AN ASSIGNMENT ON CATEGORIZATION OF HINDU RITUALS
Course Name: Beliefs and Rituals
Course Code: SOC-305
Prepared For: Prepared By:
Rasheda Irshad Nasir Rotan Chandra Roy
Professor Roll No:32
Department of Sociology 3rd Year, 5th Semester
Faculty of Social Sciences Session: 2019-20
University of Dhaka Department of Sociology
University of Dhaka
Date of Submission: 12 February, 2023
Introduction: Ritual is an integral part of human life. Marriage rituals, Birth Rituals, other religious, and also
other social, and national define and enrich a society’s culture. Ritual is a social act in which the participants
re-enact their relationship to sacred objects and beliefs according to Malefijt (1968). Ritual reflect on human
nature, sociality, and culture. However, in every there are various rituals in Hinduism which enrich its culture.
For example, wedding rituals, birth rituals, pregnancy rituals, various worship (puja), mediation etc. During
wedding, Hindu people practice the rituals such as engagement, bou baaran, Ashirbad (blessing) etc. On the
other hand, after dying a person, Hindus practice very different rituals than other religions such as washing
body with honey, ghee, milk etc. Putting a lamp near the head or sprinkling water on the body. Besides, other
rituals such as yoga, Yajna, Japa, etc. are very important rituals that are practiced in Hinduism.
Definition of Ritual: A ritual is a formalized mode of behavior in which the members of a group or community
regularly engage. It is the core of religion, fixed and sacred, obligatory and meritorious. “Rituals are designed
both to express belief and to bring about specific ends. This ritual behavior is motivated by the desire to gain
some form of satisfaction and is to expect to be effective” (Melefijt; 1968; 189). People in every society all
over the world celebrate rituals. They believe in a specific myth. Then they practice various rituals centered on
this myth. Ritual is instrumental, and the performance of ritual is predicted on the belief that it is efficacious in
achieving a certain end.
However, religion represents one of the main contexts in which rituals are practiced though the scope of ritual
behavior extends well beyond religion. So there is a relationship among myth, beliefs and religion. Myth and
ritual are essentially expressive and symbolic in character. Myth are actually not mere folk’s tales, but symbolic
statements about social reality and human existence. On the other hand, actions of ritual tend to be considered a
symbolic pursuit of a desired result. People believe in rituals that these will help to prevent worse things. So
they practice rituals. They actually practice rituals because of health, fertility, and general welfare and social
solidarity.
So, finally we can say according to Melefijt that, “Ritual is a social act in which the participants re-enact their
relationship to sacred objects and beliefs. Both ritual and myth are thus not only founded in dogma, but they
make sacred beliefs intelligible by rendering them in terms of human action and human language” (Melefijt;
1968; 195).
Categories of Rituals: There are many rituals in every society. It is not possible to categorize all the rituals of
the world (religious rituals or others rituals). Yet we can categorize the rituals into two ways based on different
social implications.
1. Period: A ritual that is performed on a regular basis as part of a religious calendar. It is also called
calendrical ritual. “Period ritual tend have to communal action. They serve to mark the start of
agricultural cycle, the end of the harvest, the founding of the community, and so on” (Melefijt; 1968).
This ritual is regular and fixed.
2. Non-periodic: A ritual that is performed when a particular need arises. This ritual is also known as
occasional ritual. “This ritual are most often associated with critical events in the life of an individual.
As such, they usually mark domestic events- birth, the attainment of adulthood status, marriage and
death” (Melefijt; 1968). This ritual is not fixed. Rather this ritual depends on the need of the moments.
Besides there are also many rituals we can specify though these rituals are considered in the two types of rituals
above.
➢ Social Ritual
➢ National Ritual
➢ Religious Ritual
Categorization of Hindu Rituals:
Pregnancy Rituals:
• Punsavana: During the third month of pregnancy the ceremony of Punsavana (foetus protection) is
performed. This is done for the strong physical growth of the foetus.
• Simantonnyana: The Simantonnyana is performed during the seventh month. This is the equivalent of
a baby shower and means ‘satisfying the craving of the pregnant mother’. Prayers are offered for the
mother and child with emphasis on healthy mental development of the unborn child. Hindus believe that
mental state of a pregnant woman affects the unborn child.
Birth Rituals: There are many rituals that are practiced in Hinduism after taking birth. These are Jatakarma,
Namkarana, Annaprashana, and Upanayana. These rituals are sacred to Hindus. So they practice these rituals
importantly year after year.
➢ Jatakarma: Once the child enters the world, Jatakarma is performed to welcome the child into
the family, by putting some honey in the child’s mouth and whispering the name of God in the
child’s ear. Actually the ritual putting honey in child’s mouth is practiced so that the child can
speak welly.
➢ Namakarana: Naamkarana, is a traditional Hindu naming ceremony. In Sanskrit ‘naam’
means ‘name’ and ‘karan’ means ‘to create’ or ‘to effect’. The ceremony is performed to
formally choose the newborn’s name and celebrated with family and friends. According to
Hindu traditions, the naamkaaran ceremony is usually performed within a few weeks of the
baby’s birth. The eleventh or twelfth day after birth is considered the most auspicious day for
the ceremony. Some parents also choose the day based of their religious leader’s advice and the
naamkarana may be held on any day after the tenth day, and before the baby’s first birthday.
➢ Annaprashana: It is the first rice eating ceremony of a newly born baby in Bengali culture.
The ceremony is performed during sixth of the eighth month
after the baby’s birth. The new born baby consumes its first
solid food during the Annaprashana ceremony. From that day
onwards the baby can consume solid food.
On the day of the ceremony, the baby is given a traditional
bathe using Haldi or turmeric and sandalwood paste markings
are made on the forehead. The baby wears traditional dress
for the ceremony. A baby boy wears dhoti, white silk kurta and a headdress. A baby girl wears
red sari, red blouse and headdress. The first solid food offered is Payes cooked by Sugar, Rice,
Raisin, Cardamom and water. The food is first offered to the family deity. Finally, the baby is
given Payes by the grandparents and then parents in the family and then other relatives and
neighborhood.
➢ Upanayana: It is a Hindu ritual of initiation that is restricted to the three upper social classes
(Varnas). But now it is practiced of all the Varnas. In the past this ritual was both the male
child’s entrance on the life of a student and his acceptance as a full member of his religious
community. But now this ritual just makes the male child’s full member of his religious
community. The ceremony is performed between the ages of 5 and 24. After ritual bath, the
dressed is as an ascetic and brought before his guru (Personal spiritual guide), who invests him
with a deerskin to use as an upper garment, a staff, and the sacred thread (upavita, of
yajnopavita). The thread, consisting of a loop made of three symbolically knotted and twisted
strands cotton cord, is replaced regularly so that it is worn throughout the lifetime of the owner,
normally over the left shoulder and diagonally across the chest to the right hip. If identifies the
wearer as dvija, of “twice-born”, the second birth understood as having taken place when the
guru imparted to the student the “Gayatri” mantra, a sacred verse of the Rigveda.
Actual observance of upanayana is increasingly confined to more orthodox Hindus, particularly
the Brahman caste. As a prerequisite to marriage, it is sometimes replaced by a simpler
ceremony, which takes place on the day of marriage; often both initiation ceremonies are
omitted altogether.
Wedding Rituals: Marriage itself is a ritual, particularly is a non-periodic ritual and also other various rituals
are practiced during pre-wedding and post-wedding. However, marriage is viewed as a sacrament, not a
contact. Hindu marriage is a life-long commitment of one wife and one husband, and is the strongest social
bond that takes place between a man and a woman. Grahastha Asharam (the householder stage), the second of
the four stages of life begins when a man and a woman marry and start a household. A typical Bangladeshi
wedding includes several ceremonies that last for several days, starting from engagement until bou bhaat
(reception).
• Engagement: One of the first pre-wedding ceremonies is the engagement, where the future bride and
groom exchange the rings. It is a formal announcement of the union of both the future bride and groom.
The engagement ceremony is celebrated with family and close friends. The Bangladeshi engagement
ceremony is similar to that of engagement parties in the West. A small prayer is often included in the
engagement ceremony. A feast for the guests is also arranged.
• Aashirvaad (blessing): The groom’s parents bless the couple and offer cloth or flower to the bride,
symbolizing her joining of the groom’s family. All those assembled shower flowers on the couple and
bless them.
• Biye (Wedding Ceremony): Bye is arranged by the bride’s family. Most Hindu weddings take place in
the evening. The Hindu wedding ceremony takes place in an
intricately decorated Mandap. The Hindu wedding ceremony
begins, with the arrival of the groom and his family to the bride’s
house. When the groom enters, water is softly sprinkled on the
doorstep. For Hindu wedding ceremony in Bangladesh, the priest
asks both the bride and groom to chant mantras that formalize Saat
paake ghora (rounding 7th times) and Kanya sampradaan. The bride and the groom exchange garlands
and the groom will adorn the bride’s forehead with vermillion. After the Hindu wedding ceremony, on
the day of the wedding, the relatives and close friends will remain awake. This ceremony is known as
Basor Raat.
If the wedding ceremony ends by evening, then the basor raat will start after midnight. Since Hindu
weddings take place in the evening, on the next day, before noon, the newlyweds will proceed to the
groom’s home. Normally, for the marriage, the Bangladeshi bride wears a saree or lehenga whereas the
groom wears a Dhoti and Panjabi in almost every rural areas and sherwani or western-style suit in
mostly urban areas.
• Agni Parinaya: The Circumambulation of the Fire the bridegroom holds the bride by the hand and both
walk seven times around the nuptial fire. Both offer oblations and recite appropriate Vedic hymns to
Gods for prosperity, good fortune, and conjugal fidelity. They touch each other’s heart and pray for
union of their hearts and minds while walking around the bridegroom repeats: "First now they bring to
you in bridal procession this Surya, guiding her steps in circular motion. Return her now, O Agni, to her
husband as rightful wife, with hope of children to come. "Then the entire rite is repeated twice more,
beginning with the rite of the fried grain. At the fourth round she pours into the all the fried grain from
the mouth of the winnowing basket saying: "To Bhaga svaha!
• Kanya sampradaan (Giving away of the daughter): The bride’s father has to give away the bride to the
groom. This is known as Kanya sampradaan.
• Kanya Biday: It is a highly emotional moment since the bride bids goodbye to her family, and the
newly-weds depart to the groom’s home. The bride and the groom will be given blessings by the
parents. It will be a joyous moment for the groom’s family and a melancholic moment for the bride’s
family. Earlier, the newlyweds will be required to travel far since well to do families that lived far away.
• Bou Baran: When the newlyweds arrive at the groom’s house, they will be greeted with prayers. The
bride’s mother-in-law will take the initiative. Among Muslims, Bou baraan is performed with prayers
from the Quran. The bride will be asked to step on a plate containing lac dye and milk and enter the
house. A feast is held at the groom’s house, to welcome the bride to the groom’s family. It is known as a
bou baraan feast.
• Bou Bhaat: Bou bhaat is a post-wedding ceremony, also known as the reception. Bou bhaat is conducted
by the groom’s family, as a response to the wedding ceremony. When compared to the wedding
ceremony, bou bhaat is a much more relaxed ceremony, where the bride and groom will look their best
in their wedding reception attire. The newlyweds will arrive together to the venue, receive all the guests,
where the bride will be introduced to the groom’s extended family, and friends. After bou bhaat, the
newlyweds will stay in the bride’s house for two days. On the second day, the bride’s family will invite
the groom’s family for a meal, called Firani. After the meal, the groom’s family will leave with the
newlyweds.
Mourning Rituals: The Hindu faith is centered on reincarnation; the belief that when someone dies, the soul is
reborn as a different form. They believe that although the physical body
dies, their soul remains and continues to recycle until it settles upon its
true nature. This can take many lifetimes, and with each death they
strive to move closer to Brahma, the Hindu God. Additionally, they
believe their soul’s next incarnation will depend on the actions
throughout their previous life, this is also known as Karma.
After death, Hindus believe that the physical body serves no purpose,
and therefore does not need to be preserved. They choose to cremate
their loved ones as they believe it’s the quickest way to release the soul
and help with reincarnation. Historically, Hindu cremations would take place on the Ganges River, India, and
the family would carry the casket to the crematorium site. Nowadays, Hindus are cremated locally, and most
funeral directors can accommodate the traditions and rituals of a Hindu cremation.
Traditionally, Hindu funeral rites take the form of chants or mantras which are overseen by an officiant, usually
a Hindu priest or the eldest son of the bereaved. They will gather the family and friends and lead them in the
various Hindu death rituals. These include:
➢ Washing the body with ghee, honey, milk, and yoghurt
➢ Placing essential oils on the head of the deceased (turmeric for females, sandalwood for males)
➢ Placing the palms in a position of prayer and tying the big toes together
➢ Dressing the deceased’s body in smart clothes (contemporary) or wrapping it in a white sheet
(traditional)
➢ Placing a garland of flowers and ‘pinda’ (rice balls) around their loved ones
➢ Putting a lamp near the head or sprinkling water on the body
According to Hindu death rituals, the body should remain at the home until cremation – this is usually within 24
hours of the death. Due to the short time frame of Hindu cremation, embalming is considered unnecessary. It is
customary for family and friends to visit the home of the bereaved to offer their sympathy.
What happens after a Hindu Funeral?
➢ The casket is carried into the crematorium, feet first, while mourners recite prayers.
➢ An open casket displays the deceased, and guests are expected to view the body. This should be
done respectfully and without touching the person who has died.
➢ A Hindu priest and senior family members conduct the cremation ceremony (‘mukhagni’).
➢ Traditionally, the mukhagni is only attended by men, however, modern Hindu funerals allow
women to attend.
➢ The day after a Hindu funeral, the ashes are scattered over a sacred body of water or a place of
importance to the deceased.
Traditionally, the Hindu mourning period ranges from 10 to 30 days. Throughout this time, families may
display a picture of their loved one, adorned with a garland of flowers, somewhere in their house. Visitors are
also welcome during this period.
On the 13th day of mourning, it’s common for the grieving family to hold a ceremony (‘preta-karma’) where
they perform rituals to help release the soul of the deceased for reincarnation. Additionally, on the first
anniversary of the death, the family host a memorial event that honors the life of their loved one.
Worship (Puja):
Hindu worship, known as puja, involves all five senses of touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing, and also what
Hindus consider to be the five basic elements: light, fire, earth, air and water. It can be carried out in the home
of Hindus before a shrine, or in the Hindu temple, which is known as a mandir. Hindus wash thoroughly before
prayers at home. When they enter a temple, they remove their shoes. They show respect to the gods by making
offerings of money or food (rice, nuts or fruit) to the shrines of the gods. Puja begins with the washing of the
images of the gods. They are washed with water, and sometimes with a milk based mixture called panchamrit.
Next the images of the gods are anointed with a perfumed, colored marks made of haldi (turmeric) and
kumkum. These marks are called tilaka and are also worn by Hindu priests and Hindu women. Offerings of
food and flowers are now made to the images. The offering of food is made because the gods provide people
with all their needs. The offerings of flowers signify respect and worship. Incense is burnt before the image and
a bell is rung. Both of these show the respect of the worshipper and announce the presence of the god. In the
temple the curtains would now be drawn before the gods, and the people spend some time in prayer. The climax
of the worship is the lighting of the Arti lamp. On the puja tray with the lamp are a bell, a flower, a pot of ghee
(oil) and a pot of water. The lamp is circled 3 times in front of the image clockwise. The priest then scatters
holy water over the worshippers, while they sing hymns to the gods. The blessings of the Arti lamp are shared
by the congregation. They make an offering on the tray. They pass their hands over the light, then over their
eyes and hands, symbolically receiving the blessings of God. In Mandirs in Britain it is usual to share food at
the end of worship and even for all the worshippers to join in a meal.
The three most important gods are called the Trimurti, comprising of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. Their
supreme importance is due to their roles in the creation, preservation, and destruction of the universe.
However, many other gods are also highly esteemed by Hindus, especially those with beneficial powers. For
example, Lakshmi is the goddess of prosperity and domesticity, Saraswati is the goddess of knowledge, art,
and music, and Ganesh is the remover of obstacles. Top ten most important are Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Rama,
Krishna, Saraswati, Lakshmi, Parvathi, Durga.
Arati: Arati is the most popular ceremony in Hinduism. It is a ritual that expresses devotion and respect to a
deity. Arati is performed by circling deepas before the murti of God or guru while chanting a prayer. It is one of
the sixteen steps (shodashaupachara) of the puja ritual. It is often called “the ceremony of lights” during which
the devotee seeks protection, benediction and moksha by singing God’s glory. In some mandirs the pujari
performs arati with camphor, a three or a five-wick lamp, Incense, a flower, water and other items. The
ceremony is mostly performed standing and by ringing a small hand bell. It is accompanied by playing a drum
and a pair of gongs, and blowing a conch shell.
The ritual originated many centuries ago when the murti of a deity was illuminated for the darshan of devotees.
The pujari in the dark sanctum sanctorum of mandir circulated the deepa from head to foot while chanting
mantras or singing a prayer. Gradually the practice developed into arati. When the arati is over it is circulated
among devotees who cup their down- turned hands over the flame and raise their palms to touch them to their
eyes and head. This helps the devotees to absorb and be blessed with the sacred light of the deepas. Arati is
performed not only in mandirs and home shrines but also after a religious ceremony or prior to or after a
spiritual discourse. In shikhara baddha Vaishnavamandirs (big pinnacled temples) there is a tradition of
performing aratis five times/ every day, whereas in harimandirs (small temples) or home mandirs it is done
twice daily, in the morning and evening.
Silent Prayer: Prayers are central to the practice of Hinduism. They are used in both ritual and spiritual
practices. Hinduism originated from prayers. In devotional worship Hindus use prayers to express their love
and devotion. The tradition approves both silent and loud recitation of prayers. Prayers are used in ritual
worship (yajnas) as well as in domestic worship (puja). Hindu prayers go by many names such as mantras,
samans, riks, bhajans, kirtans, prarthanas, slokas, strotras, suprabhatams, anjali, ashtakams and smaranams.
They are used for invocation, supplication, appeasement, propitiation, submission, expiation, and purification.
Mediation and Yoga: Meditation is considered a type of mind-body complementary medicine. Meditation can
produce a deep state of relaxation and a tranquil mind. During meditation, you focus your attention and
eliminate the stream of jumbled thoughts that may be crowding your mind and causing stress. This process may
result in enhanced physical and emotional well-being.
Meditation originated in India and evolved with Hinduism (Santana Dharma) and yoga. The primary aim of
meditation in Hindu terms is to attain oneness with one’s soul and get in touch with Brahman, the omnipresent
and almighty Hindu god, with ultimate goal being to reach the state of Moksha (Navana in Buddhism). Hindu
scriptures describe certain postures – yoga – to attain a meditative state. There are numerous references of yoga
and meditation found in ancient Indian scriptures such as the Vedas, Upanishads, Mahabharata and the
Bhagavad Gita. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad defines meditation as “having become calm and concentrated,
one perceives the self (atman) with oneself”
Recitation of scriptures: Hinduism proudly embraces an incredibly rich collection of scripture. The holiest
and most revered are the Vedas and Agamas, two massive compendia of shruti (that which is “heard “), both
revealed by God to illumined sages centuries and millennia ago. The array of works known as smriti (that
which is “remembered “) is equally vast, the most prominent and widely celebrated of which are the Itihasas
(epic dramas and history)–the Ramayana, Mahabharata–and the Puranas (mythology). The Vedic arts and
sciences, including ayurveda, astrology, music, dance, architecture, statecraft, domestic duty and law, are
reflected in an assembly of texts known as Vedangas and Upavedas. Moreover, through the ages God-realized
souls, sharing their experience, have poured forth volume upon volume that reveal the wonders of yoga and
offer passionate hymns of devotion. The creation of Hindu scripture continues to this day, as contemporary
masters reiterate the timeless truths to guide souls on the path to Divinity.
Yajna: The word yajna is derived from the Sanskrit root word ‘yaj’, which means to ‘give’. Yajna is generally
translated as sacrifice or offerings in which one offers the best objects to God. There are two scriptural sources
of yajna rituals – Vedas and Agamas. The early Vedic era placed great importance on yajna (fire ritual) as a
means to appease the Devas and earn their favor. The Agamic rituals are mainly related to fire rituals performed
to please deities in murti form in mandirs and elsewhere. Basically, according to the Vedas and
Agamas, yajnas are performed to gain worldly prosperity, fame, good health, progeny and liberation.
In the Bhagavad Gita, Bhagwan (God) Krishna describes the system of ‘giving’ as the yajna chakra (cycle):
“Annad bhavantibhutani parjanyadannasambhavaha,
Yagnad bhavatiparjanyo yagnaha karma samudbhavaha.”
“Through food life forms come into existence, through rain food is formed; through yajna there is rain and the
yajna is produced through karma (effort).”
The life cycle mentioned by Shri Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita is called the yajna bhavna. In it each element
produces or nourishes the other. This concept of sacrifice is also found in nature’s food cycle and the oxygen
and water cycles in our ecosystem. The yajnas prescribed by the Vedas include the offering of grains and ghee
in the sacrificial fire or altar (vedi). The fire is the medium that conveys the sentiments and prayers of the
aspirants to the Devas in Swarga.
However with time the Brahmin priests started sacrificing animals to appease the Devas. They interpreted the
popular Vedic verse, ajenayajeta, in which Aja means both barley and goat, by sacrificing goats and other
animals and then cooked them to eat it as Prasad. The Mahabharata ratifies the tradition of non-violent yajnas,
“Yajnas should be performed with seeds – this is the Vedic tradition. Aja is barley seed. Therefore it is not
proper to slaughter goats. Wherever there is animal slaughter in yajnas, it is not the way of righteous men.” The
Mahabharata instructs, “Na binsyat sarvabhutani...!! – “Do not kill any living creature.
Japa (Chanting the name of God): Japa means recitation of God’s name, either silently or audibly. The ritual
involves a continuous recitation of God’s name to purify the mind and fill one’s consciousness with spiritual
energy. This regular chanting can create vibrations in the mind and body and can lead to a spiritual
transformation. Japa should be done out of pure love for God and not with an expectation to get something in
return.
Visiting a Temple (pradakshina): The practice of circumambulating around the deity, mandir, sacred
mountain, lake or river is called pradakshina. It is performed to show respect to the deity and to absorb the
divine vibrations of the deity or holy place. The devotee performs pradakshina after having darshan of the deity
or sacred site. While so doing he or she chants God’s holy name and remembers him. The devotee also
performs pradakshina while doing daily puja at home. The ritual of pradakshina helps consolidate and realize
God to be the center of one’s activates.
Conclusion: Ritual is unavoidable. In modern period we cannot ignore the rituals. So rituals hold a place in
modern life. Rituals connect us with the greater universe in which we are immersed. “The help us to embrace
our shadow sides and encounter life through our hearts rather than through our intellects” (Greenwood & Nunn,
1992). So people from every religion celebrate the rituals. “Celebrate ritual is powerful as it has the capacity to
transcend the mundane plane of profane life and to open up new possibilities for harmonious existence through
the epiphanies of ecstatic experience and spiritual bonding”. (Hallowell, 1995,p.40).
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