganda war)
* Ideological struggle
* Weapons race (competition to build more and more destructive weapons)
* Competition in espionage (spying)
* Economic conflicts (rivalries)
* Expansion in Europe and elsewhere by all means, short of armed fighting
* Building military alliances
* Building military bases in different parts of the world
In 1947 President Truman announced his determination to “contain” or stop the spread of Soviet
power. Thus began the policy of containment which explains the whole essence of US policy as
regards to the Soviet Union. The Truman Doctrine was one among the series of plans and
programmes through which the policy of containment had been put into action. The name Truman
Doctrine was derived from the famous speech of the President in front of the American congress
in 1947. Through the Truman Doctrine, the U.S. gave financial aid to Greece and Turkey. As a

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result of this aid, the two governments successfully overcame communist attempts in their
countries to take power. That was the U.S. policy of containment, which was extended to other
parts of the world, too.
Another plan which was part of containment was known as the Marshall Plan. The Marshall Plan-
so named after the US Secretary of State George C. Marshall-was the US program to rebuild
Europe after the Second World War. In June 1947, George C. Marshall announced the U.S plan to
re-build Europe. The plan called upon the European nations to cooperate in drawing up a plan for
economic recovery. According to the Marshall Plan, the USA would provide money and equipment
required for implementation of the plan. On the basis of this aid, George C. Marshall invited all
countries of Europe to take part in the program. Apparently, the invitation included the Soviet
Union as well. But the Soviets not only refused to take part in the program, but also prevented the
East, communist governments of Central and Eastern Europe from taking part in the program.
Those countries which participated benefited a lot from the program. This was because, under the
terms of the Marshall Plan, the USA supplied 9 billion dollars in four years between 1948 and
1952, to re-build Europe. The plan enabled Western Europe to regain and even to surpass pre-war
production rates in a few years. The Soviets took the plan as a US measure to strengthen non-
communist countries in Europe against the Soviet Union, in particular, and the communist camp,
in general. Consequently, the Cold War tensions were heightened. As was stated above, the Cold
War between the super powers manifested itself in various ways. One of its manifestations was the
formation of hostile (opposing) military alliances. In forming a military alliance, it was the US-led
West which took the lead. The formation of a military alliance among the countries of the West
was precipitated by two crises. The crises occurred in Czechoslovakia and in the city of Berlin one
after the other. In February 1948, Czechoslovakia was taken over by its communists and became
a Soviet satellite. The Czechoslovak crisis was followed by another crisis known as the Berlin
blockade (1948-49). This was Stalin’s measure to force the western powers out of their occupied
zones of Berlin. Just as Germany was divided into four zones of occupation, the city of Berlin was
also divided into four sectors (the US, British, French and Russian). But the city was situated deep
inside the Soviet Zone of Germany. When Cold War tensions heightened, Stalin cut off all land
and water routes leading to the sectors of Berlin under the Western Allies. The people of West
Berlin suffered, from shortage of every kind of supplies. The Western powers started to supply
Berlin by air and in the end the Soviet blockade was lifted.
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The above - mentioned two crises increased Western concern about military defense and quickened
the formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949. The founding members
of NATO included Belgium, Britain, Canada, Denmark, Norway, France, Iceland, Italy, the
Netherlands, Luxemburg and the United States. In 1952, Greece and Turkey also joined the
alliance. In response to this measure, the Soviet Union and its East European satellites also signed
a military alliance known as the Warsaw Pact in the Polish capital in 1955. The original founders
of the Warsaw Pact were the U.S.S.R, Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, the German Democratic
Republic (East Germany), Poland, Rumania and Czechoslovakia. Members of each alliance
system agreed that an attack on one of them would be considered as an attack on all.
The European communist states had also built, earlier in 1949, their own economic organization
called the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance. It was also referred to as the Comecon. The
Comecon was intended to strengthen economic ties among socialist states. The growing fear
caused by nuclear weapons brought statesmen in both camps to their senses to seek solutions for
the relaxation of Cold War tensions. This resulted in the beginning of new policies such as peaceful
co-existence and détente. Under Premier Nikita Khrushchev, before he was removed from power
in 1966, the Soviets adopted a new policy toward the West. This policy was known as “peaceful
co-existence”. To Nikita Khrushchev, peaceful co-existence meant that the Soviets would compete
with the West, but would avoid war. Détente was the West’s equivalent for the Soviet term,
peaceful co-existence. Clearly, there was a desire in both camps to relax the Cold War tensions. In
spite of this, until the 1970s there was little progress in arms limitation talks.
The first positive move towards détente was the conclusion of the Non-Proliferation Treaty in
1968. The treaty aimed at preventing the expansion of nuclear weapons beyond the countries that
already possessed them. By the end of 1971, all permanent members in the UN Security Council
were nuclear powers. Although the treaty did not prevent proliferation of nuclear weapons, it
promoted renewed efforts to limit the armaments of the super powers. In November, 1969, a
disarmament negotiation, known as Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) was opened. With the
beginning of SALT, there arose a growing hope that the further build-up of nuclear weapons, with
their enormous cost, might be minimized. After a long delay, SALT was concluded in 1972. The
move toward détente reached its peak in 1975 when negotiation on SALT was opened. But before
the negotiation could get any further, new East-West Cold War tensions began. The tensions
continued until the Cold War itself finally came to an end as a result of the two successful summit
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meetings (1986- 1987) between President Ronald Reagan of the USA and President Mikhail
Gorbachev of the USSR.
There soon followed, at the beginning of the 1990s, the fall of communism in the USSR as well as
in and East and Central Europe, and the break up of the Soviet Union into independent republics.
The formation of antagonistic military alliances strengthened the arms race between the United
States and the Soviet Union. The nuclear arms race seems to have already started after the first
atomic bombs were used on Japanese cities. This was because Stalin right away ordered the
development of these weapons in Russia at top speed. Nonetheless, until 1949 the United States
was the only country that possessed the atomic bomb. As long as this situation continued, no
country was likely to attack the United States. But the USA lost its status as the sole owner of the
atomic bomb in 1949, when the Soviet Union exploded its first atomic bomb.
Farther than this, scientists and engineers in both Russia and the U.S.A. were working on new
ways to deliver the destructive bombs. In place of planes, experts in both countries sought to build
rocket- powered missiles, which could travel great distances at high speeds. Eventually, the Soviets
won the contest. On October 4, 1957 they put an artificial satellite, Sputnik I into orbit around the
earth. In terms of military strategy, this was a great successbecause rockets which could lift a
satellite could deliver a bomb to any spot on the earth. On January 31, 1958, the United States also
sent its first artificial satellite into orbit. This achievement made it clear that each country could
send missiles over the other’s territory from home bases. As a result, both the Soviets and the
Americans feared the possible outbreak of a nuclear war, but still continued to improve and invent
more and more destructive weapons.
The problem with nuclear bombs was not only their destructive power. There was also the problem
of release of a deadly radioactive material. In addition, the cost of developing and building nuclear
weapons and missiles was very expensive. The super powers had to spend huge sums of money
on weapons and complex defence systems. Another danger with nuclear weapons was lack of
guarantee to stop their proliferation, that is, spread to other countries, as in fact has happened.
Military bases were also built by the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R at different strategic sites all over the
world to safeguard their respective spheres of influence from the reach of the other. In other parts
of the world, ground, naval, and air force bases were also built with the same goals. There was
also strong rivalry in the economic field. For instance, the West European nations formed the
European Economic Community (E.E.C) in 1957. The original founders of the E.E.C were France,
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Italy, the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany), Belgium, Holland and Luxemburg. Later,
other West European states, including Britain, joined the E.E.C. The E.E.C. has now developed
into the European Union. The E.E.C. was built originally to enable its member states to compete
better in world economic activities and relations.
UNIT SUMMARY
World War I was a global conflict that lasted from 1914 to 1918. One of the distinguishing features
of the war was its totality. The peace settlement of World War I was held at the city of Versailles
in 1919. The conclusion of the First World War led to the birth of the League of Nations. The
failurity of the Versailles treaty to resolve the unsettled issues that had caused the Great War would
lay the basis for the outbreak of World War II in 1939.
The inter-war period is the period between World War I and World War II. This period witnessed
the Great Depression and the rise of dictators. The Great Depression (1929-1933) was a massive
global economic recession (or “depression”). The political effects of the depression were
disastrous internationally. The depression helped the militarists to take power in Japan and was a
major factor in enabling Mussolini and Hitler to take power in Italy and Germany. Fascism was
aggressive and violent, which glorified war and violence. World War II was a conflict that involved
much of the globe and is generally accepted as the largest and deadliest war in human history. The
conflict began on September 1, 1939, with the German invasion of Poland and lasted in mid-1945,
involving many of the world’s countries. The war was fought between the Axis Powers and the
Allies. The Axis initially consisted of an alliance between Germany, Italy, and Japan. The Allies
were initially the United Kingdom, including the Commonwealth, France, and Poland, later joined
by the USSR, the United States of America, and China. World War II battles were fought across
the Atlantic Ocean, in Western and Eastern Europe, the Mediterranean Sea, North Africa, the
Middle East, the Pacific and Southeast Asia, and China. In Europe, the war ended with the
surrender of Germany on May 8, 1945.
With the conclusion of the Second World War, the United Nation was established as an
international organization in June 1945, with the objective of maintaining international peace and
security, and boosting global cooperation. Another siginificant incident following the conclusion
of WWII was the emergence of antagonism between USA and USSR. It became the casue for the
beginning of the cold war which divided the world into Eastern and Western bloc. Ideological
competition was at the heart of the cold war. It came to an end in 1989/90.
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Review Questions
Choose the best answers from the following alternatives.
1. A major cause of WWI was:
A. The decline of imperialism
B. The existence of opposing alliances
C. An increase in the act of aggression by England
D. The spread of communism in Europe
2. Which countries formed the Central Powers in the First World War?
A. Britain, France and Russia C. Britain, France and USA
B. Germany, Austria, Hungry &Ottoman Turkey D. Italy, Bulgaria and Japan
3. The immediate cause of the First World War was:
A. Imperialist rivalry
B. The assassination of Franz Ferdinand
C. The clashes between the Allied powers and internal powers
D. Military alliance
4. World War II in Europe contributed to the liberation of Ethiopia because it:
A. Made France remove restrictions on Ethiopia’s import of firearms through Djibouti.
B. Led the American government to provide extensive military support to Ethiopia
C. Allowed Ethiopia to get the help of the British in its struggle against Fascism
D. It forced the Italian government to withdraw its troops from Ethiopia to fight in Europe.
5. Which of the following made the First World War a fully world or global war?
A. The German attack on Belgium
B. The declaration of war on Serbia by Austrio Hungary
C. The rise of the Nazis under Hitter
D. The sinking of British navigation ship, Linear Lutania, by Germany
6. The Second World War:
A. Resulted in the emergence of two super powers
B. Undermined the political position of the colonial powers
C. Became a footing for the cold war
D. All
7. During World War I, the balance of power changed:

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 A. When British involved in the war.
[Link] Italy shifted military alliance.
C. When USSR joined the War with the Allies.
[Link] USA declared war on Germany.
8. What qualified the US and the USSR for superpower status after World War II?
A. Their involvement in ideological war C. The owning of Atomic Bomb
B. Their respective military role in World War II D. Their economic and military strength
9. In what ways did the assassination of Franz Fedinand become immediate cause for WWI?
A. It led Austrio-Hungary to present unacceptable demand to Serbia.
B. It ended Russo-Serbian alliance and made Serbia easy to attack.
C. It helped Germany to push Austrio-Hungary to declare war on Russia.
D. It forced Germany to push Austrio-Hungary to declare war on Russia after ultimatums &
blank cheque.
10. Why was the League of Nations established at the end of World War I?
A. To resolve international disputes and avoid the outbreak of war
B. To allocate reparation money to the victorious nations in a fair fashion
C. To fight against the development of extreme ideologies like Fascism
D. To spread the ideas of self-determination and gradual decolonization
11. Which one of the following is not a basic cause for the outbreak of WWII?
A. Emergence of antagonistic political parties in Europe
B. Long- term effect of WWI and failure of peace treaties signed after World War I
C. Socio-economic and political crisis as well as economic depression
D. Invasion of Poland by Germany
12. Britain’s stated reasons for declaring war on Germany in 1914 was:
A. French attacks on German colonies
B. U.S entry in to the War
C. Serbian assassination of Franz Ferdinand
D. Germany’s invasion of Belgium

13. Which of the following political parties in Russia demanded World War I to an end on the
Russian side and signed Brest-Litovsk treaty with Germany?

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 [Link] B. Mensheviks C. Provisional government D. White Armies
14. Britain was dragged into WWI as result of:
A. The German invasion of Belgium
B. The German invasion of France
C. The ultimatum of Germany to Russia
D. The assassination Archduke Franz Ferdinand
15. What was the objective of the Schleiffen Plan?
A. Avoiding war at the two fronts
B. Engaging battles on the two fronts at a time
C. Controlling Russia before invading France
D. Ensuring the neutrality of Belgium to invade France
16. All except one is the basic cause for the outbreak of WWI?
A. Nationalism C. Militarism
B. Industrial revolution D. Assassination of Austrian prince
17. Which of the following is not the result of WWI?
A. Three dynasties of Europe namely, Romanov, Hunbasburg and Hollenzollern,
flourished.
B. New nations like Turkey and Austria emerged.
C. Germany and its allies lost the game.
D. The League of Nation was formed as a peace keeping organ of the world.
18. The two countries that came out much stronger than they were before the Second World
War?
[Link] and Britain C. Britain and Italy
[Link] and France D. USA and USSR
19. According to the Schleffen plan, the military objective of German offensive in WWI was:
A. To defeat first France on the western front before moving against Russia on the eastern front
B. To defeat first Russia on the eastern front before opening war on France on the western front
C. To defeat the British in the English channel before moving towards Russia in the eastern front
D. To fight against France on the western front and Russia on the eastern front at the same time
20. The first open violation of the covenant of the League of Nations against aggression was:
[Link] Italian aggression on Ethiopia

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 B. Japanese aggression of Manchuria
[Link] German attack on Poland
[Link] Russian invasion of Poland
21. On which of the following events of WWII did Nazy German got support from USSR?
[Link] annexation of Sudentenland
[Link] invasion of Poland
[Link] occupation of Czech
D. The Attack on Denmark and Norway
22. The USSR and USA became super powers after WWII because both:
A. Managed to develop atomic bombs
B. Were founding members of UNO
C. Had the only veto rights in the Security Council
D. Built their economy by lending loans to Europeans
23. The USA government joined the Allied forces in December 1941 due to :
A. The attack of Pentagon by the Nazi
B. The interest of the USA to help Britain and France
C. The attack of Pearl Harbour by the Japanese
D. The request of the USSR to join the Allied powers.
24. The militarist Japan unconditionally surrendered after the attack of:
A. Alacce & Larraine C. Yokohama & Tokyo
B. Heroshima & Nagasaki D. Kiyoto & Yokohama
25. Adolf Hitler had proposed the occupation ( invasion) of the USSR since 1941 and the name of
the operation was:
A. Operation cylon C. Operation Barbarosa
B. Operation Yellow D. Operation Desert Storm

26. During the inter-war years (1919 – 1939), African resistance to European colonialism:
A. Was pushing for complete independence.
B. Resorted to rural armed struggle.

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 C. Was centered on towns and pressed for reforms.
D. Completely died out.
27. Why did Italy shift from the Triple Alliance to Triple Entente?
A. The promise of Britain and France to let it control Ethiopia
B. Its strong opposition to the dominance of Germany
C. Its conflict with Austria
D. The promise it got about possessing Austrian and Turkey territories
28. What was the immediate cause for the beginning of the First World War?
A. The assassination of Franz Ferdinand
B. The Austrian annexation of Bosnia Herzegovina
C. The Agadir Crisis
D. The naval race of Britain and Germany
29. The Dual Alliance was concluded between:
A. Italy and Austria C. France and Britain
B. Austria and Germany D. Russia and Germany

CHAPTER EIGHT
AFRICAN MOVE TOWARDS INDEPENDENCE
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit students will be able to:
- Discuss the role of pan Africanism movement for African independence
- Describe the different phases of African struggle for independence

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 - Examine the roles and developments of OAU and AU in the development
of Africa
8.1 Resistance and revolts
Before establishing colonial rule in Africa, Europeans had to overcome the African resistance.
The Africans did not, at all, welcome the European rule. In fact, the African reaction to the
imposition of colonialism was not the same everywhere. In some parts of Africa, the Europeans
got the collaboration of Africans and used the divide and rule system to occupy the areas they
desired.
Some Africans developed strong military institutions based on centralized political system. It is
possible to consider two examples of African resistance from East and West Africa. In German
East Africa, in what has now become mainland Tanzania there was resistance against the German
colonialism and it was named the Maji- Maji Rebellion (1905-1907). This rebellion started in
1905 when Africans refused the imposition of forced labour. Within short period, the rebellion
engulfed much of German East Africa. The rebel warriors attacked all foreigners with out
discrimination. The rebels caused much destruction and killed several foreigners. In 1906 the
Germans started a cruel suppression. The rebel villages were burned and their crops were
destroyed. In 1907 the rebellion came to an end and over 26,000 Africans were killed as the
result of this revolt. In addition to this, tens of thousands lost their lives due to hunger or sickness.
Another example is Samore’s struggle against the French expansion in West Africa (18821898).
He was a Mango warrior who confronted the French around the Niger River. His clash with the
French started in 1882 with the first armed conflict which took place at Keniera. He did not only
fight the French with arms but through diplomatic means as well. He tried to play off the British
against the French. Samore was able to get modern weapons from Sierra Leone on the coast.
Later he was cut off from his supply of arms, and finally he was defeated by the French in 1898.
There were also other several instances of Africa resistance to European colonial expansion.
Nevertheless, Ethiopia was the only African country which succeeded in warding off European
colonialism.
Several factors accounted for the failure of African resistance. Firstly, Africans were not united
to challenge the European conquests. Secondly, the Europeans had the advantage of modern fire
arms which the Africans did not possess. European troops were disciplined, experienced and well
trained. Thirdly, Europeans signed deceptive treaties with Africans, like for instance, the Treaty
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 of Wuchale, aTreaty signed between Emperor Menilik and Italy. Because of the factors
mentioned, Europeans were in a better position to crush African resistance. In many cases,
European colonial rule in Africa lasted for about sixty or seventy years. During this period the
Europeans employed different forms of colonial administration.
8.2. Pan-Africanism
Pan-African movement passed through a number of phases before it became a movement for
African unity. Pan-African movement initially was mainly concerned with black communities of
African ancestry who lived in North America and the Caribbean Islands. These black people had
come from different, African peoples and cultures. But they had lost their cultures and languages
during the time of slavery. After being liberated from slavery, they remained the victims of
American and colonial racism. Thus, they were united by their color and by their sufferings. In
the 19th century, some of these black people came to believe that they could not be free and equal
if they continued to live in America. They resorted to the idea returning back to Africa where they
could become free and equal. This led to the development of a "Back to Africa" movement.
The same idea developed further into a notion that all black people should unite in defense of their
common interests and against racism. In its first form, pan-African was in fact Pan-Black " or "Pan
– Negro" movement which took shape out side Africa. Even in its early stage, it also stood for the
defense of Africans in Africa. The First Pan-African Congress was held in London in 1900. One
of the actions of this Congress was to protest to Britains Queen Victoria against racist rule in South
Africa and Rhodesia.
Following this Congress, the liberating ideas of Pan-African movement found their way into
Africa. Edward Hlilmot Blyden (1832-1912), Burghardt Du Bois (1869-1963), and others
propagated the idea of Pan-Africanism in Africa. The second congress was held in Paris in 1919;
the third was in London and Brussels in 1921; the fourth in London and Lisbon in 1923; and the
Fifth in New York in 1927.
After the Fifth Congress the ideas of pan-African Movement developed towards a new form. In
this new form, the "pan-Black" idea grew into Pan-African. This idea reached its full development
with the Sixth Pan-African Congress, held in Manchester in 1945. The six panAfrican Congress
was attended by Du Bois, Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya, Nnamdi Azihwe
of Nigeria, and the well known South African writer, Peter Abraham. This historic congress
adopted a resolution demanding independence for Africans and an end to colonialism.
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The First Conference of Independent African States was held in Accra, Ghana in April 1958. The
Second Conference convened in December of the same year in the same city. United Arab Republic
(Egypt), Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia attended the Conference.
Leaders of liberation fronts from all over Africa also attended this Conference. Both Conferences
called for the independence of the entire continent from colonialism.
In the meantime, regional grouping began to emerge in Africa. One such regional group, composed
of ex-French colonies was the Brazzaville Group. The group was originally organized by France
in 1944 and was further strengthened in 1958. Even after independence, the members advocated
close connections with France.
As many new independent states emerged, each state began to devise its own internal and external
policies. Egypt, Ghana, Guinea and Mali wanted to foster social and economic changes to make
their political independence more real. These nations believed that the existing poverty, divisions
and the continued dependence on the former colonial powers were making African independence
less meaningful. They criticized what they called neo-colonialism which made African states
economically dependent on their former colonial masters. They, therefore, proposed the creation
of larger union of states that would gradually evolve to a continental union. The most radical of
these was the proposal for the "United States of Africa" put forward by Kwame Nkrumah. With
this common ground and vision, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Egypt and Morocco held a conference of
their own in the Moroccan town of Casablanca in 1961. They came to be known as the Casablanca
Group.
Another group of African states met in the Liberian capital of Monrovia. This group constituted
several independent African states including Ethiopia and Liberia. The group was commonly
known as the Monrovia Group. Its members shared many views in common. All believed that
their own internal problems must be solved first before the establishment of an inter-state political
union. The group, however, believed in the necessity for a coordinated effort among
African states for economic development. Nearly all of the Brazzaville Group members later joined
this group. In spite of this division into groups, African states came together at Addis Ababa and
established the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) in May 1963.
8.3 The Organization of African Unity
The idea of forming the Organization for African Unity (OAU) was the result of the Pan-African
Movement. As was pointed out earlier, one of the ideas expressed in Pan-Africanism was the desire
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for African unity. To achieve this goal, the necessary steps had to be taken by Africans themselves.
An opportunity for that appeared in 1957. In that year Ghana became the first black African country
to gain independence after World War II. The first leader of independent Ghana,
Kwame Nkrumah was one of the African nationalists to participate at the Manchester Pan-African
Conference of 1945.
How did the OAU come into existence?
In April 1958, Nkrumah invited all independent African countries to an All-Africa People's
Conference at Accra. Eight independent African countries: Ghana, Egypt, the Sudan, Tunisia,
Morocco, Libya, Liberia and Ethiopia participated in the Conference. This Conference was
important for two reasons. Firstly, representatives of nationalist movements from 28
nonindependent African countries attended the conference as observers. The intention was that
from what they saw at the conference, nationalist representatives could hasten the process of
independence in their respective countries. Secondly, many of the resolutions of the Conference
became corner-stones for OAU that was established five years later. One of those read: The
member states declared that they would observe a policy of 'positive neutrality'. They pledged
themselves to observe one another's political and territorial integrity and to settle their differences
by conciliation and mediation within the African community.
The main objective of the Accra Conference was to set up the Organization for African Unity.
However, with regard to the structure of the organization, there was no consensus among African
states. This led to the emergence of two groups of states with different ideas.
In 1961, the two groups held separate conferences at Casablanca and Monrovia. Afterwards, they
were identified as the Casablanca Group and the Monrovia Group. The Casablanca Group included
Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Algeria, Egypt and Morocco. The Monrovia Group consisted of Sierra
Leone, Liberia, Nigeria, Togo, Ethiopia and Libya. The Casablanca group was led by Kwame
Nkrumah. States in this group were regarded anti-Western, while those in the Monrovia group
were considered as pro- Western. Their attitude towards the ex-colonial powers was one point of
difference between the two groups. More than this, however, the main point of difference between
the two groups was the issue of a unified Africa under one government and one head of state.
Nkrumah advocated the creation of a single African state, each African state giving up its
sovereignty. His proposal would reduce the new nation-states to mere provinces of the continental
state.
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But most African states wanted "functional cooperation rather than integration”. This and other
points of difference continued to undermine the solidarity of African states. For the time being,
however, an agreement was reached, to postpone the final goal of forming a United States of Africa
and form the Organization of African Unity (OAU). The OAU was formed in May 1963 in Addis
Ababa. At the founding conference, held in Addis Ababa, 31 independent states signed the Charter
of the Organization. The purposes of the OAU, as contained in the Charter, included: To promote
the unity and solidarity of the African states, to coordinate and intensify their cooperation and
efforts to achieve a better life for the peoples of Africa and the hope to eradicate all forms of
colonialism from the continent.
The functions of the OAU were performed by various organs, commissions and committees set up
for the purpose. The highest organ was the Assembly of the Heads of State and Governments. This
organ met at least once a year. Another organ was the Council of Ministers made up of the Foreign
Ministers of member states. The Council met twice a year and prepared agenda for the annual
meetings of the Heads of States and Governments. The most important organ was the General
Secretariat. It did most of the work of the OAU. The Office of the General Secretariat was in Addis
Ababa. The first General Secretary of the OAU was a Guinean, Diallo Telli. The OAU also had
various commissions set up to deal with the social, economic, educational, health and nutritional
problems of Africa.
The record of the performance of the OAU, especially during its early years, showed both
successes and failures. To begin with successes, the OAU, through its Committee for Liberation,
assisted the liberation movements of the non-independent nations. On several issues at the United
Nations, African states often took a united stand. Several border disputes have also been settled
through the efforts of the OAU. Probably, the greatest achievement in this respect was the Nigerian
crisis in 1967. Although four states - Ivory Coast, Tanzania, Zambia and Gabon - recognized the
separatist state of Biafra, the vast majority of African states kept their pledge to
Article III (3) of the OAU Charter: "respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of each
member state and for its inalienable right to independent existence''. In accordance with this article,
they "adopted a policy of trying to reconcile the two parties in the civil war within the framework
of Nigerian unity." Eventually the crisis was solved.
Several factors were responsible for failures of the OAU in its performance. Among the factors,
one was difference of opinion among member states on methods to be used in accomplishing the
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tasks of the organization. As was indicated above, the attitude adopted towards the ex-colonial
powers and the structure of the OAU were other points of difference among member states. In
addition, there were other differences. Firstly, there were differences in official languages used by
African states. English, French, Portuguese, Spanish and Arabic speaking states exhibited
differences in the OAU, though this should not have been an insoluble obstacle to unity of action,
had there been the desire to achieve it. Secondly, many states were members of other non-African
organizations. In North Africa many states belong to the Arab League and their interest was to
fight against Israel. The problem was that some members of the Arab League tried to bring the
Israeli issue to the OAU forum. Thirdly, although the OAU had set up various commissions to deal
with social, economic, and related problems, there was little achievement in this field. Despite its
weaknesses, the OAU struggled to strengthen the solidarity of African states to overcome the many
problems facing the continent. To this end, at the 36th OAU Summit, held in Algiers in 2000, the
Heads of African States and Governments decided to transform the OAU into the African Union.
This was the original goal expressed in PanAfricanism.
Problems of Independent African States and the OAU
Some of the problems of African states and the OAU mainly are the legacy of colonial rule.
Others have been of Africa’s own making. Most of the newly independent African countries share
peoples who belong to the same ethnic groups. This has led some African states to try to redraw
colonial boundaries in accordance with ethnic settlements. As a result, Africa has seen frequent
border conflicts.
Ethnic oppression and conflicts within African states have bred civil wars. At the root of the ethnic
conflicts have been political, economic and social injustices.
Africa also experienced frequent Military coups. Between 1958 and 1969, in twenty out of the
thirty-eight independent African states political power had been taken over by military regimes.
Single party regimes have been common in most African states. Such regimes stifled democratic
and economic development. They disallowed the development of a participatory government.
They squandered government finances. Their leaders often misuse public money. Indeed, they led
their countries to extreme poverty.
African countries are economic dependent on the industrialized countries. Most African states
stock can provide extremely limited social services such as health, schools, and infrastructure for
their people. Foreign powers can easily involve and intensify the existing problems. Besides, at
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present the continent has been besetted with the challenges of the pandemic disease HIV. Out of a
global total of 33 million about 22 million affected by this disease are in Africa, particularly South
of the Sahara. The other massive problem is unemployment, high level brain drain refugees etc,
which are the out come of weak economic base (or the negative legacy of the past, colonial rule.)
The OAU has also proved to be of little help in solving these outstanding problems. The
weaknesses of the OAU, originated from several factors. In the period under discussion, most
international issues including African, go beyond the scope of the OAU. Moreover, the OAU
lacked the necessary economic, political and military power needed to solve regional (interstate)
conflicts. Former colonial powers still maintained great influence on the affairs of African states.
Success of the OAU
Throughout its existence, the OAU had scored some successes and faced several problems with
regard to its stated objectives. It has been, however, successful in one of its basic objectives -
liberation from colonialism. At present, all of Africa is independent from colonialism. It had
intervened in many conflicts; for example, in Somalia and Ethiopia, Morocco and Nigeria, Rwanda
and the Great Lakes conflicts and in the struggle against Apartheid in South Africa and Namibia
to mention some. It had attempted to mediate in all these conflicts and gained some successes.
Moreover, to realize one of its basic aims in bringing about cooperation among states for economic
development, regional organizations have been set up.
These regional organizations could not involve the private sectors to enhance the economic
integration, did not even create awareness among the people. Furthermore, the member states
remained reluctant to build the infrastructure necessary for rapid movement of goods and services.
To overcome all these hurdles and to speed up African political and economic integration, the
African Union was established in 2004. The African Union is not fundamentally, different from
the OAU. It is a natural development of the OAU into a higher level of integration, which had four
solid bases: the establishment of an All-African parliament, Pan-African court of Justice, the
African Development Fund, and African Investment Fund.
8. 4 Decolonization and Liberation struggles
The root causes of some of the present problems faced by African states can be traced back to the
colonial era. These problems are economic dependence, political instability, border conflicts and
the absence of economic integration. Thus the development of African nationalism and anti-
colonial struggle were the effects of colonial exploitation and mal-adminstration.
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Under colonialism, Africans lost their freedom and independence. Colonialism hampered the
economic progress of Africa and kept it backward. Racial discrimination, absence of political
independence, and poverty are the dismal legacies of colonialism.
End of World War II: The Turning Point
The Second World War significantly changed the global state of affairs. The year 1945 was a
turning point in the course of the struggle for independence in Africa. Since 1945 the supremacy
of the old European colonial powers had been challenged by the emergence of new global powers
like the Soviet Union and the United States. The former colonial powers were exhausted by the
war, and concentrated more on their own recovery. The efforts to suppress liberation movements
in Africa and elsewhere became expensive to the powers. The prevailing situation of the Cold War
made the maintenance of colonial empires too expensive and very difficult.
After the Second World War, colonialism in Africa was eradicated with in few decades.
Factors that facilitated the liberation struggle were:
The political changes and the spread of liberal thinking within the colonial countries:
Through their active participation in World War II, many Africans were able to observe European
powers fighting and paying great sacrifices to defend their sovereignty.
The positive examples set by those Asian states that had won their independence already,
stimulated the independence struggle in Africa.
Foreign educated Africans that returned to Africa filled with ideas of freedom, nationalism and
democracy provided the necessary leadership for the struggle for freedom. As foreign educated
intellectuals, these leaders were well aware of the contradictions between the parliamentary
democracy of the colonial powers in their own countries and the realities of colonial Africa.
These intellectuals agitated their peoples to fight colonialism and foreign dominations.
The anti-colonial struggle in Africa, between the two world wars, also laid down the foundation
for the post-World War II independence movements, as discussed in unit Six. From that period of
struggle, Africans gained useful experiences. Pan- Africanism also contributed to the struggle for
African independence, especially after 1945.
The struggle against colonial rule had different forms: the length of time in winning independence
varied; and the strength of liberation organizations and the quality of leadership also differed. The
colonial powers used both diplomatic and military means to weaken the liberation movements.
However, lastly, Africans won their independence through their struggle. A brief and general
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survey of the liberation struggle in the Italian, French, British, Belgian, Spanish and Portuguese
colonies is presented below. At the end of the sub-topic, the special problem of the struggle for
racial equality and democracy in South Africa is also discussed.
Italian Colonies - North and East Africa
Libya had been an Italian colony since 1911. The Allies forces expelled Fascists and Nazis from
Libya in 1942 in collaboration with a local resistance led by Sayyid Idris. After the Second World
War, British and French forces stayed in Libya. USA also set up a military base in this country.
With Soviet Russia's proposal, the case of Libya was presented to the UN General Assembly. The
UN decided that Libya should be independent. Accordingly, the independent state of the United
Kingdom of Libya was proclaimed on 1 January 1952. Libyan independence encouraged other
North African states to intensify their struggle for national independence. British Somaliland
stayed under the British rule after World War II. Italian Somaliland had also fallen under the
British, when the Italians were defeated and driven out from that land in 1941. But, later it was
taken over by the United Nations and entrusted to Italy to ten-year period of preparation for
decolonization. In 1960, British and Italian Somaliland gained independence.
They were united to form one state, a Republic of Somalia.
French Colonies
The liberation of French colonies in Africa began in the 1950s. Some French colonies won their
independence after prolonged military fighting. Others secured their independence peacefully, in
a bloodless movement. French military defeat in Indo-China in 1954 gave an impetus for the
peoples of North Africa to wage a liberation war to bring an end to French colonial rule. The
liberation struggle in Morocco was led by the Moroccan National Front with Sultan Mohammed
V as its head. In 1953, the Riff and Atlas tribes revolted, and started armed struggle.
After a negotiated settlement, Morocco was proclaimed independent on 2 March 1956. French and
Spanish Morocco were re-united at independence. Tunisia also won its independence in 1956
under the leadership of Habib Bourgiba.
In Algeria, the French faced a protracted and bitter anti-colonial struggle. In Algeria there had been
a relatively larger number of European settlers. These white settlers were determined to prevent
the independence of Algeria. They formed the "Secret Armed Organization" to hold back Algerian
independence. The Algerians nationalist organizations the "National Liberation Front of Algeria"
(FNLA), was led by Ahmed Ben Bella. The war in Algeria lasted from 1954 to 1962. The Algerian
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National Liberation Front took the form of guerrilla war and scored progressive successes over the
French forces. Finally, on the basis of an agreement reached between the Algerian freedom fighters
and the French government, a referendum was conducted. The people of Algeria overwhelmingly
voted for independence. In consequence, Algeria was proclaimed independent on 1 July 1962.
In 1958, France, under President Charles de Gaulle was prepared to grant independence to her
colonies in west and Equatorial Africa. Only Guinea (Conakry) used this opportunity. Guinea
voted ‘yes’ to independence in the referendum conducted the same year in all French African
colonies.
Under the Democratic Party of Guinea, led by Sekou Toure, Guinea became independent in 1958.
Other French colonies remained under French rule until 1960s. In 1960 a large number of African
countries achieved independence. This led to the designation of the year 1960 as the Year of
African Independence. The French colonies that became independent during that year were:
Cameroon, Togo (both under UN trusteeship), Madagascar (now Malagasy Republic), Dahomey
(Benin), Niger, Upper Volta (Burkina Faso), Ivory Coast (Cote d'Ivoire), Chad, Ubangi Shari
(Central African Republic), Congo (Brazzaville), Gabon, Senegal, French Sudan (Mali) and
Mauritania.
The former French Somaliland, became independent in 1977 renamed French Territory of Afars
and Issas. This is now known as Djibouti. The Comoros Islands became independent in 1975.
British Colonies - West, East and Southern Africa
In some cases, Britain showed some degree of willingness to grant her colonies their independence.
The struggle for independence in white - settled colonies was relatively bitter and took more years.
In the Gold Coast, the struggle was at first led by an organization called the United Gold Coast
Convention. However, in 1949, Kwame Nkrumah left the Gold Coast convention and organized
the Convention People's Party. Nkrumah assumed the leadership in the struggle for independence.
The Gold Coast became independent in 1957, and adopted the historic name of Ghana. Nigeria
became independent in 1960; Sierra Leone and Gambia in 1961and 1970, respectively.
Egypt had gained its independence in 1922, but Britain continued to station her troops in that
country under the pretext of safeguarding their interest in the Suez Canal. In 1952 a group of young
army officers led by Colonel Gamal Abdul Nasser overthrew the conservative king Faruk and
seized power. Nasser negotiated with the British for the withdrawal of British troops from the Suez

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Canal area. When British forces evacuated the Canal Zone, Egypt became fully independent in
1956.
Anglo-Egyptian rule over the Sudan, (the Condominium), came to an end through the Anglo -
Egyptian Agreement of 12 February 1953. The agreement accepted the independence of Sudan.
After three years, in 1956, Sudan became independent.
In East Africa, the British trust territory of Tanganyika won its independence in 1961 under the
Tanganyika African National Union led by Mwalimu Julius Nyerere. Zanazibar also became
independent in 1963. In 1964 these two independent states formed a federation called Tanzania.
Kenya's road to independence had its own ups and downs. Kenyans organized a peasant natinalist
movement known as the Mau Mau. The Mau Mau harassed white settlers in the country. The
identity of the members of the movement was secret. The Mau Mau Movement was active between
1952 and 1955. The movement was suppressed and thousands of Africans were imprisoned by the
British. In 1960, Jomo Kenyatta organised the Kenya African National Union (KANU). Kenya
won independence in 1963and Kenyata became its first president.
South Rhodesia's road to independence had also its own challenge. In 1965 the racist white settlers
under the leadership of Iyan Smith declared what was called the unilateral Declaration of
Independence (UDI). This step delayed majority rule in that country. Africans and the British
government rejected this one-sided declaration of independence. However, the British government
failed to take military actions to suppress the whilte minority racist government in South Rhodesia.
Thus, the Africans resort to guerrilla fighting. Long and bitter war was fought by the Zimbabwe
African National Union (ZANU) and the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) led by Robert
Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo, respectively. This bitter struggle brought the white minority rule to
an end. A majority rule was established in April 1980. Robert Mugabe became the first Prime
Minister and South Rhodesia adopted the name Zimbabwe (after historic Zimbawe).
An organized struggle was conducted in North Rhodesia by the United National Independence
Party, under the leadership of Kenneth Kaunda. This struggle led to North Rhodesia independence
in 1964. The country adopted the new name of Zambia after River Zambezi. Nyasaland became
independent in 1964 as Malawi with Hastings Kamuzu Banda as its president. In 1966, Basutoland
(now Lesotho) and Bechuanaland (renamed as Botswana) became independent. The island
colonies of Mauritius and Seycheles became independent in 1968 and 1976, respectively.

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Belgian Colonies - Central Africa
One of the national independence parties emerged in Belgian Congo was the Congolese National
Movement. This party was led by Patrice Lumumba. Lumumba had developed anti-imperialist and
Pan-African attitudes. Following popular revolts in the Congo in 1959, Belgium was forced to
recognize the independence of the Congo which was officially declared in 1960. Independent
Democratic Republic of Congo emerged with Joseph Kasavubu as President and Patrice Lumumba
as Prime Minister. However, the end of Belgian colonial rule in the Congo was followed by a civil
war. The mineral rich provinces of Katanga and Kasai broke away under the leadership of Moise
Tshombe and Kalonji, respectively. Belgian troops were sent to protect the Belgian and European
mining interests in the region. Lumumba appealed to the United Nations. In due course, Lumumba,
who had socialist inclinations, was dismissed from office by President Kasavubu on 5 September
1960. Early in 1961, Lumumba was captured and fell into the hands of Katangese troops and was
killed. The UN troops which included forces from Ethiopia, were sent to normalize the situation.
In this tense situation, the UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld died in a plane crash while
trying to mediate the Congo crisis. His successor U Thant continued the work for the reunification
of the Congo. Katangese forces were defeated by the UN army in 1963. UN troops finally
withdrew, with the Congo re-united.
In July 1964 Kasavubu appointed Tshombe as Prime Minister. Tshombe became fierce and brutal
in dealing with local matters. Kassavubu sacked him in 1965. In the same year, the army under
General Joseph (Sese Seko) Mobutu took over political power. Tshombe went into exile and was
condemned to death in his absence. Mobutu put down Katangese resistance, cleared his country
of white mercenaries and gradually restored order. Mobutu was confirmed as the President of the
Congo in [Link] state adopted a new name of Zaire, after the former name of the River Congo.
However, Mobutu’s dictatorial rule and mismanagement led the country to increasing
impoverishment. The experience of Congo is one example of the kind of problems which several
newly independent African states were to face.
The Belgian mandate territories of Rwanda and Burundi became independent by the decision of
the UN in 1962. At independence, Rwanda became a republic. Burundi was made a kingdom until
it, too, became a republic as of November 1966.

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The Portuguese Colonial Empire
The Portuguese were determined to continue their colonial rule in their African colonies of
Mozambique, Angola, Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde. After World War II, the people of these
colonies fought bitter and long guerrilla wars against Portuguese colonial rule. Fighting against
the African national liberation forces proved to be too costly for Portugal to win. It meant great
expenditure for the Portuguese government of the then Portuguese leader, Caetano. In 1974,
Caetano’s government was overthrown by a coup led by General Antonio de Spinola. Then, the
army in the battle front demanded for the end of the colonial wars. As a result, Portugal decided to
end colonial rule in Africa. With these favourable conditions, the "Revolutionary Front for the
Liberation of Mozambique"(FRELIMO) won independence for Mozambique in 1975. The
National Union for Total Independence in Angola, (UNITA), and the Popular Movement for the
Liberation of Angola, (MPLA), both in harmony and conflict with each other, won independence
for Angola in 1975. The African Independence Party of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) led the
two small colonies of Portugal to independence in the same year. Sao Tome and Principe also
became independent in 1975.
Spanish and South African Controlled Territories
By the Versailles Peace Treaty, at the end of World War I, South West Africa was taken away from
Germany and put under the Republic of South African madatory rule. After the Second World War,
the responsibility of looking after the mandatory territories was transferred to the United Nations,
(UN Trust Territories). In such a way, Spanish Guinea gained independence in 1968 and was
renamed Equatorial Guinea. But, South-West Africa entered into a long and bitter war against the
Republic of South Africa. The struggle was organised and led by the "SouthWest African People's
Organisation" (SWAPO). International diplomatic pressures were also put on South Africa. Finally
South-West Africa won its independence in 1990. It was renamed Namibia.
Apartheid in South Africa
Two years after South Africa was freed from British rule in 1910, the African National Congress
(ANC) was formed in 1912, aimed at struggling for the rights of the black population. Later, the
ANC crystallized its demands into a call for "One man, one vote."
In 1948, a general election brought the Afrikaner National Party to power. It was, a party made up
of extreme racist groups. It promoted a policy of discrimination, which came to be known as
apartheid. Apartheid means separate development of the races, and white domination of the
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 majority blacks by the minority whites. Apartheid denied all political rights to blacks and other
non-whites. Under Apartheid eighty seven percent of all land in South Africa was reserved to
whites. Added to this, the racist nationalist party cancelled all the meager right the blacks used to
have. It passed a number of laws that deprived Africans of their political and human rights and
imposed rigid segregation in sport, recreational areas, schools, hospitals, buses etc.
In reaction to such repressive acts, wide spread demonstrations and riots were held many times. In
1952 the ANC, led by Albert Luthuli, Oliver Tambo, Nelson Mandela and Walter Sisulu waged a
campaign of passive resistance to the various discriminatory rules. But the government continued
with its repressive policy. On 21 March 1960, police fired on peaceful and unarmed demonstrators
at sharpeville. 72 people were killed and some 186 including women and children were wounded.
The incident is remembered as the Sharpeville Massacre. The act aroused world wide
condemnation. Many nations enacted economic sanctions against the racist government of South
Africa. The racist government arrested the opposition leaders including Nelson Mandela and
banned all black political organization as illegal. Mandela was in jail at Robben Island until he
was released in 1990.
The struggle of the ANC finally bore fruit. Aparthaid was abolished and "one man one vote" was
introduced in South Africa. In April 1994, Mandela won election and held office as the first
democratically elected president of the Republic of South Africa. He was able to reconcile blacks
and whites in peace. In 1999, he left the presidency for the next democratically elected president
who happened to be his second – in – command in the ANC. Mandella has left a rich legacy of
democratic government in South Africa.
Effects of Colonialism in Africa
- Economy and culture of the Africans were destroyed
- Africans lost their freedom
- The Africans were exploited and oppressed
- The Africans were disunited and were forced to accept foreign culture, etc.

UNIT SUMMARY
The end of the Second World War marked the beginning of a successful African national liberation
struggle against European colonial rule. The driving force behind the liberation struggle was African
nationalism, which grew in a gradual process after the end of the First World War. Among the factors

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that contributed to the growth of African nationalism, the most important one was the Pan-African
movement. The movement raised the consciousness of Africans through resolutions it passed at various
conferences held from 1919 on. Among the conferences, however, the fifth one, held in Manchester in
1945, was very important. For the first time in the history of Pan-Africanism, the resolution of this
conference raised a demand for the independence of Africa. This resolution provided a slogan which
rallied Africans in the struggle for independence.
The nature of the struggle for independence was not similar throughout the African continent. In some
parts of the continent, independence was achieved smoothly, while in others it entailed a bloody
conflict. The main factors that decided the nature of the liberation movements were the presence or
absence of white settlers in the colonies and whether the concerned colonialist states were prepared to
decolonize. In the colonies free of white settlers, independence was achieved more or less smoothly.
In the colonies with white settlers, however, independence was achieved only after a protracted armed
struggle. Since Portugal decided to cling to its colonies until the last moment, the colonies of Portugal
had to fight national liberation wars to achieve independence.
Among the factors that hastened the process of independence, one was the formation of the
Organization for African Unity (OAU). The process of forming the OAU, which started in 1958, was
not smooth. There were differences of opinion among African states over the structure of the
organization. Despite those differences, African states succeeded in setting up their own continental
organization, which was born in May 1963 in Addis Ababa. During the struggle for independence,
many Africans felt that after independence, the political, economic, and social lives of Africans would
improve rapidly. Unfortunately, this was not the case. Instead, many independent African states became
victim to endless political instability, economic crisis, and acute social problems, which in most cases
were the legacies of colonialism and their own weakness.

Review Questions
Choose the best answers from the following alternatives.
1. After the 6th Conference held in Manchester in 1845, the main goal of pan- African
movement was to realize the:
A. Unity of African peoples C. Cultural diversity Africans peoples
B. Territorial integrity of Africa D. Independence of Africans
2. Which of the following regional grouping members believed that their own internal
problems must be solved first before the establishment of an inter-state political union?
A. Brazzaville group B. Casablanca group C. Monrovia group D. Neo- Colonialism
3. Which of the following was not a factor that facilitated the liberation struggle of Africans
after the second world war?

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 A. Political changes and spread of liberal thinking with in the colonial countries
B. Active participation of Africans in the war gave them confidence
C. The positive example set by Asians states that had won independence earlier than
Africans
D. The educated intellectuals adopted culture of colonialism as mean of development and
modernity
4. The first black African country to adopt independence from British was:
A. Ghana B. Guenea C. Algeria D. Mali
5. Which of the following is false about African colonial resistance between the two world
wars?
A. Young Kikiyu association was organized in Kenya against British to restore fertile land.
B. A colonial assembly which was established in Uganda through agreement is called
Lukiko.
C. ANC basically stood against Apartheids in South African.
D. Neo Duster was the only African constitution in Tunisia against French.
6. Which of the following is a persuasive statement about OAU and UNO?
A. The former is for continental peace keeping, whereas the latter is to keep global peace after
World War Two.
B. The former was to decolonize Africans, whereas the latter is to colonialize Africa.
C. Both were/are international organizations established to ensure world peace.
D. Both oorganizations have states with veto powers
7. The strong anti- Germen resistance of 1905 in East Africa was the:
A. Mahdist movement C. Maji Maji
B. Mao Mao rebellion D. Watch tower movement

8. Which of the following contributed to the failure of African resistance to European

colonialism?
A. Few Africans themselves were willing to pay sacrifice for freedom
B. Class struggle in African societies weakened African resistance
C. Europian colonial powers used African mercenaries against resistance
D. There were too few competent African leaders to organize resistance
9. Which of the following battles marked the beginning of colonial rivalry?
A. Omdurman B. Tel El Kabir C. Fashoda D. Adwa

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10. The first African country which won nominal independence was:
[Link] [Link] [Link] Africa [Link]
11. As French Sudan was for Mali to Madibo Tita, North Rhodesia was for to
A. Zimbabuwe, Robert Mugabe C. ZANU, Joshua Nkomo
B. Zambia , Kenneth Kaunda D. Zambia, Hasting ta
12. voted ‘yes’ and got independence from French rule after Charles de Gaulle gave
opportunity.
A. Guinea Bissau C. Guinea Conakry
B. French Guinea D. Equatorial Guinea
13. FNLA was a resistance movement of Algeria against Ahmed Ben Bella as was a
resistance movement of Mozambique against Portuguese
A. FRELIMO B. PAIGC C. UNITA D. MPLA
14. Which of the following was true about Apartheid in South Africa?
A. It crystalized its demand in to a call for one man to “one vote”.
B. It was discriminatory and racism led by Nelson Mendela.
C. It gave freedom for ANC demonstrators called Sharpeville Massacre.
D. It was segregation in sport, recreational areas, churches, schools – etc and white
minority rule over black majority.
15. All of the following statements express Nelson Mendela genuinely except:
A. The first democratic president of South Africa
B. Was imprisoned at Ribbon Island for about 27 years
C. Able to reconcile blacks and whites with revenge rather than peace
D. Left his presidency for the next democratically elected President peacefully
16. What impact did World War I have on the colonial system in Africa?
A. It helped many Africans see the illegitimacy of the colonial system.
B. It made Africans appreciate and admire European technology.
C. It had no impact at all.
D. It strengthened it made it more secure
17. During the inter-war years (1919 – 1939), African resistance to European colonialism:
A. Was pushing for complete independence
B. Resorted to rural armed struggle
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 C. Was centered around towns and pressed for reforms
D. Completely died out
18. The Neo-Datsur party as an anti-colonial struggle body was established in:
A. Ghana B. Tunisia C. Egypt D. Morocco
19. One of the factors did not contribute to the formation of African National Congress (ANC).
A. Racial discrimination B. Religious equality
C. Minority rule D. Economic oppression
20. Which country achieved a short-lived independence in the inter-war period?
A. Morocco B. Tunisia C. Egypt D. Ghana
21. As Asantehene was for the Ashanti Empire, Kabaka was for:
A. Bunyoro B. Buganda C. Toro D. Ankole

CHAPTER NINE
ETHIOPIA FROM LIBERATION TO REVOLUTION
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit students will be able to:
- Discuss the role of Ethiopian patriotic movements and British military support
to regain Ethiopian independence
- Describe the nature of relationships between monarches and the people in post
liberation period
- Examine the roles of student movements, peasant rebellion and the rebellion of
the army to the 1974 revolution
- Describe the political developments in the Derg period and the collapse of the
derg.
9.1. Haile Selassie's Comeback and British Domination
Haile Selassie re-entered Addis Ababa on May 5, 1941, following the defeat of Italian forces by
patriots and British forces, as explained in Unit Five. His Imperial power was restored, and he took
control of the government of Ethiopia. Patriots, the Orthodox Church and noblemen accepted the
restoration of the monarchy. Collaborators of Italian occupation were also pardoned and
accommodated in Haile Selassie's new government.

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However, Haile Selassie's power was limited by the British Military Administration in Ethiopia.
The British regarded the whole of Italian East Africa, including Ethiopia, which had come under
their control, as Occupied Enemy Territory Administration [OETA]. In the case of Ethiopia, the
British practically shared governmental powers with Haile Selassie. The British Occupied Enemy
Territory Administration kept for itself powers in the areas of finance, the army and foreign affairs.
Overlapping of powers also created problems for Haile Selassie. Although this arrangement in, a
way, helped Haile Selassie to bring peace and normalization in the countryside, he needed to
regulate his relations with the British. He also wanted to regain the complete and independent
powers of the monarchy. For that purpose, he negotiated with the British and signed two significant
agreements.
On January 31, 1942, the first Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement was signed. This agreement recognized
Ethiopia as a sovereign state. However, it allowed the British to have final authority over Ethiopia's
foreign relations, administration, finance and the military. The British reasoned that the Second
World War was still being fought and Djibouti was under a pro-Nazi, Vichy government, and there
might be a danger from that direction. The Emperor had no other choice but to accept what the
British asked for. This passive acceptance provided an excuse for the British officials to have
extraordinary rights particularly in the Ogaden, and over certain strategic areas, such as the French
Somaliland border areas and the Addis-Ababa-Djibouti railway. The British combined the Ogaden
with former Italian Somaliland and began to administer the whole area taking Mogadishu as a
centre. In 1940, they had proposed to combine the five Somali-inhabited territories of Northern
district of Kenya, Italian Somali land, British Somali land, Djibouti and the Ogaden to form a
single state called Somalia. Above all, they developed a plan to create what they called ''Greater
Somalia''. Their secret plot in the Reserved Area, along the southeastern borders, forced the
Emperor to open another round of negotiations. The Second Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement was
signed on December 1944. By this agreement, the British recognized the Ogaden and the Reserved
Area as integral parts of Ethiopia. They requested only to remain in the regions for two more years
until the end of World War II. They also made some concessions to the Emperor: the right to recruit
non-British foreign personnel, and to use the Djibouti railway line as an outlet. They also agreed
to train an Ethiopian military force, to replace their armywhich had been dominant in the country
since 1941.

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In 1948, the UN placed Italian Somaliland under Italian Trusteeship. With this the British desire
to realize the idea of Greater Somalia failed. The British agreed to the return of the Ogaden to
Ethiopia. But they kept the Haud grazing land and also the corridor known as the "Reserved Area",
stretching from the Haud to the border of French Somaliland, as part of British Somaliland. The
return of Ogaden was a diplomatic victory for the Emperor.
After another round of diplomatic talks, the British gave up and restored the Haud and the Reserved
Area to the Ethiopian government in 1955. Political groups in British Somaliland and in the Italian
Trust territory expressed their protest against the British agreement with Ethiopia over the Haud.
Some members of those groups came into the Ogaden and agitated the people to rebel. The
Ethiopian government responded by using force which helped it to regain control over the region.
Period of American Influence
After World War II, American influence became powerful in the Middle East. At this time, it was
Ethiopia which took the initiative to get closer to the Americans. The Emperor, who could no
longer tolerate British heavy-hand over Ethiopian, wanted alliance with the USA. Official contacts
between the two states began in 1943. Ethiopia formally requested the U.S.A for military aid as
well as other experts and legal advisors. In 1945, the Emperor met President Roosevelt in Egypt
and asked for support in the struggle to regain the Ogaden and Eritrea. The understanding reached
there became the basis for future Ethiopian-American friendship and cooperation.
The Americans had felt the strategic importance of the Red Sea and in particular the Radio Marina
in Eritrea. They had already taken control of Radio Marina in 1942. After 1953, Radio Marine
(Qagnew station) became a large self-contained base, with more than 300 U.S. military personnel,
and became an important link in the U.S global communications network.
In 1948, Britain decided to bring an end to her administration in Eritrea. American replaced Britain
as the dominant power in Ethiopia since 1953. The threat from the communist bloc made Eritrea
an increasingly valuable asset to retain. Thus the Americans preferred Eritrea to be a part of
Ethiopia and supported Ethiopia's claim over that territory.
Ethiopia's stand in the Korean War convinced the Americans more. During the Korean War (1950-
53), the Emperor showed willingness to provide troops to fight under the U.N., which deployed
chiefly American forces. North Korea's goal was to unite South Korea with the North under
communism. The UN gave military support to South Korea. Ethiopia's participation in the War
was an indication that it identified its interest with the western world. The Americans took Ethiopia
209
as a potential ally, which might play an important role in the politcs of the Middle East. Once the
federation of Eritrea with Ethiopia was endorsed, the Ethiopian government persuaded the USA to
give it military support. In October 1952 negotiations were held to regularize the status of the U.S.
communications base. By then the base was named the "Qagnew Station" to commemorate the
Ethiopian battalion that fought in Korea and returned on 22 May 1952. The two states signed an
agreement in 1953 governing the Qagnew Station and other facilities in Eritrea which remained in
force until 1978.
Two additional agreements strengthened the Ethio- American partnership. The ''Point Four
Agreement' 'signed in 1952 laid the foundation for American assistance in the field of education
and public health. Point Four, as the organization came to be known, was involved in agricultural,
public health, education, tourist and public administration training and awarding of scholarships.
In 1953, another treaty was signed for US military assistance. A unit known as Military Assistance
and Advisory Group (MAAG) was assigned to all branches of military units and training
institutions of the Ethiopian armed forces.
The U.S.A gave to Ethiopia military aid which increased after 1960, particularly when Somalia
became independent and entered into conflict with Ethiopia. By 1970, 60 per cent of the USA's
military aid to Africa went to Ethiopia. By then American support to Ethiopia maintained by far
the largest army in sub-Saharan Africa. The USA and the USSR were playing the Cold War game
in the Horn of Africa since Somalia was getting similar military aid from the U.S.S.R. American
military assistance enabled Ethiopian troops to play the role of international peacekeeper under
the UN in Africa. In 1960, during the Congo Crisis, Ethiopian troops served as a UN peace-
keeping force.
American assistance was also given in the field of civil aviation. In 1945 the American Trans-
continental and Western Air Lines (TWA) helped to set up the Ethiopian Air Lines (EAL),
providing it managerial and supervisory personnel. The other major area of American support was
in the field of road repair and construction. Roads built by the Italians had been badly damaged in
the course of the war of liberation and repair was a burden on the Ethiopian government. In January
1957, the Imperial Highway Authority was established with the help of the Americans. Loans for
repair and road construction were obtained from the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (IBRD), mostly funded by the U.S.A. American influence was also great in the
sphere of education. With the exception of a few elite schools run by the British and the French,
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education was conducted along American lines. In the national University, the enrolment and
evaluation system were modelled on standard American colleges. American Peace Corp volunteer
teachers, who came in the 1960s, accepted teaching assignments in the high schools, even in
remote towns. They contributed a lot in advancing education in Ethiopia.
Later, however, anti-Americanism grew strong among the left-wing University students in the late
1960's and early 1970s. These students viewed the USA as an imperialist state supporting a regime
which was reactionary and an obstacle to progress. Furthermore, the value of Ethiopia for the USA
diminished in the 1970’s. That was because the U.S.A was able to get a new ally in the Red Sea
region. The new ally was Egypt under President Anwar Sadat. Previously Egypt, under President
Gamal Abdl Nasser, had been an ally of the U.S.S.R, but that changed after 1973. As a result, when
Haile Sellassie's government crumpled, the U.S.A did not come to its help. Ethiopia was scarcely
capitalist even on the eve of the 1974 Revolution. There was only a very small commercial
bourgeoisie, and hardly an industrial bourgeoisie. Therefore, like other Third World countries,
Ethiopia found itself in a position of dependence on external capitalist countries. Haile Sellassie
built his absolutism through external support, particularly from the U.S.A.
9.2 The Eritrean Problem
Eritrea became an Italian colony in 1890. In 1941, with the expulsion of the Fascist army, it was
taken over by the British administration as an Occupied Enemy Territory. By the time the Emperor
was raising the Ethiopian flag in Addis Ababa on May 5, 1941, the people in Asmara were holding
a demonstration calling for the reunification of Eritrea with Ethiopia. On the same day, the leaders
of the demonstration announced the formation of the Unionist Party, an organization that was to
play an important role in the future of Eritrea.
With the coming of the British, Eritrea made some advance towards political development. The
British allowed the right of free speech and press, and the right to form political parties. Political
parities grew in number within a short period. Nevertheless, these political parties were founded
on ethnic and religious basis. The British deliberately encouraged differences among these parties.
That was because they had the plan of separating the western lowland region to add it to their
colony, the Sudan. Regarding the highland territory of the Tegregna-speaking groups, they planned
to join it with Tigray to form a separate Tigray State. To this effect, the British proposed in 1943
to the Eritrean highland elites the formation of a united Tigray. Those that accepted the proposal
formed a separatist group that later evolved into what came to be known as the Liberal Progressive
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Party led by Ras Tessema Asmerom. Besides, the British encouraged the Muslims to establish their
own political organization. In 1946, the Muslim League was formed.
It demanded independence for Muslim-inhabited lowland Eritrea or union with the Sudan.
Between January and February 1947, the Unionist Party, the Liberal Progressive Party and the
Muslim League were duly registered. A pro-Italian party was also formed later, towards the end of
the year. This party wanted the return of Italian colonial rule under the cover of UN Trusteeship.
It was dominated by Italians and half-castes, who were well established in Eritrea.
However, it had few followers and could not play any meaningful role at the coming of the
Commission of Enquiry.
In 1947, the Four Powers Commission of Enquiry, representing the USA, USSR, Britain and
France, was sent to Eritrea to determine the future of Eritrean people. The arrival of the
Commission signaled the climax of political agitation, in which the Unionist Party and the Muslim
League came out as the major rivals. In 1948, an assessment of people's opinion was held in
Asmara, on the future of Eritrea. Close to 50 per cent stood for independence, while others voted
for unity with Ethiopia, and a few chose union with the Sudan. As a result, the Commission could
not decide and referred the matter to the UN General Assembly in 1948.
In 1950, the UN appointed a Commission of five men from Burma, Guaternala, Norway, Pakistan
and South Africa to decide the fate of Eritrea. But the Commission did not come to unanimity over
the issue. Two members, from Guaternala and Pakistan, opted for independence. South Africa and
Burma recommended federation with Ethiopia. Norway favoured union with Ethiopia. The UN
General Assembly supported the majority opinion, and the USA and Britain followed. As a result,
the General Assembly voted to that effect in 1950. Accordingly, Eritrea was federated with
Ethiopia in 1952.
An Eritrean constitution was written by the UN, which among other things prohibited (according
to Article 91) the Eritrean Parliament from passing legislation that violated the Federal Act.
Political parties were organized and competed for the seats in the Legislature. In the first election
of 1952, the pro-Ethiopian Unionist Party emerged as the largest party. It got 32 out of the 68 seats
in the Parliament. The founder of the party, Tedla Bahru, became the chief Executive of Eritrea.
At the outset of the federal arrangement, the Emperor and his representatives were against Eritrea's
separate identity under the federal system. They accepted the arrangement only out of necessity.
The Emperor did not want to accept the special status given to Eritrea. He feared that the relatively
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higher degree of democracy and civil liberty exercised by the Eritreans might incite the rest of the
Ethiopian people that were under his autocratic rule. However, Prime Minister Akililu Habtewold
was able to see in time the danger of the dissolution of the Eritrean Federation, and opposed to it
in the early 1960s. But the Emperor was determined to follow his own interests and transplanted
his autocratic rule in Eritrea. This antagonized all the Eritrean parties including the Unionist Party
that had struggled for the union of Eritrea with Ethiopia. In 1955 Tedla Bahru, the Chief Executive
of the Eritrean Assembly, resigned under pressure from the Emperor, and was replaced by Asrate
Kassa, a Shoan notable. Following that, the Emperor made Amharic the official language in place
of Arabic and Tigrigna. He also terminated the use of an Eritrean flag and hoisted the Ethiopian
flag instead. In addition, he forbade all sorts of political activities. He appointed more loyal
Christians to responsible positions.
In November 1962, the Eritrean Assembly voted itself out of existence by ending the federal
arrangement and decided to unite with the rest of Ethiopia. Eritrea lost its federal status and became
one of the provinces of Ethiopia. The extinction of the federation consolidated internal and external
opposition. Four years earlier, in 1958, Eritreans in exile had already founded the Eritrean
Liberation Movement (ELM) in Cairo. The ELM was a movement which sought to achieve its
objective by political and diplomatic means, including intervention from the UN. This organization
was soon neutralized, and the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) was established in 1961 by Eritrean
exiles in the Middle East. The ELF started to receive Iraqi and Syrian support. It started to launch
armed attacks in September of that year, under the leadership of a former rebel, Idris Awate, in the
western lowlands.
But the ELF's sectarian conception of the struggle soon resulted in division within itself. As a
result, three major groups emerged. These three groups began the process of merger in 1972 to
form the Eritrean Liberation Front and Popular Liberation Force (ELF-PLF). In 1973 the Eritrean
People's Liberation Front (EPLF) was formed.
The last years of Haile Sellassie's reign withnessed two organizations competing for recognition
as leaders of the Eritrean separatist movements: ELF and EPLF, or in their popular Arabic
designation Jabha (Front) and Sha'abiya (Popular). The two groups carried out a relentless
struggle for supremacy in the period from 1972-1974, in which the EPLF triumphed. By 1974, the
EPLF had over 10,000 members in the field fighting against the Ethiopian army.

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Until the outbreak of the 1974 Revolution, the movement in Eritrea remained only a local issue
without gaining wider international recognition. It was only a few Arab states which were
sympathetic to the movement that provided material support. They regarded Eritrea as an “Arab”
land and hated the regime of Haile Selassie because of its close ties with Israel.
After the 1967 Arab–Israeli War, most states of the Middle East and the Persian Gulf adopted a
strong anit-Zionist policy. This was a great opportunity to the Eritrean cause. Arab support to the
Eritrean movement became significant.
In Ethiopia, even the Ethiopian leftists in the student movement, which had a firm stand on
Ethiopian unity, in principle adopted the position of recognizing the right of Eritreans to self
determination.
9.3 Oppositions against Haile Selassie's Government
In 1936, some prominent men among the aristocrats boldly opposed the Emperor's decision to go
into exile to appeal to the League of Nations. When in 1941, he was restored to his throne with the
backing of the British government, many resented his restoration to power. On top of that, the
Emperor favored the exiles and even some collaborators, ('bandas',) ignoring and marginalizing
the genuine patriots.
Blatta Takala Walda Hawaryat was one of the most renowned patriots of the occupation period,
who organized the patriots to fight against the Fascists. He tried all means to prvent the Emperor
from returning to the throne in 1941. When the Emperor was restored to power he started to plot
against him. His first plot started soon after liberation in 1941. His plot was uncovered but he was
put in prison and freed in 1945. He was again involved in another plot the following year. This
time his detention lasted until 1954. On his release, Takala was given a high government post,
becoming successively Vice Minister of the Interior and Afa Negus. In November, 1969, however,
he organized a group of armed men to assassinate the Emperor. The plot was discovered, and he
was killed in a shoot - out with the police.
Belay Zeleke was another famous patriotic leader in the struggle against the Fascists from his home
base, in eastern Gojjam. His courage made him a legendary hero throughout Gojjam and Ethiopia
at large. His popularity was not very much appreciated by the Emperor. The Emperor was very
suspicious of him and wanted to remove him from his home base. To this effect, the Emperor gave
Belay the choice of either to be Governor- General of one of the provinces in the south of the
country with the title of Ras or governor of Bichena Awraja. Belay rejected the former and
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accepted the latter. The Emperor granted other Gojjame patriots high titles and positions. But Belay
was rewarded with only the title of Dejazmatch and made governor of Bichena district. Belay, a
man with a great ambition, did not like what he got. More than that, the loss of Mota and part of
Debre Marqos districts which had been under his control, angered him as a disgrace to his
reputation. Out of anger, Belay made the ill-fated decision to stand up against the government by
turning to banditry.
He expressed his grievance by disobeying orders coming from both the Governor-General and the
central government. In February, 1944 a combined force from the rest of Gojjam and Addis Ababa
invaded his district. After three months of fighting, he surrendered and was brought to Addis
Ababa. There, he was kept in prison. A few months later, he broke out of prison, but was captured
on his way to Gojjam. He was brought back to Addis Ababa, and was later made to stand trial and
was publicly hanged. Bitwaded Negash Bezabih was the grandson of King Tekle Haimanot of
Gojjam. Like several others, he was a renowned patriot in Gojjam during the Italian occupation.
He had reached the rank of Vice-Minister and had been appointed President of the Senate before
his conspiracy. In 1951 he led a plot against the Emperor. The plot, reportedly, was to assassinate
the Emperor and proclaim a republic. In his attempt, he got the support of some former patriots
and army members. The plot was, however, discovered. The plotters were caught while carrying
on a secret meeting. They were tried and sentenced to various terms of imprisonment. The plot,
like the others before it, was carried out on an individual basis, uncoordinated, and destined to
failure.
The Weyane Rebellion of 1942-43
After 1941, the newly restored regime made a quick move towards Tigray, in particular to reassert
its authority by imposing taxation. Here the challenge came from traditional lords. Moreover,
British influence was very high, because the British wanted to administer Eritrea and Tigray as the
Italians had united them in 1936-1941. To prevent the British plan, Haile Selassie appointed his
own officials in the province. The officials, however, were corrupt. They used unnecessary force
and fraud in the process of tax collection. Furthermore, the peasants were forced to provide
provisions to tax assessors and their followers. Sometimes, the government stationed contingents
of militia in districts, until all taxes were collected. The cultivators had to support the militia in
districts until all taxes were collected. A case in point was the militia stationed between Korem

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and Quiha, who were poorly paid and as a result turned to looting, and raping of peasants, as well
as creating destruction.
Another cause of the rebellion was the age-old conflict between the Raya and Azebo ethnic groups
and the government. The Raya and Azebo ethnic groups on the eastern edge of the Tigray plateau
did not want to lose their traditional local powers to the government. The Wajirat, who were
Christians, had elected elders with administrative power. In general, as long as they had been
willing to pay tribute, they had been left to exercise their traditional rights in former times. The
conflict cropped up when the state started to appoint its own administrators in the region. In
addition, some of the nobility joined the revolt to regain traditional privileges. The Weyane
rebellion achieved some remarkable success under an able leader, Blatta Haile Mariam Radda, and
spread over a wide area between 1942 and 1943.
The government assigned the former patriot leader Ras Abebe Aregay to command its forces
against the rebellion. The government also appealed successfully to the British for air attacks on
the rebels. Finally, artillery and bombing from the air crushed the rebellion by the end of 1943.

The Failed Coup d’etat of 1960

The 1960 attempted coup d’etat was the first of its kind. It was organized by educated officials to
overthrow Haile Selassie’s government. Its leader was General Mengistu Neway, the Commander
of the Imperial Bodyguard. The master-mind behind the coup was his younger brother, Germame
Neway. Germame had returned to Ethiopia by Imperial order in 1954, after graduating with an
M.A degree in Social Sciences in the USA. He worked for the government under various
capacities. Realizing that any peaceful way of change and reform was impossible, Germame and
his brother, Mengistu turned to a coup d’etat, with the help of officers in the Imperial Bodyguard.
When the coup started, the rebels made their intention public by stating the backwardness of the
country in contrast to the newly independent African states. The latter were showing rapid progress
in the path of development. Thus, without directly attacking the Emperor, they pointed out the
ineffectiveness of his regime to bring about real progress.
Securing the support of the Chief of the Addis Ababa Police Force, the rebels launched tactical
surprise. They seized public buildings and took as hostages some members of the Imperial family
and leading figures in the government. The reign of Haile Selassie was declared to have ended.
Asfawosen was made the mouth-piece of the rebels; he was to be the constitutional monarch of

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the country, paid and salaried. On December 14, 1960, a new government was declared. The Head
of Government was to be the liberal aristocrat Ras Imiru Haile Selassie (a close relative of the
Emperor).
The rebels failed to put other leading officials, nobles and army generals under control. They also
failed to get the support of other military units for the coup. Consequently, they faced alone the
joint reaction of the Army and the Air force. The Emperor was in South America when the coup
was staged, but he came back home quickly to save his endangered throne.
The Imperial Bodyguard along with the Police Force (under its leader, Brigadier-General Tsige
Dibu) could not resist the might of the Army and Air Force. The loyalists won victory after a battle
that lasted only two days. Losing hope, the Neway brothers shot the hostages, 18 in number, held
in the Ganate Le’ul Palace (now Main campus of Addis Ababa University). Thereafter, they fled
to the outskirts of Addis Ababa. As they made their exit, the Emperor made his victorious entry
into the capital. The rebel leaders were unable to escape. Germame was killed on the way to Mount
Zequala. At the same place and time Mengistu was badly wounded and captured. Mengistu was
later brought to trial and hanged.
The coup was easily crushed. Only the University students supported its cause by staging a
demonstration. In spite of its failure, the rebellion made a powerful impression on educated people,
and showed that it was possible to remove the monarchy. “The torch of change had been kindled
by the rebellion”. University students became the torch-bearers of this change in the years ahead,
and kept on their struggle against the imperial regime.

Peasant Rebellions:The Bale Rebellion

The Bale peasant rebellion had deep-rooted social and political causes. Grievances stemming from
maladministration, land alienation, heavy taxation, ethnic discords between settlers and native
farmers, and religious bias were some of the major problems in the region.
The bureaucrats began to expropriate peasant lands turning them into tenants under different
pretexts. Between 1942-1970, the government granted more than 4,828,560 hectares of land to
dignitaries, and military and civil servants in many provinces in the south. Perhaps as much as 30
per cent of imperial land grants in southern Ethiopia were located in Bale province. This led to
serious land shortage in the province.

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However, it was the 1963 land re-measurement policy in the region that sparked the rebellion. As
a result, landowners were able to possess land more than double their lawful possessions. When
they were compelled to pay tax arrears on the extra lands, the landlords put the burden of extra tax
on the peasant cultivators.
Discontent was also rife among pastoralists of the province. The pastoralists avoided paying taxes
by crossing the international boundaries, only to return as soon as the tax collectors had
disappeared from the scene. Moreover, the Somali nationalist agitations of the Republic of Somalia
of the early 1960s presented a challenge to the government. Then, the Ethiopian government began
to tighten its control over the border lines in regulating the movement of pastoralists, particularly
in the Delo and Wabe areas.
In addition to the regular tax paid on their livestock, pastoralists were required to pay for pasturing
their animals on what were regarded as state lands. The police and militia that were sent to collect
taxes usually looted and raped, and committed all sorts of injustices. These, generally worsened
the difficult traditional relations between the Christian officials and the Muslim pastoralists. On
the eve of the rebellion, the new Governor, Fitawrari Worku Enquselassie, continued antagonizing
the Muslim local population. He took the side of the Christian settlers. Islam was the ideology that
brought the Oromo and the Somali of the province together.
Externally the Somali Republic’s expansionist policy that considered Bale as part of its terra
irredenta (unredeemed territory, i.e. territory claimed for Somalia) provided all sorts of
encouragement to them. It called upon the already dissatisfied Muslims to stand firmly against the
Haile Selassie regime.
Rebellion started in the village of Afker, in the district of El-kere, under the leadership of Kahin
Abdi. With his group, he began to strike on government installations. In September 1963, the group
burnt government posts in Afker. Similar groups simultaneously did the same thing in Wabe and
Delo. In Wabe it was carried out by Haji Ishaha Mohammed Dadi and in Delo by Balambaras
Waqo Lugo. Both Hajji Ishah and Waqo Lugo had some tracing and received encouragement in
Mogadishu.
In 1964, in an inter-clan conflict, the Borana and Guji Oromo drove out the Ethiopian Somalis and
Rayitu Oromo from Sidamo, and forced them to flee across the Genale River into Bale. Frustrated
by lack of response from the government, the leaders of these dislocated clans went to Mogadishu.

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Among those chiefs were Grazmatch Cherri Gutu and his brother Waqo Gutu, additional future
leaders of the rebellion.
These and other groups who got military training and weapons in Mogadishu, returned to the areas
of Bale in 1965. Then under the leadership of Waqo Gutu, and with Waqo Lugo as his lieutenant,
they started organized resistance against Haile Selassie’s regime. The first rebel action took place
on 8 February 1965, when a small force under Aliye Chirri overran the town of Oberso, destroying
the only Orthodox Church there and burning state documents. The Christian settlers fled to Mena
and Negele-Borana. Three days later, Waqo Gutu with about 250 rebels attacked the town of Bidre.
The town fell into the hands of the rebels on February 18, after an engagement with the police
force from Negele.
Then, the governor of Bale, promptly, asked the Emperor to station a large military force in the
province to maintain law and order. In March 1965, in another engagement, two district
administrators, along with many police and territorial soldiers, were killed by the rebels. In
December 1966, the government put Negele- Borana and all the districts of Bale (except Fasil
district) under martial law. Two army brigades consisting of 4,500 men and volunteers were put
under the command of Fitawrari Worqu for the prosecution of the campaign. The objective was
primarily to cut off the main rebel supply routes from Somalia and to seize their rear base. As a
result, in less than three months the resistance in Negele-Borana (Sidamo) was extinguished in
early 1967. But the resistance in Bale continued for another three years.
According to official sources, the state lost a very low number of its men, not more than 54 as
opposed to 871 for the rebels. The army created great suffering to the peasants, when it destroyed
villages, animals and crops. After the war, however, the state treated the people fairly. There was
no revenge, and none of the rebel leaders was deported or punished. The government cancelled all
arrears in land taxes up to 1967. Furthermore, the state elevated some of the local gentry to higher
administrative posts, which eventually helped to strengthen its political power in the region.
Finally, Waqo Gutu was given the title of Grazmach and hectares of land. He became a wealthy
man owning much livestock and plenty of land in his village of Meda Walabu near Mena town.
The Gojjam Rebellion
The corrupt rule of Dejazmatch Tsehayu Enquosilassie, who had been Governor-General of the
province since 1960, had been the main source of political dissatisfaction in Gojjam. His policy of
appointing officials from outside the region created resentment among the local gentry.
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Furthermore, his policy of impoverishing the Gojjame nobles by starting the collection of overdue
arrears and accusing those who did not pay made him the enemy of the nobility and the peasantry
alike.
The conditions in Gojjam moved from bad to worse when the governor issued a decree that
required all citizens to have their guns registered upon payment. According to this decrec, all gun-
holders were to obey the decree and get their weapons registered within three months or forfeit
their property. The hasty manner of its enforcement soon became a source of public outcry. It was
clear to the people that the real intention of the governor was to disarm the population and to bring
them to total submission. Hence, this repressive policy soon became a liability to the state. It made
the masses stand against the state.
The 1967 Income Tax Proclamation ignited the rebellion. Damot and Mota districts were at the
forefront of the rebellion. They refused to elect or admit tax assessors, and prevented the adjacent
districts from obeying government directives. At first, the protest took the form of petition, and
appeals through delegations. Only when these failed did they turn to violent tactics. On 7 February
1968, rebellious peasants from the two districts met at the Azwari River and took a solemn oath of
unity and action, electing their leaders. They agreed to expel all state officials, boycott government
courts and destroy the property of traitors (i.e. those who did not obey their decision).
By the end of February 1968, nearly all state officials had withdrawn from the area and for nearly
two months the rebels were in full control of the districts. Resistance expanded into the adjacent
districts of Bichena, Debre Marqos and Bahr Dar.
By the middle of March 1968, about 60% of eastern Gojjam had openly gone against the state. It
is remarkable that little violence was used so far. As a result, the government was reluctant to
commit itself to forceful means, thinking that the resistance would be gradually solved peacefully.
The mood changed, however, following a small incident in Debre Marqos district in the village of
Awobel. On 9 March, 1968, the villagers were enjoying a feast in their village church. At the time,
the deputy administrator arrived with his followers and guards and began to measure a plot of land.
All cried out against what the administrator was doing. They managed to stop the measurement,
forcing the assessors to leave the village.
A unit of militia under the command of Demiss Alamirew, the Governor of the district, was sent
to Awobel. Then, the militia looted property and apprehended seventy men. Fifty-six of them were
later sentenced to prison. On 6 April, 1968 more than three thousand rebels from Bichena, Damot,
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Debre Marqos, and Mota moved towards Mengisto to set the prisoners free and to punish Demiss
Alamerew. About seven kilometers short of their goal, the rebels met a combined force of the
Territorial Army and the Police. After two days of continuous fighting, government forces ran out
of ammunition, and only the timely arrival of regular troops saved them. This was the first direct
involvement of the army in the conflict.
It was after this incident that the central government sent commission after commission to look
into the problem. On April 17, the people presented their problems to the Emperor both orally and
in writing in Addis Ababa. They informed him of their miseries under bad governors and militia.
They asked for better governance, better educational, health and transport facilities and demanded
the stopping of tax assessment. The Emperor, however, was not pleased with such boldness and
rejected their pleas. He warned them to give up their “unlawful activities”. Deeply disappointed
and empty handed, they returned home.
On 1 June, 1968, a commission made up of representatives from the Ministry of the Interior and
Finance came to Gojjam. The commission spent eleven days moving around the districts of
Bichena, Debra Marqos, Damot and Mota. Back in Addis Ababa, the commission recommended
military means to end the problem.
Suddenly, violence started between June 18 and 20. Several clashes occurred, in which both the
government and peasant sides suffered heavy casualties. The central government quickly sent
900 soldierss. Mota and Bichena were put under military administration. In the meantime, the third
and the last commission was sent to Gojjam. It included Dejazmatch Kifle Ergetu, the Minister of
the Interior, and Dejazmatch Kifle Dadi, a Crown Councillor. They arrived at Dabra Marqos on
July 5 to have direct talks with the rebels. The delegation traveled by air and road, listening to
stories of repression and returned to Addis Ababa. It submitted a comprehensive report stating that
the provincial officials had lost the trust and confidence of the people. On 23 July 1969,
Dejazmatch Tsehayu was transferred to Kafa and Dejazmatch Dereje Makonen replaced him.
Other officials appointed by Tsehayu were replaced by the local gentry of Bichena and Dabra
Marqos. A few days later, a general pardon was declared. Rebels were ordered to put down their
arms and return to their farms. On September 7, all farmers were made free from all penalties for
past failure to pay tax. But, they had to pay arrears by December 1972.
Before conditions returned to normality, over-zealous administrators began to collect taxes using
forceful methods. This was followed by clashes in Damot and Mota. The most serious was the one
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that broke out on 17 October 1968, following the rebel attack on the police quarters at Dambacha
district. After two days of fighting that involved the Air Force, the rebels withdrew leaving behind
50 dead and many more wounded. On the government side, five were killed and six wounded. The
Air Force attacked some villages in northern Damot and western Mota.
The state’s Police commission paid a one-day visit to Gojjam in mid-December and recommended
that a delegation including nobles from Dabra Marqos be sent to Damot to pacify the peasants. A
delegation led by the reknown Gojjame nobleman, Haile Mariam Kebede, arrived at Feres Bet on
December 21. It addressed a huge gathering, emotionally appealing to the people to put down their
weapons and spare the land form violence. He also promised that rist land would never be
measured but that tax had to be paid! Thereafter, the resistance decreased greatly. Only Dega -
Damot refused to submit. The government ordered Territorial Army forces and peasants from
Agaw Midir and Wenbera to invade Dega Damot. By February 1969, all resistance had been
broken down and the situation was fairly calm.
In May 1969 the Emperor visited Gojjam. He gave promotions and feasts and awarded titles and
medals, which was intended to please the gentry and the clergy. The peasants had also won
significant concessions. Most of the unpopular bureaucrats had been removed and tax assessors
were recalled. The income tax was postponed indefinitely. Moreover, farmers were freed from
paying tax arrears for the previous 19 years. All of the peasants received pardon.
The Ethiopian Student Movement
The establishment of institutions of higher education began in the post-liberation period. The first
university college was established in 1950, followed by opening of colleges in some other
important towns of the country. Teachers and curricula were imported from the western world.
But due to official censorship, materials on Ethiopia were not available to enlighten the students
and enable them to look critically at the existing social problems. The goal of the education system
was not to produce a potential challenge, but to produce technocrats who would be supportive to
the regime. However, as the students were exposed to western values and political systems, they
started to make comparisons between their society and the western world. They started to question
why their country remained backward.
Despite censorship and the unfavorable situation, student newspapers were started and associations
were formed in the University. Then, students began to play an important role in exposing the
reactionary nature of Haile Sellassie’s regime. The first newspaper was “News and
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Views” and the first students association was the "University Student Union" established in 1959.
In Ethiopia, the whole student body, in general, and the university students, in particular, played
the role of a political opposition for many reasons. In the first place, the absence of political parties
and a strong indigenous class of traders and entrepreneurs left only the students as focal point in
expressing opposition against the regime. Secondly, the social respect given to the educated few,
in a country of a high rate of illiteracy, gave this group of students a sense of responsibility for
their country. Thirdly, the campus life gave student leaders the opportunity to discuss national
issues and influence students so as to make them pay attention to the miseries of the masses.
The first social criticism against Haile Sellassie’s regime was expressed in the form of traditional
poetry by university students in their campus, in which the message is passed by means of
understatement and word play. The arrival of young men from English-speaking African countries
had influence on the political awareness of the university students.
Scholarship students that came from different African countries had joined the University at Addis
Ababa, after 1958. They were greatly shocked by the strict censorship and lack of political freedom
in Ethiopia. They had wrongly believed that Ethiopia was a place of freedom and could be an
example for Africa. The African students told their Ethiopian student friends about the struggle in
their respective countries to gain independence from colonial rule. No doubt, the students drew
lessons from these discussions.
More than that, however, it was the attempted coup d’etat of 1960 which undermined the
popularity of the Emperor. It helped the students to boldly engage in the struggle against the
regime. Above all, it was only the University students who came behind the cause of the coup by
staging demonstrations. After the coup failed, the students were made to apologize publicly in
writing to the Emperor. However, there was no doubt that the Emperor and the public were well
aware of the students’ support for the aims of the coup-makers.
In 1961, the consolidation of several colleges under a central administration as Haile Sellassie I
University further created the opportunity for cohesion and political radicalism. The students made
their challenge through organizing public demonstrations, particularly in favor of land reform. The
worsening conditions of the peasantry and the hard life of the urban masses provided the objective
basis for student radicalism. In the course of time, University student political radicalism spread
into the high schools. It happened through the instrumentality of the Ethiopian University Student
Service (EUSS), i.e. senior classes in the University used to give a one year teaching service in
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high schools before graduation. The programme, which started in 1965, provided a medium for
closer communication between University students and high schools in particular. These
“teachers” enlightened the students and increased their political awareness. Particularly they made
them aware of the backwardness of their country as a result of the reactionary nature of the regime.
In 1965, the University students staged a demonstration in front of the Parliament shouting the
revolutionary slogan “Land to the Tiller,” while the deputies were debating the regulations of
tenancy. The fact that the demonstration was staged in front of the Parliament was something new
and significant in the history of modern Ethiopia. This was a new approach in which the students
recognized the Parliament (as the people’s representative) not the Emperor, as holder of the
country’s sovereignty. In the following years, demonstrations became annual events.
In 1967, the student newspaper “News and Views” was replaced by “Struggle”. At the same time,
student activists managed to unite the various college unions in Addis Ababa into one organization
called the University Student Union of Addis Ababa (USUAA). It was done with the view of
creating one mouth-piece for the University students of Addis Ababa. Thus, the student newspaper
“Struggle” became the organ of spreading new political ideas among the students and the public
at large. There was also a strong stand against the USA, which was giving massive military support
to the reactionary imperial regime that was seen as an obstacle to the country’s development.
In the November 1969 issue of “Struggle”, an article was published on the nationalities problem
in Ethiopia. The writer was one of the student activists called Walelign Makonnen who firmly
supported cultural and linguistic independence of the nationalities. This became a challenge to the
government whose ethnic policy was repressive. The Ethiopian press and radio informed the public
that the students had to stop such activaties, which their families should also forbid. The
government saw the University students as a potential danger to its power. In late December, 1969,
the president of the USUAA, Tilahun Gizaw was killed by government agents. This was the
beginning of brutal measures against the students. The next day, a gathering of thousands of
students mourning the death of the student leader was fired on and some lost their lives. The
University was closed, but was reopened again after three weeks. But all this did not stop the
movement. Through illegal pamphlets, the students continued their protest against the regime. The
Ethiopian student movement had also an external wing. The world-wide student movement, anti-
imperialist and anti-right wing authoritarian regimes, had been flaring up in the 1960s, inspired by
Marxist theory. These revolutionary ideas were transmitted to Ethiopian students at home through
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Ethiopian students abroad in Europe and the USA. Their journals “Tatek” (Gird yourself) and
“Challenge” were brought into Ethiopia and put into circulation secretly. They gave direction to
the Ethiopian student movement in general.
On the event of the revolution, the Ethiopian students at home got another opportunity to expose
the reactionary nature of the regime. During the period under discussion the country suffered from
the famine that hit hard Wollo and Tigray. People died in large numbers. Others left their homes
for the urban areas. Despite the suffering of the people, the government was hiding the famine
from the rest of the world. The students, with some of their instructors, resisted the government’s
policy of hiding the famine of 1972-74. By so doing they exposed the famine which showed the
moral and political lowliness of the regime to the public and accelerate its downfall. It should be
underlined also that the famine was both a result of the absence of rains and man-made conditions.
The students were not organized as a political party to cause the final downfall of the monarchy
and to play a viable role in the transfer of power in 1974. As a result, the more organized military
force played the key role in the overthrow of the feudal power and took over government power.
However the student movement, at first gave direction and guidance to the new regime in 1974.
The students’ slogans of land reform, the right of nationalities and political liberties were taken
away by the Derg as a means to consolidate its political position.
Ethio-Somali Conflict
On independence, British and Italian Somaliland were united and emerged independent as the
Republic of Somalia on 1 June 1960. The new Republic was ambitious to build “Greater Somalia”
and adopted a flag with a five-pointed star symbolizing the five territories which Greater Somalia
wanted to possess. According to this design, Somalia was to comprise former Italian Somaliland,
British Somaliland, French Somaliland (Djibouti), the Ogaden in Ethiopia and the Northern
Frontier District (N.F.D) in Kenya. It remained the duty for the Republic to obtain the “lost” parts
and bring together all five Somali territories within a single Somali state.
With this objective in mind, Somalia rejected all treaties concerning the boundaries between
Somalia and Ethiopia. It rejected treaties signed before Somalia emerged as an independent state.
The Constitution of the Somali Republic also contained provisions to promote the aim of Grater
Somalia. The Somali politicians used all means to gain international support for their policy of
Greater Somalia.

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At the end of 1963, the British government sought to unite the Northern Frontier District of Kenya
with Somalia. This idea was not accepted by the Kenyan leaders, and was abandoned. Afterwards,
the Somali Republic broke off diplomatic relations with Britain and Kenya. This increased
cooperation between Kenya and Ethiopia. Both agreed to a mutual defence pact. Following this,
the Somali leaders began a series of clashes along the 1600 km Ethio-Somali border as early as
1964. As a matter of fact, they knew that they could not defeat Ethiopia but hoped to
internationalize the boundary issue and gain sympathy for the cause of Greater Somalia. They also
hoped to re-direct the inter-clan conflicts in Somalia towards the issue of national unity. But the
conflict ended when Somalia and Ethiopia issued a declaration in Khartoum announcing the end
of the fighting.
Subsequently the Somali leaders appealed to the UN Security Council, but did not gain any positive
response to their dream of “Greater Somalia”. At Somalia’s request, several meetings of the OAU
were held. Finally, it was decided that the OAU should assert a principle about African borders.
The first OAU summit, held in Cairo in July 1964, passed the Cairo Declaration on African
borders, which said that “All member states pledge themselves to respect the borders existing on
their achievement of national independence”. Somali leaders outrightly rejected the resolution.
When Somali leaders found that the African forum did not serve their cause, they shifted to the
Muslim world, particularly Arab forums. In numerous Islamic conferences, the Somali leaders
succeeded in having several anti-Ethiopian resolutions passed, pressing the Ethio-Israeli
connection to strengthen Arab opposition against Ethiopia.
In July 1967, a government change took place in the Somali Republic, and the former Premier Ali
Shermarke became President and the northern politician, Ibrahim Egal became Prime
Minister. Ibrahim Egal’s government made a détente with Ethiopia and Kenya. It revived
diplomatic relations. And the dream for Greater Somalia was left aside for the moment. However,
the prospect of this detente became dim when General Siyad Barrre took over political control
through the coup d’etat of 21, October 1969. Siyad Barre revived the policy of unifying all Somali
– claimed territories. If this could not be achieved, he proclaimed support for the right of self-
determination for Somalis wherever they were. Then the policy of “Greater Somalia” was changed
to “Western Somalia”. That was done to fulfil the policy of expansion through rebels in eastern
Ethiopia. Somalia's irredentism led to a war of aggression against Ethiopia, as we shall see farther
in the Unit.
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Popular Revolution and the Causes for the Fall of the Monarchy
Since the attempted coup d'etat of 1960, Haile Sellassie's government had been confronted with
mounting opposition. The leading forces in the opposition were students and intellectuals. They
accused the government of failure to introduce reforms to achieve economic, political and social
progress. In the opening years of the 1970s, the economic, political and social problems of the
country were still awaiting solutions.
In February 1974, almost two years after the celebration of the Emperor's 80 th birthday, a popular
revolt against the regime broke out. There were several immediate causes for the outbreak of the
revolt. But the most important was the famine of Wollo. Throughout 1973 and early 1974 the Wollo
famine claimed the lives of thousands of peasants, while forcing others to abandon their birth
place. Although the government tried to hide the famine, foreign reports exposed it. Upon the
exposure of the horrors of the famine, intellectuals and other enlightened Ethiopians bitterly
attacked the regime for ignoring the suffering of the people. Thus, public hatred against the regime
grew strong and broke out into open revolt in February 1974.
Beginning of the Revolution
The first revolt, leading up to the popular mass uprising of February, took place in the army
formerly an instrument of the regime. In January 1974, soldiers stationed in the town of Negele
Borena mutinied against the bad conditions of their life. Before the government could pacify the
soldiers, unrest spread to the capital the following month. The unrest was ignited by the rise in
petroleum price. The rise in petroleum price actually resulted from the Arab-Israeli War of 1973.
However, opposing the price rise, taxi drives in the capital went on strike in February 1974. They
demanded fair charges for taxi journeys proportional to the increased price of petroleum. At the
same time, there was a countrywide strike of teachers who opposed the implementation of the
educational reform program known as the “Educational Sector Review''. University and high
school students organized violent demonstrations.
The situation became critical when soldiers in different army divisions joined the popular unrest.
In late February, soldiers of the Second Division in Asmara, the Fourth Division in Addis Ababa
and the Air Force in Debre Zeit mutinied. Caught amid the mounting unrest, the Aklilu HabtaWold
cabinet was unable to pacify the situation. Aklilu, who had been a Prime Minster since 1961
resigned on 28 February 1974. The Emperor appointed Lij Endalkachew Mekonnen to replace
Aklilu as Prime Minister. The new Prime Minister promised to initiate reforms, ''including
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constitutional reform.'' As a sign of this good will, he presented for the Emperor's approval a
cabinet consisting of educated and progressive ministers. Along with this, the government also
tried to check ''the popular unrest by withdrawing the Sector Review, reducing the price of
petroleum and increasing the salaries of soldiers.''
Despite these concessions from the government, unrest continued. Students were the leading
agitators against the regime. They continued to challenge the government and also agitated others
to join them in the struggle against the regime. As was discussed above, soldiers were active
participants in the struggle. Already in February, they had set up a committee known as the
Coordinating Committee of the Armed Forces, the Police and the Territorial Army. The Committee
started to take its own independent measures. In late April, for instance, the Committee arrested
Aklilu and many other government officials and high- ranking military officers.
In June, the Committee made a call to military units throughout the country to send their
representatives−excluding officers above the rank of major-to the capital. Upon the arrival of the
delegates, a meeting was held on 28 June 1974 at the headquarters of the Fourth Division. This
was the first meeting of the Derg (the Committee). Major Mengistu Haile Mariam, a delegate of
the Third Army Division in Hararge, became the First Vice-Chariman of the Derg. Major Atnafu
Abate, already active in the Committee and a delegate of the Fourth Army Division, became the
Second Vice-Chariman.
The consolidation of the Derg marked the beginning of dual power in the country. This was
because the Derg exercised its own power parallel to Endalkachew's government. The state of dual
power did not last long. It came to an end on 1 August, when the Derg imprisoned Engalkachew
and replaced him as Prime Minster by Lij Mikael Imiru.
Fall of the Monarchy
With the removal of Endalkachew and his government, the Derg became the only power in the
country. So far, the Derg had arrested many of the prominent figures of the regime. Now, the
Emperor became their target. The Derg carried out a propaganda campaign to discredit the
Emperor until he was arrested and deposed on 12 September 1974.
9.4. The Military Dictatorship (1974 - 91) Consolidation of Military Dictatorship
Having put to an end to the Monarchy, the Derg proclaimed itself the provisional Military
Administrative Council (PMAC) and assumed full power. Both before and after 12 September,
1974, the Derg took several measures. Among these, some of the major ones were the following:
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 - Imprisonment of top military and civilian officials of the Haile Selassie regime.
- Banning of all anti - government strikes and demonstrations.
- Repression of all forms of protest.
- Execution of 52 renown officials and functionaries of the old regime, as well as General
Aman Mikael Andom, the Derg's Chairman in November 1974.
- Conduct of the Development through Cooperation campaign or the Zemecha to spread
literacy and organize the peasantry beginning from 1974.
- Proclamation of " Ethiopian Socialism" and adoption of the official name of the provisional
Government of Socialist Ethiopia.
- Nationalization of banks, insurance, industrial and commercial companies, as well as all rural
and urban land in 1975.
- Elimination of oponents to the personal dictatorship of Mengistu Haile Mariam was
completed between 1977 and 1978.
When all political organizations in the capital collaborated with the Derg, only the Ethiopian
People's Revolutionary Party (EPRP) continued in its opposition to military rule, thus becoming
its target. In cooperation with the All-Ethiopian Socialist Movement (Meison), the Derg began
what it called the ''Red Terror'' against the EPRP, whose counter-attacks were designated ''White
Terror''. However, before the Derg could totally eliminate the EPRP from the towns, it faced a
challenge of a different kind. This was the invasion of Somalia.
The invasion of Somalia took the Derg by surprise. Ethiopia's military machine was not in a
condition to stand large scale foreign invasion. The regular army which numbered no more than
50,000 troops was poorly armed. The USA had been the supplier of Ethiopia's military armaments.
But it had withdrawn this support, when its relations with Ethiopia become strained following
military rule. Even though the USA had promised to the Emperor in 1973 to supply a 100 million
US dollar armament, including fighter and bomber airplanes, the delivery was held back. In
contrast, Somalia undertook military preparations long before it started the invasion.
The main supplier of Somalia's armaments was the Soviet Union.

After long preparations, Siyad Barre, the then leader of Somalia, awaited for an opportune time to
begin the invasion of Ethiopia. When the popular revolution of 1974 broke out, Siyad Barre was
convinced that the time had come to start an attack against Ethiopia. The attack began in 1977. By
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August 1977, the Somali regular army was in control of large parts of eastern Ethiopia. The Somali
invasion united all Ethiopians to the defense of their country. Consequently, the Derg, which now
assumed the role of a patriotic leader, successfully organized the training of a 300,000 peasant
militia force and hastily sent it to reinforce the regular army. In the meantime, changes in the
international alliance system favoured Ethiopia. Already having adopted Marxist-Leninist
ideology, Mengistu hurried to make new relations with the Soviet Union. Ending their relations
with Somalia, the Soviets started to arm Ethiopia. In addition, the Soviet allies, Cuba and South
Yemen, sent their soldiers to fight on the side of Ethiopia. Thus, with the assistance of the Cuban
and South Yemeni soldiers and Soviet military officers, the Ethiopian army started a counter-
attack, which soon pushed back the Somali invaders. By March 1978, all Somali regular forces
had been driven out from the territory of Ethiopia. The efficient Ethiopian Air Force and the heroic
efforts of the peasant militia were very important in the decisive victory which Ethiopia gained
over the Somali aggressors.
After victory over Somalia, three major issues took the attention of the military government. The
first was the total elimination of the EPRP, from the towns, which it succeeded in the use of “Red
Terror” in an organized manner through what it called the ''Disclosure Campaign''. As a result of
fear and merciless torture, many people were forced to confess things they really did not know or
had not done. In the process, thousands of innocent people became victims of the “Red Terror”.
But the EPRP continued its struggle by moving to the northern part of the country to undertake a
rural guerrilla resistance. In 1977 Meison was identified as the Derg’s opponent and became a
target for attack.

The second issue which took attention of the Derg was the task of party formation. The Derg had
planned for a communist party formation by merging political organization that supported it. But
it changed the strategy of party formation in 1979 from unity of different political organizations to
recruitment of individuals loyal to the military government. Using that strategy a party known as
the Workers Party of Ethiopia (WPE), and Mengistu became its Secretary-General in September
1984. This event marked the peak of the military dictatorship. As we shall see below, it also marked
the beginning of the occurrence of events which hastened the downfall of the military dictatorship.
The third issue was the suppression of opposition groups and freedom fighters which had their
bases in the northern part of Ethiopia. These were the Ethiopian Democratic Union (EDU), the
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Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) and the Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF). The
EDU emerged only after the downfall of the old regime. Its leader was Ras Mengesha Seyoum, a
grandson of Emperor Yohnnes IV who was married to the granddaughter of Haile Sellassie I.
Members of the EDU were mainly northern aristocrats and high ranking military officers of the
old regime. EDU was thus fighting to restore the feudal monarchy. There was some fighting
between the EDU and the Derg. The EDU also fought against the TPLF in Tigray, where both had
their bases. In this fighting the EDU met a crushing defeat and was totally driven out of Tigray. In
May 1976, the Derg issued a nine point program for the solution of the Eritrean problem. But there
was no agreement and the negotiations broke down. In the following year, when the invasion from
Somalia diverted the Derg's attention, the EPLF greatly expanded its control over Eritrea. It
encircled Asmara and put Massawa under siege. By the end of 1977, only 5 per cent of Eritrea
remained under the control of Derg.
The situation was reversed immediately after victory over Somalia. With full confidence, the Derg
started a massive attack against EPLF. The pressure of massive attacks forced the EPLF to evacuate
many of the territories it held. In spite of this, the Derg did not succeed in expelling the EPLF from
its strong base at Nakfa, in northern Eritrea. `The Derg made another attempt at eliminating the
EPLF in1982. This time, attacks against the EPLF were carried out under the socalled “Red Star
Campaign”, which again failed to eliminate the EPLF.
Another political force fighting the Derg in the north was the TPLF. It was founded by a small
group of university students who fled to Tigray in1975. They began their struggle in Dedebit, a
place located in the lowlands of Adiyabo in western Tigray. Initially, the TPLF obtained some
support from the EPLF mainly in military training and supply of some rifles. In the first phase of
its struggle, the TPLF was engaged in a bloody war with the EDU. Having defeated and expelled
the EDU from Tigray, the TPLF gradually expanded its control over Tigray. It also fought against
EPRP and drove it away from Tigray. One of its earliest engagements with the Derg army was
against the forces dispatched under the so-called Raza Campaign. In this engagement, the TPLF
ambushed the Derg force and forced it to surrender. In the following years, the TPLF consolidated
its power and expanded its military resources to become the leading force in the struggle against
military rule.
By 1982, the TPLF was in command of a considerable force with a major part of Tigray under its
control. At this time, the EPLF was in a critical condition due to the attacks the Derg launched
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under the Red Star Campaign. In fact, the EPLF was saved from total destruction by the force of
TPLF who made a remarkable march along difficult terrain to Sahel and assisted the EPLF in
pushing back the Derg army.
The failure of the Red Star Campaign was a turning point in the struggle between the Derg and the
northern insurgents. In 1984, the Derg celebrated the inauguration of the Workers Party of
Ethiopia and the 10th anniversary of the military government. The anniversary coincided with a
severe famine that hit Ethiopia as a whole. In order to make political profit out of the famine, the
Derg began massive resettlements of the peasants of Tigray and Wollo, the areas most affected by
the famine, to the southwestern parts of Ethiopia. Part of the intention behind the resettlement
programme was the isolation of the freedom fighters from the rural population in the north. Along
with the resettlement program was villagizaion (concentration of peasants in large villages) which
also intended to tighten control over the rural population. Both programs led to widespread peasant
opposition against the military government. This created favourable conditions for the rise and
growth of several movements fighting for national self-determination. Among these movements,
some of which already in existence were the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), the Sidama Liberation
Front (SLM), the Oromo Islamic Front (OLF), the Afar Liberation Front (ALF), the Benishangul
Liberation Movement (BLF) and the Gambella Liberation Front (GLF). Peasant opposition to the
Derg's policies above all benefited the TPLF. The Front won popular support which strengthened
its power.
In a series of military victories, the Front expanded the territory under its control. Among the
military victories, one particularly was very important. In February 1989, the TPLF fighters scored
a remarkable victory on the Derg army at Enda Sellassie, western Tigray. Tens of thousands of the
soldiers of the Derg army were captured. Many of their commanders were either killed in action
or captured. The victory also helped the TPLF to capture artillery pieces and tanks.
The victory of Enda Sellassie had two consequences. Firstly, it led to the withdrawal of Derg troops
from the whole of Tigray. This enabled the TPLF to extend the scope of this struggle beyond
Tigary. Secondly, the victory was a crushing blow to the fighting morale of the Derg army.
Moreover, the victory had another immediate consequence. This was the attempt of high ranking
military officers to eliminate Mengistu from power. On 16 May 1989, the officers staged a coup
in Addis Ababa. However, the coup was hastily began to take the opportunity of Mengistu's
absence from the capital, for he was on a state visit to East Germany. The coup failed. As it was,
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within hours of its failure, Mengistu flew back to Addis Ababa to take his revenge. Then followed
widespread arrests and all suspected officers were either executed or sentenced to serve long terms
in prison. As a result, the army lost its best officers. The merciless punishment also demoralized
the Derg officers and totally killed the fighting morale of the rank and file. Hence forward, the
officers fought with less and less conviction, while the rank and file deserted and surrendered in
thousands.
In addition to internal problems, things went against the military government in international
politics. This was the collapse of the Soviet Union and the communist regimes in Eastern Europe.
As a result, the military government not only lost its chief external support, but also faced open
criticism of its rigidities from Soviet journalists and academicians. The half-hearted proclamation
of a mixed economy in March 1990 was too late to change the situation for the better. The days of
the military dictatorship were nearing their end. Hastening the downfall of the military dictatorship
were actions taken by the TPLF, which will be treated below.
Fall of the Military Dictatorship
Immediately after controlling the whole of Tigray, the TPLF changed the strategy of its struggle
to liberate Tigray to liberating the whole country from the rule of the military dictatorship and
establish a democratic system in Ethiopia. To this end, the TPLF made the necessary organizational
change by forming a broad front known as the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front
(EPRDF) in early 1990.
In addition to the TPLF, the EPRDF included such organizations as the Ethiopian Peoples'
Democratic Movement now called the Amhara People's Democratic Movement (APDM) and the
Oromo People's Democratic Organization (OPDO). In the campaigns of 1990 and 1991, the
coalition forces of the EPRDF drove the Derg army out of Gondar, Gojjam, Wollo and Shoa and
moved to the capital from the northern and western directions. On 21 May 1991, Mengistu fled to
Harare, the capital of Zimbabwe. This marked the total collapse of the resistance of the Derg. In
the north, the EPLF forces controlled Asmara and Assab and announced the formation of the
Provisional Government of Eritrea. On 28 May 1991 the EPRDF forces entered Addis Ababa with
no resistance and brought to an end to Mengistu’s military dictatorship.
The downfall of the military dictatorship marked the beginning of a new chapter in the history of
Ethiopia. The process of building a democratic system in the country was soon undertaken.
Following its entry into Addis Ababa, the EPRDF established a Provisional Government under
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Meles Zenawi as Acting Head of State. On 26 June, the Provisional Government announced that
a National Conference, to set up a Transitional Government, would meet on1 July. Accordingly,
all political forces in the country were invited to attend the Conference. Then, followed a five-day
conference in Addis Ababa attended by several political organizations. The Conference concluded
its sessions by establishing the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE) and the Charter that
would serve during the transitional period. The importance of the Charter was that, for the first
time in the history of Ethiopia, it gave rights to the nations and nationalities of the country to use
their languages in conducting education and administration. The Charter allowed nations and
nationalities to use and develop their respective cultures.
During the first two years, the TGE was preoccupied with the tasks of restoring peace and security
in the country, rehabilitation of the demobilized soldiers, and forming local governments. The
latter was achieved in 1993, when local administrations were established throughout the country.
In April of the same year, referendum which invited Eritreans for independence was conducted. In
May, 1993, Eritrea became a separate independent state. In 1993, a new Constitution was drawn
up. The constitution was approved by a Constituent Assembly in December 1994. After a nation
wide election, the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) was formed in August 1995.
UNIT SUMMARY
British involvement in the liberation campaign enabled them to have dominance in Ethiopia. They
were in control of the most important bodies of government, like the police force, finance, the
army, and key posts in the administrative sector, and had occupied Eritrea and the Ogaden. To
overcome the British dominance, Emperor Hailesselasie established close diplomatic relation with
the USA in the late 1940s. America had also strong interest in the region. They opened the Qagnew
satellite station in Asmera. After a long diplomatic struggle, the British restored the entire Ogaden
region to Ethiopia in 1954. British occupation of Eritrea also ended in 1951 and Eritrea was
federated with Ethiopia in 1952.
After Emperor Haile Selassie was restored to his throne, he continued the work of constructing an
absolutist state until his downfall in 1974. The Emperor dominated the political life of the country
for more than half a century. Nevertheless, the Emperor encountered opposition that came from
various sections of society and expressed itself in various forms, such as plots and conspiracies,
attempted coups, peasant rebellions, student movements, and armed struggle. More threateningly
for the regime, the various military units and contingents started to unite their actions by
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establishing a coordinating committee of the armed forces, which became a precursor of the Derg.
On June 28, about 120 junior officers, none above the rank of major, established the Derg (a Ge’ez
word for “committee”). Although the Derg professed loyalty to the emperor, it immediately began
to arrest members of the aristocracy, military, and government who were closely associated with
the old order. This became the first step of the “creeping coup” by which the imperial system of
government was slowly dismantled.
The Derg formally deposed Emperor Haile Selassie on September 12, 1974, and transformed itself
into the Provisional Military Administrative Council (PMAC). Later, the Derg began to change its
slogan from “Ethiopia Tikdem” (Ethiopia First) to “Ethiopian Socialism” as the political
philosophy. The year 1975 began with a series of proclamations that brought most of Ethiopia’s
industries, large-scale agricultural farms, and financial institutions under the control of the
government. Of the proclamations, the most radical were the nationalization of rural land and the
state ownership of urban land and extra houses. The culmination of the Ethiopian revolution was
the proclamation of the People’s Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) in September 1987. By
the end of 1980s, the Soviet Union, in the spirit of Mikhail Gorbachev’s glasnost (openness) and
prestroika (restructuring), brought about the collapse of the Soviet Union. The United States,
which had never friendly relations with the Derg, now became the sole supreme power of the
world. The northern insurgency began to take a decisive turn in March 1988. On 21 May 1991
Mengistu fled to Harare, Zimbabwe. Immediately the EPRDF transitional government was setted
up and later following the ratification of the FDRE constitution by 1995, the EPRDF government
officially became the governing power of Ethiopia.
Review Questions
Choose the best answers from the following alternatives.
1. Which one of the forces of opposition to the autocratic state of Ethiopia launched its struggle
at both the national and international arena?
A. Woyane peasant rebellion of 194t C. Gojjam peasant rebellion
B. The Ethiopian students movement D. Taxi- drivers movement
2. Which of the following was not a reform undertaken by Derg?
A. Nationalization of urban land and extra house under production established Urban
Dwellers’ Associations
B. Centralizing the economy of the country under the command of the government
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 C. Launching a program called Development through Cooperation campaign for
economic development and literacy campaign for eliminating illiteracy in helping
farmers to read and write
D. Nationalizing industries, and rural land and redistributing to landless peasants as well
as government controlling enterprises
3. Yekatit 66 political school was established by Derg as training center because of all of the
following reasons except
A. To realize objective of disseminating Marxism Leninism
B. To end the greater objective of POMOA
C. To replace Autocracy with PMAC
D. To distribute Marxist – Leninism in mass training to be carried out
4. Who were the last Prime Minister of the autocratic government and the 1st chairman of Derg,
respectively?
A. Haile Selasie , Mengistu H / Mariam
B. Aklilu Habe Wold , Tefari Banti
C. Lij Endalkachew Mekonen, Atinafu Abata
D. Lij Mikael Imiru, Aman Michael Andom
5. Which of the following oppositions against Emperor Haile Selasie I and their objective
(goal) was wrongly related?
A. Taxi-drivers on increased transportation cost
B. Teachers’ association for increment of salary and pension age
C. Ethiopian workers for improving the little pay and long working hours
D. Muslims for secularism and religious tolerance
6. Which of the following was not true about the Eritrean problem?
A. In 1952, Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia meaning that the autocratic government
contorted all affairs.
B. The Big Four, namely, Britain, USA and USSR appealed the case of Eritrea to the UN
in 1948.
C. The UN sent 5 persons from Burma, Pakistan, South Africa, Norway and Guatemala
to listen to the voices of Eritrea.
D. Muslim dominated ELF(Jabaha) and EPLF (Shabya) stated the independence of
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 Eritrea at their foundations.
7. Peasant Rebellion of Bale and Gojjam were different in that:
A. The former was supported by foreign Somalia; the latter was supported by the British
government.
B. The former was caused by maladministration, religious and ethnic dominations; the
latter was caused by the introduction of a new agricultural or land tax system.
C. The former was led by Jegama Kello; the latter by Waqu Gutu.
D. The former began first at Elkere; the latter began at Wabi and Mota (Dega Damot).
8. The 1960 coup d`etat had all of the following historical truths except:
A. It was organized by Imperial Body-guard and police force.
B. Megistu Neway, who was the organizer of coup, was USA educated, Governor of Jijiga
and Wolaita, and was hanged publicly at A.A.
C. It assumed to make Ras Imiru as head of state and Prince Asfawosen as Prime Minster.
D. It was aborted because it lacked coordination.
9. Which of the following reasons did Europeans use as a pretext in the first half of the 19th c
in order to penetrate Africa?
A. For searching raw materials for their industries
B. For scientific investigation, religious mission and for geographical expedition
C. For market search to further profit
D. For the stragic position of the continent at the Mediterranean Sea
10. The Ethiopian Teachers’ Association opposed the Education Sector Review of 1971-1972
because it:
A. Introduced a shift system to schools
B. Discriminated against students from poor families
C. Increased the number of high school students
D. Proposed a reduction in the salary of teachers
11. On January 31, 1942, the first Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement was signed. This agreement:
A. Recognized Ethiopia as a sovereign state but it allowed the British to have final
authority over Ethiopia’s.
B. Forced Britain to recognize the Ogaden and the reserved area as integral parts of
Ethiopia.
C. Allowed Emperor Haile Selassie to recruit non-British foreign personnel
D. Recognized Djibouti as an outlet of Ethiopia.

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References
1. Bahru Zewde, A Short History of Ethiopia and the Horn (1998)
2. Tadesse Tamirat, Church and State in Ethiopia (1972)
3. Sergew Hableselassie, Ancient and Medieval History of Ethiopia
4. Mohammed Hasen, The Oromo of Ethiopia (1994)
5. Philip Curtin, African History from the Earliest to the Present
6. Heater D, Our World Today (1995).
[Link]: Grade 9-12 History student text book.

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