CHAPTER – 6

TISSUES

TISSUES

The body of plants and animals is made up of different types of cells. These cells originate
from a single cell by repeated divisions and get differentiated during development. In
unicellular organisms all the body functions are performed by a single cell. But in multicellular
organisms, different functions are performed by different groups of cells.
The groups of cells having a common origin and performing similar functions are called
tissues. Several tissues are organized to form tissue system and the tissue systems form the
organs and several organs into organism.

Study of tissues is called Histology

Tissue and Division of Labour: In complex organisms, different tasks are carried out by
different organs and organ systems. Tissues are the first step towards division of labour in
complex organisms.

INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 69

Q1. What is a tissue?

Answer: A group of cells that are similar in structure and/or work together to achieve a
particular function is called tissue.

Q2. What is the utility of tissues in multi-cellular organisms?

Answer: In multicellular organisms, the body system is based on the division of labour. It
means the cells performing a specific function are grouped together to form a particular tissue.
The different tissues are organized in a way to provide highest efficiency in functioning of the
body.

PLANT TISSUES
Plant tissues are of two main types, viz. meristematic tissue and permanent tissue.

MERISTEMATIC TISSUE

The growth of plants occurs only in certain specific regions. This is because the dividing tissue
also known as meristematic tissue (Meristos – divisible) is located only at these points.
The meristematic tissues are made up of group of similar and immature cells, which can divide
and form new cells. Meristematic cells divide continuously and thus help in increasing the
length and thickness of the plant. Depending upon the position, meristematic tissues are of
three types. They are as follows:
i) Apical meristems: Apical meristem is present at the growing tips of stems and roots and
increases the length of the plant body. They are responsible for growth in length, i.e. primary
growth.
ii) Intercalary meristems: These meristems occupy base of the leaves and the base of the
internodal regions in plants such as grasses (mostly in monocotyledonous plants). These help
in elongation of the internodes.
iii) Lateral meristems: This includes the meristematic tissues occupying the lateral regions of
the stems and roots which bring about increase in the width of the
plant body. (e.g. Cork cambium and Vascular cambium).

Characteristic features of Meristematic tissues

The meristematic cells may be round, oval, polygonal or rectangular in shape.
Their cell walls are thin, elastic and made up of cellulose.
They are closely arranged without intercellular spaces.
They have dense cytoplasm with large nucleus.

PERMANENT TISSUE:

Once the cells of meristematic tissue divide to a certain extent, they become specialized for a
particular function. This process is called differentiation. Once differentiation is accomplished,
the cells lose their capability to divide and the tissue becomes permanent tissue.
Some cells produced by meristematic tissues stop dividing and form a permanent tissue. They
have definite structure and function. They are differentiated into various types to perform
different functions.
The permanent tissues are classified as
i) Simple tissues and
ii) Complex tissues

SIMPLE TISSUES

A tissue with the cells of similar structure (one type of cells) and function is called simple
tissue. It is of three types.

1. Parenchyma
2. Collenchyma
3. Sclerenchyma

PARENCHYMA

The cells of parenchyma have thin cell wall. They are loosely packed; with lot of intercellular
spaces between them. They are living cells. They are generally present in all organs of a plant.
They are oval or spherical or rectangular or cylindrical in shape. The cell wall is made of
cellulose and pectic materials. Parenchyma makes the largest portion of a plant body.
Parenchyma mainly works are packing material in plant parts. The main function of
parenchyma is to provide support and to store food. In some plant parts, parenchyma has
chlorophyll as well. In that case, parenchyma carries out photosynthesis and is then termed as
chlorenchyma. In aquatic plants, large air cavities are present in parenchyma. This provides
buoyancy to the plant, and then the parenchyma is known as aerenchyma.

COLLENCHYMA

The cells of collenchyma are polygonal in cross section and have unevenly thickened walls.
These thickenings are due to the deposition of more cellulose, hemi-cellulose and pectin. The
thickening is confined to the corners of the cells. They generally occur in the dicot stem in two
or more layers below the epidermis. It is absent in the roots. It also occurs in petiole and
pedicel. Like Parenchyma, Collenchyma is also a living tissue. The main function of
Collenchyma is to provide strength and flexibility to the growing organs like young stem.
SCLERENCHYMA
It is a dead tissue. The cells are thick with lignified walls. They give mechanical support to the
organs. This has two types of cells – Sclereids and Fibres.
Sclereids
Sclereids are stone cells which are commonly found in shells of the nut, pulp of certain fruits
such as Pear and Sapota.

Fibres
The fibres are elongated strands with simple pits throughout its length.

COMPLEX PERMANENT TISSUES

XYLEM
Xylem is mainly concerned with the transport of nutrients, water and minerals upwards in the
plant body. It forms a continuous tube through the roots, stems, leaves, flowers and fruits by
the fusion of elongated cells.
It is composed of different kinds of cells namely,
1. Tracheids
2. Xylem vessels.
3. Xylem fibres
4. Xylem parenchyma.

Tracheids
Tracheids are elongated, tapering cells with blunt ends. They have lignified secondary wall.
They are the chief water conducting elements in Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms.

Xylem vessels
Xylem vessels have perforations at the end and are placed one above the other like a long pipe
line. They are seen in the xylem of angiosperms. They conduct water, mineral nutrients and
also provide mechanical strength to the plant body.

Xylem Fibres
The fibres of Sclerenchyma associated with the xylem are known as xylem fibres. They give
additional mechanical strength to the plant. They are also called wood fibres.

Xylem Parenchyma
The parenchyma cells associated with xylem are known as xylem parenchyma. It is the only
living tissue amongst xylem cells. They store food reserves in the form of starch and fat. They
also help in conduction of water.

PHLOEM
Phloem conducts food materials from leaves to the other parts of the plant. It is made up of
four types of cells.
1. Sieve elements
2. Companion cells
3. Phloem fibres
4. Phloem parenchyma
Sieve elements
Sieve elements are the conducting elements of the phloem. Sieve elements are of two types –
sieve cells and sieve tubes.
Sieve cells are present in Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms where as sieve tubes are present in
Angiosperms.

Companion cells
Companion cells are thin walled elongated specialized Parenchyma cells. They are associated
with sieve elements. They have a prominent nucleus and cytoplasm. They help the sieve tube
in conduction of food materials in angiosperms.

Phloem fibres
The fibres of sclerenchyma associated with phloem are called phloem fibres.
They are also called bast-fibres. They give mechanical support to the plant. Among the four
types of phloem cells, phloem fibres are the only dead tissues.

Phloem parenchyma
The parenchyma cells associated with phloem are called phloem parenchyma. They store
starch and fats.

ANIMAL TISSUES

Animal tissues are of four types, viz. epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscular tissue and
nervous tissue.

EPITHELIAL TISSUE:
The epithelial tissue forms the covering or lining of most of the organs. The cells of epithelial
tissue are tightly packed and form a continuous sheet. There is small amount of cementing
materials between the cells and no intercellular space is present. Permeability of the epithelial
tissue plays a great role in exchange of materials among various organs it also plays an
important role in osmoregulation. All epithelial tissues are separated by the underlying tissue
by an extracellular fibrous basement membrane.
Epithelial tissues are of following types:
1. Simple Epithelium
2. Cuboidal Epithelium
3. Columnar Epithelium
4. Stratified Epithelium
Simple Epithelium
The simple epithelium is composed of a single layer of cells. This type of epithelial tissue
forms the lining of blood vessels and alveoli. Thin layer of cells facilitates exchange of
substances; in such cases.

Cuboidal Epithelium
The cells are cube-shaped in cuboidal epithelium. Linings of kidney tubules and ducts of
salivary glands are composed of cuboidal epithelium. Cuboidal cells provide mechanical
support. Cells of epithelium may play the role of secretion and then they are called glandular
epithelium.

Columnar Epithelium
Cells are column-shaped in columnar epithelium. Columnar epithelium facilitates secretion and
absorption. For example; the lining of intestine is composed of columnar epithelium. In some
organs, columnar epithelium has cilia present on the outer surface. Cilia facilitate movements
of certain substances. The ciliated epithelium in the respiratory tract pushes the mucus forward.

Stratified Epithelium
Cells of the stratified epithelium are in many layers. Skin is an example of stratified
epithelium. Stratification of layers prevents wear and tear.

CONNECTIVE TISSUE:

The cells of a connective tissue are loosely scattered in a matrix. The matrix can be a fluid,
jelly like, dense or rigid. The nature of matrix depends on the function a connective tissue
serves. Following are the various connective tissues:

Areolar (Loose) Connective Tissue

Areolar tissue is found between skin and muscles, around blood vessels and nerves and in bone
marrow. Areolar tissue fills the gap between tissues and provides support. It also helps in repair
of tissues.
Dense connective tissue(Fibrous connective tissue)
It has thicker, denser fibers and fewer cells. The matrix is made up mostly of collagen fibers,
with fibroblasts arranged in rows. This type of connective tissue forms tendons and ligaments,
which attach muscle to bone and bone to bone, respectively.

Adipose Tissue
Adipose tissue is composed of fat globules. This tissue is found below the skin and beneath the
organs. Adipose tissue provides insulation and works as a cushion.

Bone
Bone is mainly composed of osteoblasts. Bone makes the skeletal system. Skeletal system is
responsible for providing structural framework to the body. It provides protection to important
organs and facilitates movements.

Cartilage
Cartilage is mainly composed of chondrioblasts. Cartilage is present at the ends of articulatory
bones. Cartilage is also present in external ear, bronchii, etc.
Blood
Blood is composed of blood cells, platelets and plasma. Blood plays an important role in
transportation of various substances in the body. It also helps in osmoregulation and
temperature control.

MUSCULAR TISSUE

Muscular tissue is composed of muscle cells. Muscle cells are specialized cells which have the
capability to contract and expand. Due to contraction and expansion, muscles facilitate various
kinds of movements in the body. Muscular tissues are of three types:
Striated Muscles
The cells of striated muscles are in the form of long, unbranched fibres. Cells are
multinucleate. Light and dark bands (striations) are present on muscle fibres; which gives the
name striated muscles. Striated muscles are found in those organs where voluntary movement
is possible, e.g. hands, legs, back, neck, etc.

Smooth Muscles
The cells of smooth muscles are spindle shaped and each has one nucleus. Smooth muscle is
found in those organs where involuntary movement is possible, e.g. alimentary canal.

Cardiac Muscles
The cells of cardiac muscles are in the form of branched fibres. Striations are present and cells
are uninucleate. These are found in the heart. Cardiac muscles are capable continuous
contraction and relaxation throughout the life.
NERVOUS TISSUE
All cells possess the ability to respond to stimuli. However, cells of the nervous tissue are
highly specialised for being stimulated and then transmitting the stimulus very rapidly from
one place to another within the body. The brain, spinal cord and nerves are all composed of the
nervous tissue. The cells of this tissue are called nerve cells or neurons.
A neuron consists of a cell body with a nucleus and cytoplasm, from which long thin hair-like
parts arise.

Usually each neuron has a single long part, called the axon, and many short, branched parts
called dendrites. An individual nerve cell may be up to a metre long. Many nerve fibres bound
together by connective tissue make up a nerve.

SUMMARY
CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT TISSUE
CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMAL TISSUE
INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 74

Q1. Name types of simple tissues.

Answer: The three main types of simple tissues are: (i) Parenchyma (ii) Collenchyma (iii)
Sclerenchyma
Q2. Where is apical meristem found?
Answer: Apical meristem is present in growing tips of stems and roots of plants. It helps in
increasing the length of the stem and the root.
Q3. Which tissue makes up the husk of coconut?
Answer: The husk of coconut is made up of sclerenchymatous tissue.
Q4. What are the constituents of phloem?
Answer: The constituents of phloem tissue are:
(i) Sieve tubes (tubular living cells with perforated end walls)
(ii) Companion cell (living cells)
(iii) Phloem parenchyma (living cells)
(iv) Phloem fibres (non-living and sclerenchyma cells)

INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 78

Q1. Name the tissue responsible for movement in our body.

Answer: The movement of our body depends on muscular tissue. It consists of elongated cells
(muscle fibres).
Q2. What does a neuron look like?
Answer: A neuron consists of a cell body witha nucleus and cytoplasm. It has two important
extensions known as the axon and dendrites. An axon is a long thread-like extension of nerve
cells that transmits impulses away from the cell body. Dendrites, on the other hand, are thread-
like extensions of cell body that receive nerve impulses. Thus, the axon transmits impulses
away from the cell body, whereas the dendrite receives nerve impulses. This coordinated
function helps in transmitting impulses very quickly.

Q3. Give three features of cardiac muscles.

Answer: Three features of cardiac muscles are:
(i) Cardiac muscles are involuntary muscles that contract rapidly, but do not get fatigued.
(ii) The cells of cardiac muscles are cylindrical, branched, and uninucleate.
(iii) They control the contraction and relaxation of the heart.
Q4. What are the functions of areolar tissue?
Answer: Functions of areolar tissue:
(i) It helps in supporting internal organs.
(ii) It helps in repairing the tissues of the skin and muscles.
EXERCISE QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 66 and 67

Q1. Define the term “tissue”.

Answer: A group of cells that are similar in structure and/or work together to achieve a
particular function is called tissue.

Q2. How many types of elements together make up the xylem tissue? Name them.
Answer: The following four types of elements make up xylem tissue:
(i) Xylem tracheids (tubular unicellular).
(ii) Xylem vessels (multicellular).
(iii) Xylem parenchyma (stores food and helps in sideways conduction of water).
(iv) Xylem fibres (provide mechanical support).

Q3. How are simple tissues different from complex tissues in plants?
Answer:
Simple tissue Complex tissue
These tissues consist of only one These tissues are made up of more than one
type of cells. type of cells.

The cells are more or less similar in Different types of cells perform different
structure and perform similar functions. For example, in the xylem tissue,
functions. tracheids help in water transport, whereas
parenchyma stores food.
Three types of simple tissues in Two types of complex permanent tissues in
plants are parenchyma, plants are xylem and phloem.
collenchyma, and sclerenchyma.

Q4. Differentiate between parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma on the basis of

their cell wall.
Answer:
Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma
Cell walls are relatively The cell wall is irregularly The cell walls are uniformly
thin, and the cells in thickened at the corners, thickened, and there are no
parenchyma tissues are and there is very little space intercellular spaces.
loosely packed. between the cells.
The cell wall in this tissue is Pectin and hemicellulose An additional layer of the
made up of cellulose. are the major constituents of cell wall composed mainly
the cell wall. of lignin is found.

Q5. What are the functions of the stomata?

Answer: Functions of the stomata:
(i) They allow the exchange of gases (CO2 and O2) with the atmosphere.
(ii) Evaporation of water from the leaf surface occurs through the stomata. Thus, the stomata
help in the process of transpiration.

Q6. Diagrammatically show the difference between the three types of muscle fibres.
Answer:
The three types of muscle fibres are:
Striated muscles, smooth muscles (unstriated muscle fibre), and cardiac muscles.
Q7. What is the specific function of the cardiac muscle?
Answer: The specific function of the cardiac muscle is to control the contraction and
relaxation of the heart.
Q8. Differentiate between striated, unstriated and cardiac muscles on the basis of their
structure and site/location in the body.
Answer:
Striated muscle Unstriated muscle Cardiac muscle
On the basis of structure:
Cells are cylindrical Cells are long Cells are cylindrical
Cells are not branched Cells are not branched Cells are branched
Cells are multinucleate Cells are uninucleate Cells are uninucleate
Alternate light and dark There are no bands present Faint bands are present
bands are present
Its ends are blunt Its ends are tapering Its ends are flat and wavy
On the basis of location:
These muscles are These muscles control the These muscles control the
present in body parts movement of food in the alimentary contraction and relaxation
such as hands, legs, canal, the contraction and of the heart
tongue, etc. relaxation of blood vessels, etc.
Q9. Draw a labelled diagram of a neuron.
Answer:
Q10. Name the following.
(a) Tissue that forms the inner lining of our mouth.
(b) Tissue that connects muscle to bone in humans.
(c) Tissue that transports food in plants.
(d) Tissue that stores fat in our body.
(e) Connective tissue with a fluid matrix.
(f) Tissue present in the brain.
Answer:
(a) Tissue that forms the inner lining of our mouth → Epithelial tissue
(b) Tissue that connects muscle to bone in humans → Dense regular connective tissue
(tendons)
(c) Tissue that transports food in plants → Phloem
(d) Tissue that stores fat in our body → Adipose tissue
(e) Connective tissue with a fluid matrix → Blood
(f) Tissue present in the brain → Nervous tissue

Q11. Identify the type of tissue in the following: skin, bark of tree, bone, lining of kidney
tubule, vascular bundle.
Answer:
Skin: Stratified squamous epithelial tissue
Bark of tree: Simple permanent tissue
Bone: Connective tissue
Lining of kidney tubule: Cuboidal epithelial tissue
Vascular bundle: Complex permanent tissue

Q12. Name the regions in which parenchyma tissue is present.

Answer:
Leaves, fruits, and flowers are the regions where the parenchyma tissue is present.

Q13. What is the role of epidermis in plants?

Answer:
Epidermisis present on the outer surface of the entire plant body. The cells of the epidermal
tissue form a continuous layer without any intercellular space. It performs the following
important functions:
(i) It is a protective tissue of the plant body
(ii) It protects the plant against mechanical injury
(iii) It allows exchange of gases through the stomata

Q14. How does the cork act as a protective tissue?

Answer:
The outer protective layer or bark of a tree is known as the cork. It is made up of dead cells.
Therefore, it protects the plant against mechanical injury, temperature extremes, etc. It also
prevents the loss of water by evaporation.
Q15. Complete the table:

Answer:
 ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS SET – 1
CHAPTER – 6
TISSUES
Fill in the blanks
1. ___________ is the process by which unspecialised structures become modified and
specialised for performing specific functions.
2. Differentiation results in _____________ (division/ summation/integration) of labour.
3. The study of the structure of tissues and organs is known as _____________ .
4. Based on ability to divide, plant tissues may be classified as _____________ and
_____________ tissues.
5. Meristematic cells possess the power of cell _____________ .
6. Permanent tissues are those which have lost the capacity to _____________ .
7. (Parenchyma/ Collenchyma/ Sclerenchyma) _____________ is a widely distributed,
simple plant tissue.
8. (Parenchyma/ Collenchyma/ Sclerenchyma) _____________ is a strong and flexible
mechanical tissue.
9. _____________ and _____________ are the conducting tissues or vascular tissues, also
called complex tissues.
10. The cell walls of _____________ (Parenchyma/ Collenchyma/ Sclerenchyma) tissue are
made up of cellulose hemicellulose and pectin
11. ____________ is the parenchyma with large number of chloroplasts.
12. (Xylem/Phloem) _____________ is popularly known as wood.
13. Xylem is composed of _____________ ,_____________ , _____________ and
_____________ .
14. Tracheids are _____________ (living/dead) cells _____________ (with/without)
protoplasts.
15. Protective tissues include _____________ and _____________ .
16. Epithelial cells have _____________ (little/large) intercellular substances.
17. (Connective/Muscular/Epithelial) _____________ tissue serve to 'connect' or 'bind' the
cells of other tissues in the body and gives them rigidity and support.
18. (Tendon/Ligament/Cartilage) _____________is made up of white fibres and connects
muscles to bones.
19. Bone is surrounded by a connective tissue known as _____________.
20. Striated muscles are _____________ (voluntary/involuntary) while smooth muscles are
_____________(voluntary/involuntary).
21. Based on functions performed, list the types of animal tissues.
22. Which tissues are called covering or protective tissues?
23. Where do we find epithelial tissues on animal body?
24. What are the general identifying features of epithelial tissues?
25. Based on layer and shape of cells, how Epithelial tissues can be classified?
26. The surface of Simple squamous epithelium is _____. (choose the correct option)
(a) Permeable
(b) Selectively Permeable
(c) Impermeable
(d) All of the these
27. What is the shape of simple squamous tissue?
28. Where do you find simple squamous in an animal body?
29. What is the main function of simple squamous epithelium?
30. What is simple stratified epithelium? Where do we find these tissues?
31. What is main purpose of stratified epithelium?
32. What is the shape of cuboidal epithelium? Where do we find these tissues?
33. These are somewhat square or cuboid in shape. Cuboidal epithelium is found in kidney
tubules, ducts of salivary glands etc.
34. What is the main function of cuboidal epithelium?
35. How will you identify Columnar epithelium? Where are these tissues located?
36. What is the main purpose of columnar epithelium?
37. What type of epithelium tissues are found in respiratory tract and in intestinal lining? How
are these tissues different from each other?
38. Where do we find glandular columnar epithelia? What are their main role?
39. What is Haematology?
40. What is the common characteristic in different connective tissues?
41. Name different types of connective tissues?
42. What are the constituents of connective tissues?
43. List the type of intercellular matrix present in the following connective tissues.
(a) Blood
(b) Lymph
(c) Bone
(d) Cartilage
(e) Tendons
(f) Ligaments
 (g) Areolar Tissue
(h) Adipose tissue
44. What are constituents of blood tissue?
45. What does plasma contain?
46. Name different types of white blood corpuscles.
47. List the functions of blood cells
48. Where blood is formed in our body?
49. Name the two fluid connective tissues.
50. Why type of inter cellular matrix is found in bone tissue? What are its constituents?
51. Identify the location of the following connective tissues.
(a) Blood
(b) Lymph
(c) Bone
(d) Cartilage
(e) Tendons
52. Which connective tissue connects two bones?
53. Which connective tissue connects bones to muscles?
54. Name the constituents of matrix found in cartilage.
55. Where do we find Areolar tissue? What are its functions?
56. Name the fat-storing tissues? Where are they located? How do these tissue help?
57. What are different types of muscle tissues? Also list which of these are voluntary or
involuntary.
58. Why are striated muscles called skeletal muscles?
59. What are identification marks of striated muscles when seen under microscope?
60. Identify which type of muscles tissues are associated with the following body actions
(a) locomotion
(b) iris movement to control size of pupil
(c) peristaltic movements of the oesophagus
(d) heart beat
(e) movement of blood in blood vessels
61. How will you identify cardiac muscles cells under a microscope?
62. Which muscle tissues show characteristics of both striated and unstriated muscles?
63. Where do we find cardiac tissues? What are the functions of cardiac tissues?
64. Do all cells respond to stimuli or this ability is possessed by nerve cells only?
65. What is the unit of nervous tissues?
66. Where do we find nerve cells?
67. How long a nerve cell can be?
68. How are muscles tissues related to nerve cells?
69. Name the three distinct parts of a neuron.
70. What is myelin sheath? Where do we find it?
71. What happens in polio disease?
72. In plants which of the following have the capability of cell division?
(a) Parenchyma
(b) Scelerenchyma
(c) Xylem
(d) Apical Meristem
73. The growth is plants is
(a) limited to certain regions
(b) uniform in all parts
(c) limited to top region
(d) limited to roots only.
74. Intercalary meristems are found
(a) at internodes and base of leaves
(b) at growing tips of roots
(c) beneath the bark
(d) at the tips of stem
75. Cells of the tissue have dense cytoplasm, thin cellulose walls and prominent vacuoles.
Identify the tissue.
(a) Collenchyma
(b) Scelerenchyma
(c) Meristem
(d) Parenchyma
76. Dead long and narrow cells in a plant belong to which tissue?
(a) Parenchyma
(b) Scelerenchyma
(c) Collenchyma
(d) Phloem
77. Bone is an example of _____________
(a) Muscular tissues
(b) Connective tissues
 (c) Epithelial tissues
(d) Nervous tissues
78. Which animal tissue are usually separated from the underlying tissue by an extracellular
fibrous basement membrane?
(a) Muscular tissues
(b) Connective tissues
(c) Epithelial tissues
(d) Nervous tissues
79. Oesophagus and the lining of the mouth are also covered with which tissues?
(a) Squamous epithelium
(b) Ciliated epithelium
(c) Areolar connective
(d) Striated muscle tissues
80. Husk of a coconut is made of which tissues?
(a) Parenchyma tissue
(b) Sclerenchymatous tissue
(c) Collenchyma
(d) Xylem
 CHAPTER – 15

IMPROVEMENT IN FOOD RESOURCES

INTRODUCTION

There is a need to introduce production efficiency of crops and livestock because

1. rapid increase in population
2. No major scope of increasing area of land under cultivation.

Increase in food production without degrading our environment and disturbing the ecological
balance i.e. Sustainable Practices are required in agriculture and animal husbandry.

TYPES OF CROPS
Cereals: wheat, rice, maize, millets and sorghum. Provide carbohydrates for energy
requirements.

Pulses: pea, gram, black gram, green gram, pigeon pea and lentil. Provide proteins

Oilseeds: soya bean, ground nut, sesame, castor, mustard, linseed and sun flower. Provide
necessary fats.

Vegetables, spices and fruits provide vitamins and minerals.

Crop means plants of same origin grown together in bulk. Every crop requires different
climatic condition, while some crops grow together on one season. The climatic condition,
warmth, photo-period for growth and completion is required for different crops.
Two seasonal change types :
a) Kharif crops
b) Rabi crops.

Main seasonal plants are divided into two broad categories. The crops that grow in monsoon
period is called Kharif crops which is around June to October. The crops that are harvested in
winter period are called Rabi crops which are around November to April.
RABI CROPS

Rabi crops or Rabi harvests are the crops in agriculture that are sown in winter or cold season.
They are harvested in the spring. Rabi is Arabic word which in actual means “spring”. Thus the
word “Rabi” is used frequently in subcontinent. Rabi is grown around the month of November
to April in our subcontinent. The water collected from the rain in this season is the main source
of water in these plants. Rabi crops require greater amount of irrigation. Thus heavy raining
may ruin a Kharif crop but it is healthy and beneficial for Rabi crops. These crops are then
taken out at departure of the monsoon rains. The harvesting may begin by April or may. Major
Rabi crops that are harvested in subcontinents are wheat, grams, peas, mustard, linseed and
barley. Most of the crops are under Rabi season. It is an integral crop in our area.

KHARIF CROPS

Kharif crop refers to the farming, plowing, reaping and harvesting of any household plant sown
in the rainy season. It is derived from mochas words in subcontinent. In subcontinent they are
popularly known as monsoon plants. They are cultivated for autumn harvest. By the beginning
of first rain in July during south west rainy season in monsoon the crops are sown. Its begins at
April 16 to October 15 in Pakistan, while in India Kharif season varies state to state in may and
ending latest by January. Popularly in subcontinent it starts in June and ends by October. The
Indian subcontinent is referred to areas covering India, Pakistan, Nepal and Srilanka. These
crops are totally dependent on quantity of rain and water as well as its timings. Too much or
too less will affect its growth and the whole effort can go wasted. The harvesting period
coincides with the beginning of winter/ autumn in Indian subcontinent it is called Kharif period
or Kharif crops. The major Kharif crops that are harvested in sub continent are paddy, soya-
bean, maize, pigeon-pea, and cotton, green and black grams.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN KHARIF AND RABI CROPS

Kharif crops sown between April and May while Rabi crops are sown between September
and October.
Kharif crops are harvested after monsoon rains while Rabi crops are produced after winter.
Kharif crops are popularly known as monsoon crops while Rabi crops are called winter or
spring crops.
Kharif crops are completely relying over the rain like if less or more in quantity while Rabi
can deal with whatever water is present for irrigation. Rain has less impact over Rabi crops.
The major examples that can be counted as Kharif crops are sunflower, rice, sugar cane,
soya bean and tea while Rabi crops can be wheat, barley, pea, gram and mustard.

INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 204

Q1. What do we get from cereals, pulses, fruits and vegetables?

Answer:
(i) Cereals provide us with carbohydrates. Also, they are a rich source of energy.
(ii) Pulses give us proteins.
(iii) Fruits and vegetables are a rich source of vitamins and minerals. A small amount of
proteins, carbohydrates, and fats are also present in them.

IMPROVING CROP YIELD

The practices involved in farming are divided into three stages. They are
(a) Choice of seeds for planting
(b) Nurturing of the crop plants
(c) Protection of the growing and harvested crops from loss.
Hence the major activities for improving crop yields can be classified as
(i) Crop variety improvement
(ii) Crop production improvement
(iii) Crop protection improvement

CROP VARIETY IMPROVEMENT

This approach depends on finding a crop that can give a good yield. Some of the factors for
which variety improvement is done are:
Higher yield: for increasing the productivity per acre.
Improved quality: quality considerations vary from crop to crop as per the requirements.
Biotic and abiotic resistance: crops should have sufficient resistance to biotic factors
(diseases, insects and nematodes) and abiotic stresses (heat, cold, frost etc.)
Change in maturity duration: the shorter the duration, the more economical is the variety.
Wider adaptability: it can be grown in different climatic conditions.
Desirable agronomic characteristics: tallness and profuse branching for fodder crops.
Dwarfness is desired for cereals.
This can be achieved by two methods; hybridisation and genetically modified crops.
1. Hybridisation
In genetics, hybridisation is the process of combining different varieties or species of
organisms which are genetically dissimilar to create a hybrid. It can be inter varietal, inter
specific, intergeneric.

2. Genetically modified crops

Here the crop is improved by introducing a gene that would provide desired characteristics.

INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 205

Q1. How do biotic and abiotic factors affect crop production?

Answer:
A variety of biotic factors such as pests, nematodes, diseases, etc. can reduce the net crop
production. A pest causes damage to agriculture by feeding on crops. For example, boll weevil
is a pest on cotton. It attacks the cotton crop, thereby reducing its yield. Weeds also reduce
crop productivity by competing with the main crop for nutrients, light, and space.

Similarly, abiotic factors such as salinity, temperature, etc. affect the net crop production.
Some natural calamities such as droughts and floods are unpredictable. Their occurrence has a
great impact on crops sometimes, destroying the entire crop.

Q2. What are the desirable agronomic characteristics for crop improvements?
Answer:
The desirable agronomic characteristics for crop improvements are:
(i) Tallness and profuse branching in any fodder crop.
(ii) Dwarfness in cereals.
These desirable agronomic characteristics help in increasing crop productivity.

CROP PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT

It involves different practices carried out by farmer to achieve higher standards of crop
production. It includes the following:
1. NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
2. IRRIGATION
3. CROPPING PATTERN

NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT

The higher yields of crops mainly depend upon input applications like improved seeds,
fertilizers and modern techniques of sowing and harvesting. Plants require a number of
nutrients for their growth and development.

Plants get nutrients from air, water and soil. Nearly 16 elements are essential for plant growth
and reproduction.
On the basis of the requirement by the plants, they are further classified into Macro Nutrients
and Micro Nutrients.
MACRO NUTRIENTS
Elements which are needed in large quantities for growth of the plants are called Macro
Nutrients. They are Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Sulphur, Potassium,
Calcium, Magnesium and Iron.
MICRO NUTRIENTS
Elements which are needed by the plants in very small quantities are called Micro Nutrients.
They are Manganese, Copper, Molybdenum, Zinc, Boron and Chlorine.

Deficiency of these nutrients affects physiological processes in plants including reproduction,

growth and susceptibility to diseases. To increase the yield, the soil can be enriched by
supplying these nutrients in the form of manure and fertilizers.

INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 206

Q1. What are macro-nutrients and why are they called macronutrients?
Answer:
Macro-nutrientsare nutrients required in relatively large quantities for growth and development
of plants. They are six in number. Since they are required in large quantities, they are known as
macro-nutrient. The six macro-nutrients required by plants are nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulphur.

Q2. How do plants get nutrients?

Answer:
Plants require sixteen essential nutrients from nature for their growth and development. All
these nutrients are obtained from air, water, and soil. Soil is the major source of nutrients.
Thirteen of these nutrients are available from soil. The remaining three nutrients (carbon,
oxygen, and hydrogen) are obtained from air and water.

MANURE
Manure is an organic substance and is prepared by the decomposition of plant and animal
wastes.
Advantages of Manure
Manures helps in enriching the soil with organic matter and nutrients.
It helps in increasing the soil fertility.
Water holding capacity of soil is increased.
Helps in improving soil texture.
Save our environment from excessive use of fertilizers.
Manure is classified into two types according to the biological material used:
COMPOST AND VERMI-COMPOST
Composting: It is the process in which farm waste material (cow dung, domestic waste,
sewage waste etc) is decomposed in pits. Compost is the aerobically decomposed remnants of
organic matter which is rich in nutrients.
Vermicomposting: It is the process which involve use of earthworms to hasten the process of
decomposition of plant and animal refuse.

GREEN MANURE
Leguminous plants like Sunn-hemp or Cluster Bean are grown and then mulched by ploughing
them back into the soil. This helps in enriching the soil with Nitrogen and Phosphorous.

FERTILIZERS
Fertilizers are chemicals commercially produced in factories and used as plant nutrients. They
supply Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Potassium, etc., They are used to ensure good vegetative
growth giving rise to healthy plants.
Advantage: They help in good vegetative growth and produce healthy plants.
Disadvantage :
Excessive use of fertilizer leads to pollution of water.
Continuous use of fertilizer lead to decrease in soil fertility because organic matter of the
soil cannot be replenished as microorganisms present in soil get harmed due to fertilizer.

Application of fertilizers results in higher yield of crops. At the same time, it increases the cost
of farming. As the fertilizers are water soluble chemicals, large part of the fertilizers applied is
washed away due to excessive irrigation. They are not fully absorbed by the plants.

This excess fertilizer is washed away into the ponds, lakes, canals and rivers, resulting in the
growth of unwanted plants like Water Hyacinth, algae, etc. These plants disturb the water
bodies and the flow of water. As a result, fishes and other living organisms do not get sufficient
sunlight and oxygen and die.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MANURES AND FERTILIZERS


Fertilizers which are derived from living organisms are called Bio-fertilizers. The main
source of bio-fertilizers are bacteria, cyanobacteria and fungi. Bio-fertilizers are renewable
and nonpolluting sources of plant nutrients. They also improve the soil condition.
Rhizobium and Cyanobacteria such as Anabaena and Nostoc are some common bio-
fertilizers.

INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 207

Q1. Compare the use of manure and fertilizers in maintaining soil fertility.
Answer:
Manures increase soil fertility by enriching the soil with organic matter and nutrients as it is
prepared by the decomposition of animal excreta and plant wastes. On the other hand,
fertilizers are mostly inorganic compounds whose excessive use is harmful to the symbiotic
micro-organisms living in soil. Their excessive use also reduces soil fertility. Hence, fertilizers
are considered good for only short term use.

ORGANIC FARMING
It’s a farming system in which use of chemicals such as fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides etc
are reduced. It involves the use of following components:
a) Organic manure
b) Recycled farm waste
c) Bio-agents such as culture of blue green algae in preparation of bio fertilizers
d) Bio pesticides such as leaves of neem or turmeric for grain storage
e) Healthy cropping patterns such as mixed cropping, intercropping and crop rotation
which will also help in controlling growth of weed, pest and insects.

IRRIGATION
Irrigation is necessary for crops to get water during their growing season.
Source of irrigation:
Wells: There are two types of wells, namely dug wells and tube wells. In a dug well, water
is collected from water bearing strata. Tube wells can tap water from the deeper strata.
From these wells, water is lifted by pumps for irrigation.
Canals: This is usually an elaborate and extensive irrigation system. In this system canals
receive water from one or more reservoirs or from rivers. The main canal is divided into
branch canals having further distributaries to irrigate fields.
River Lift Systems: In areas where canal flow is insufficient or irregular due to inadequate
reservoir release, the lift system is more rational. Water is directly drawn from the rivers
for supplementing irrigation in areas close to rivers.
Tanks: These are small storage reservoirs, which intercept and store the run-off of smaller
catchment areas.
Rain water harvesting
Watershed management: building of small check dams which helps in increasing ground
water level and helps in reducing soil erosion.

CROPPING PATTERNS

Different ways of growing crops can be used to give maximum benefit.

MIXED CROPPING
It is growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land. It is also known
as multiple cropping. This type of cropping leads to an improvement in the fertility of the soil
and hence increase in crop yield because when the two crops are properly chosen, the products
and refuse from one crop help in the growth of the other crop plant and vice-versa. Mixed
cropping is an insurance against crop failure due to abnormal weather and plant pests.
Soyabean + pigeon pea, Maize + urad dal (black gram),Groundnut + sunflower ,Wheat + Chick
Pea.

Advantages of Mixed cropping:

No risk of crop failure ,
Increase in yield,
Improvement in soil fertility
Minimizing Pest Damage.
INTER CROPPING
Intercropping is the agricultural practice of cultivating two or more crops in the same space at
the same time in a definite pattern. Row- type intercropping cropping involves the component
crops arranged in alternate rows. This may also be called alley cropping. A variation of row
cropping is strip cropping, where multiple rows (or a strip) of one crop are alternated with
multiple rows of another crop. Intercropping also uses the practice of sowing a fast growing
crop with a slow growing crop, so that the fast growing crop is harvested before the slow
growing crop starts to mature.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INTER CROPPING AND MIXED-CROPPING

SELECTION OF CROPS FOR MIXED CROPPING AND INTERCROPPING:

Crops are chosen whose nutrient requirements are different so that maximum utilisation of the
soil nutrients takes place. Also, their water needs, rooting patterns etc are different. Besides the
advantages mentioned for mixed cropping,
Intercropping has the following additional advantages:
Application of pesticides and fertilizers is more convenient due to well defined patterns of
crops.
Harvesting of crops is also easier.

CROP ROTATION

It is the practice of growing a series of dissimilar types of crops in the same area in sequential
seasons for various benefits such as to avoid the buildup of pathogens and pests that often
occurs when one species is continuously cropped. Crop rotation also seeks to balance the
fertility demands of various crops to avoid excessive depletion of soil nutrients. A traditional
component of crop rotation is the replenishment of nitrogen through the use of green manure in
sequence with cereals and other crops. Crop rotation can also improve soil structure and
fertility by alternating deep-rooted and shallow-rooted plants.

Advantages:
Crop rotation avoids a decrease in soil fertility, as growing the same crop repeatedly in the
same place eventually depletes the soil of various nutrients. A crop that leaches the soil of one
kind of nutrient is followed during the next growing season by a dissimilar crop that returns
that nutrient to the soil or draws a different ratio of nutrients, for example, rices followed by
cottons. By crop rotation farmers can keep their fields under continuous production, without
the need to let them lay fallow, and reducing the need for artificial fertilizers, both of which
can be expensive. Rotating crops adds nutrients to the soil.

CROP PROTECTION MANAGEMENT

Field crops are infested by a large number of weeds, insect pests and diseases. If weeds and
pests are not controlled at the appropriate time then they can damage the crops so much that
most of the crop is lost. When the crop is in the field, it needs protection against:
Weeds e.g.– Xanthium, Parthenium (weeds are considered to be harmful as they compete
for food, space and light with the desired crop. They reduce crop production taking up the
nutrients meant for the crops.
Insect Pests - Insect pests attack the plants in three ways: (i) they cut the root, stem and
leaf, (ii) they suck the cell sap from various parts of the plant, and (iii) they bore into stem
and fruits. They thus affect the health of the crop and reduce yields.
Pathogens- Microbes like bacteria, fungi and viruses cause diseases. Spores of these
pathogens may be transmitted through soil, water and air.

To control these :
Herbicides, Pesticides, fungicides should be used.

Weed control methods also include mechanical removal. Preventive methods such as proper
seed bed preparation, timely sowing of crops, intercropping and crop rotation also help in weed
control. Some other preventive measures against pests are the use of resistant varieties, and
summer ploughing, in which fields are ploughed deep in summers to destroy weeds and pests.

Prevention for preventing the growth of weeds,

Proper seed bed preparation,
timely growing of crops,
intercropping , crop rotation,
use of resistant varieties and
summer ploughing is done.

INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 208

Q1. Which of the following conditions will give the most benefits? Why?
(a) Farmers use high-quality seeds, do not adopt irrigation or use fertilizers.
(b) Farmers use ordinary seeds, adopt irrigation and use fertilizer.
(c) Farmers use quality seeds, adopt irrigation, use fertilizer and use crop protection
measures.
Answer:
(c)Farmers using good quality seeds, adopting irrigation, using fertilizers, and using crop
protection measures will derive most benefits.
(i) The use of good quality seeds increases the total crop production. If a farmer is using good
quality seeds, then a majority of the seeds will germinate properly, and will grow into a healthy
plant.
(ii) Proper irrigation methods improve the water availability to crops.
(iii) Fertilizers ensure healthy growth and development in plants by providing the essential
nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, etc.
(iv) Crop protection measures include various methods to control weeds, pests, and infectious
agents. If all these necessary measures are taken by a farmer, then the overall production of
crops will increase.

STORAGE OF GRAINS

Factors responsible for such losses are biotic— insects, rodents, fungi, mites and bacteria, and
abiotic— inappropriate moisture and temperatures in the place of storage.

Negative Effects of these factors on grains:

Degradation in quality,
loss in weight,
poor germinabilty,
discoloration of produce-
Leads to poor marketability
PREVENTION AND CONTROL METHODS USED BEFORE GRAINS ARE STORED:
Cleaning of produce before storage
Drying of produce first in sunlight and then in shade to reduce moisture content
Fumigation using chemicals (fumigants) to kill pests

INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 209

Q1. Why should preventive measures and biological control methods be preferred for
protecting crops?
Answer:
Preventive measures and biological control methods should be preferred for protecting crops
because excessive use of chemicals leads to environmental problems. These chemicals are also
poisonous for plants and animals. Preventive measures include proper soil and seed
preparation, timely sowing of seeds, intercropping and mixed cropping, usage of resistant
varieties of crops, etc. On the other hand, biological control methods include the usage of bio-
pesticides that are less toxic for the environment. An example of bio-pesticides is Bacillus
thuringenesis, which is an insect pathogen that kills a wide range of insect larvae. Therefore,
both preventive measures and biological control methods are considered eco- friendly methods
of crop protection.

Q2. What factors may be responsible for losses of grains during storage?
Answer:
During the storage of grains, various biotic factors such as insects, rodents, mites, fungi,
bacteria, etc. and various abiotic factors such as inappropriate moisture, temperature, lack of
sunlight, flood, etc. are responsible for losses of grains. These factors act on stored grains and
result in degradation, poor germinability, discolouration, etc.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

The branch of agriculture which deals with the feeding, shelter, health and breeding of
domestic animals such as cattle, pigs, horses and fowls is called animal husbandry.

The various elements of animal husbandry are :

1. Proper feeding of animals.
2. Provision for clean drinking water for animals.
3. Proper shelter for animals.
4. Prevention and cure of animal diseases.
5. Proper breeding of animals.

ADVANTAGES OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

As animal husbandry is scientific management of farm animals, it serves many uses for human
beings.
• It helps in enhancing milk production
• It increases egg production
• It increases meat production
• It increases fish production
• It helps in proper management of agricultural wastes.
CATTLE FARMING

A cattle farming is the practice of rearing cattle by providing facilities for raising livestock.
Livestock includes domestication of cows, buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs etc. A cattle farming is
carried out to raise cows and buffaloes as important livestock. The two major species of Indian
cattle are Bosindicus, or cows, and Bosbubalis, or buffaloes.

MILCH ANIMALS AND DROUGHT ANIMALS

On basis of their utility, cattle are classified into two types namely milch animals and drought
animals.
Milch animals or dairy animals produce milk. Males of this type are not useful for working
on farm.
Draught animals are used for carrying out agricultural work like tilling, irrigation and
carting. Cows belonging to this category are poor milk-yielding varieties.
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR CATTLE FARMING

Management practices for cattle include cleaning, sheltering and feeding.

a) Cleaning involves periodic washing to get rid of dirt and loose hair.
b) Shelter facilities include well ventilated roof sheds which protect cattle from rain, cold
and sun.
c) Feeding of cattle includes supply of uncontaminated and balanced diet. Animal feed are
of two types namely roughage feed and concentrate feed.
Roughage feed contains high fibre content and provides energy. It comprises fodder
grasses, silage and legumes rich in fibre.
Concentrate feed is a mixture of cereals, seeds and oilseed cake rich in protein content.
This type of feed is easily digestible and it helps the animal in increasing body weight.
d) Cattle should be protected from diseases. Diseases in cattle are caused by both external
and internal parasites. External parasites live on the skin and cause skin diseases.
Internal parasites affect the stomach and intestinal parts. Certain preventive measures of
diseases in animals are listed.
Proper disposal of dead animals and animal wastes.
Shelters should be clean, dry and well ventilated.
Periodic visit of veterinary physician to check the animals.
Hygienic management of animals and animal products.
e) Infectious diseases are caused by pathogens like bacteria, viruses and fungi. Sheds
should be cleaned and disinfected regularly. Vaccination against various diseases
should be provided to farm animals. Vaccination should be given against various
diseases.
f) Milk production centres should be maintained for the animals which give birth to young
ones. Milk production depends on duration of lactation period. Lactation period is the
 period following the birth of a calf during which milk is produced by the animal.
Lactation period can be enhanced by administering certain hormonal injections.
g) Cross-breeding is done between foreign and local breeds of animals to facilitate the
growth of animals with desired qualities. e.g. Foreign breed like Jersey cow, with long
lactation period, is crossed with local breed like Red Sindhi cow, with high resistance
to disease, to obtain offspring of desired qualities like long lactation period and high
resistance to diseases.

ADVANTAGES OF CROSS-BREEDING
Cross-breeding helps in the development of certain desired characteristics in animals.
• To increase milk production
• To increase resistance against diseases.
• To enhance the varieties with longer lactation period.
• To rely on less amount of quality feed.

INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 210

Q1. Which method is commonly used for improving cattle breeds and why?
Answer:
Cattle farming is commonly used for improving cattle breeds. The purpose of cattle farming is
to increase the production of milk and draught labour for agricultural work. Dairy animals
(females) are used for obtaining milk and draught animals (males) are engaged in agricultural
fields for labour work such as carting, irrigation, tilling, etc. Cross breeding between two good
varieties of cattle will produce a new improved variety. For example, the cross between foreign
breeds such as Jersey Brown, Swiss (having long lactation periods) and Indian breeds such as
Red Sindhi, Sahiwal (having excellent resistance power against diseases) produces a new
variety having qualities of both breeds.

POULTRY FARMING

Poultry farming is the practice of raising fowl for egg production and chicken meat. Fowls are
used for producing eggs and broilers are used for producing meat.

Cross –breeding is common in poultry to develop new varieties with the desirable traits. e.g
Indian breed Aseel is cross-bred with the foreign breed Leghorn.

Cross-breeding is used to develop offspring with desirable traits. The desirable traits includes:
number and quality of chicks;
dwarf broiler parent for commercial chick production;
summer adaptation capacity/ tolerance to high temperature;
low maintenance requirements;
reduction in the size of the egg-laying bird with ability to utilise more fibrous cheaper
diets formulated using agricultural by-products.

Management practices for poultry farming are elucidated.

• Maintaining optimum temperature

• Providing hygienic housing conditions
• Providing a protein-rich diet with high levels of vitamin A and K, and
• Preventing and controlling pests and diseases.
INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 211

Q1. Discuss the implications of the following statement:

“It is interesting to note that poultry is India’s most efficient converter of low fibre food
stuff (which is unfit for human consumption) into highly nutritious animal protein food.”
Answer:
Poultry in India is the most efficient converter of low fibre food stuff into highly nutritious
animal protein food. In poultry farming, domestic fowls are raised to produce eggs and
chicken. For this, the fowls are given animal feeds in the form of roughage, which mainly
consists of fibres. Thus, by feeding animals a fibre rich diet, the poultry gives highly nutritious
food in the form of eggs and chicken.

Q1. What management practices are common in dairy and poultry farming?
Answer:
Common management practices in dairy and poultry farming are:
(i) Proper shelter facilities and their regular cleaning.
(ii) Some basic hygienic conditions such as clean water, nutritious food, etc.
(iii) Animals are kept in spacious, airy, and ventilated place.
(iv) Prevention and cure of diseases at the right time is ensured.

Q2. What are the differences between broilers and layers and in their management?
Answer:
Layersare meant for egg production, whereas broilers are meant for poultry meat. Nutritional,
environmental, and housing conditions required by broilers are different from those required by
egg layers. A broiler chicken, for their proper growth, requires vitamin rich supplements
especially vitamin A and K. Also, their diet includes protein rich food and enough fat. They
also require extra care and maintenance to increase their survival rate in comparison to egg
layers.
FISH FARMING

Fish farming is also called as aquaculture. This is culturing of fish for commercial purposes.
Fish is a cheap source of animal protein.

TYPES OF FISHERY

a) Fin fishery and Shell fishery

Fish production involves fin fishery and shell fishery. Two main species of finned true fish
are Catla and Rohu, and that of shellfish such as prawns and molluscs.

b) Capture fishery and culture fishery

Fish are obtained by capture fishing as an economic source for their meat.
Capture fishing involves capturing of fish from sea water or fresh water. Culture fishing
involves culturing the fish in small enclosures.
Capture fishing is classified into marine fishery and inland fishery depending upon the
resources used for fishing.

Culture fishery involves rearing of fish in small structures like wells.

Fish farming can be done in the rice field where both grains and fish can be harvested
from the farm.
As feeding habits of fish differ from species to species, many varieties can be reared on
the same farm. Composite fish farming is rearing of different varieties of fish in the
same area. e.g. Composite fish farming includes Catla, the surface feeders, Rohu, feed
in the middle zone of a pond, Mrigal and common carp, the bottom feeders, and grass
carp, feeding on weeds. These species can co-exist in a single pond, and thus, increase
the yield of fish from the pond.

c) Marine fishery and Inland fishery

Mariculture is the culture of fish in marine water.
Marine fishery involves fishing in salt water regions.
Some examples of marine fish are Pomphret, Tuna and Mackerel.
Fish are captured by locating large schools of fish, in the open sea, with the help of
satellites and echo-sounders.
Marine fish of high economic value are farmed in seawater. Shellfish, such as prawns,
mussels and oysters are also farmed in seawater. Oysters are cultivated for their pearls.

Distinguishing features between Capture fishery, Mariculture and Aquaculture

CAPTURE FISHERY MARICULTURE AQUACULTURE
Involves culturing and Involves culturing and
Fishes are caught from
harvesting of fin fishes and harvesting of fish, prawns,
natural water resources.
shell fishes. crabs etc.
No seeding and rearing are Fish seeds are introduced Fish and other organisms
required. and fish are reared. are seeded and reared.
This type of fishing is done Fishing is done both in
Fishing is done only in sea
both in marine and inland fresh water and marine
water.
waters. waters.

Inland fisheries involve fresh water canals, ponds, reservoirs, rivers from which fish are
captured.
Estuaries are the regions where fresh water mixes with sea water. These are rich sources of
fish.

Fish farming encounters the problem of lack of quality seed or eggs. Fish are bred in ponds by
hormonal stimulation. Fish are injected with hormones that stimulate the production of eggs or
seed. This ensures the supply of pure fish seed in desired quantities.

APICULTURE

The scientific method of rearing honeybees for honey and wax is called ‘Apiculture’ or ‘Bee
keeping’. Beehives are enclosed structures in which honey bees live and raise their young.
The practice of maintaining honey bee colonies in beehives is called bee-keeping or
apiculture. Apiaries or bee farms are established for commercial production of honey.
Bee-keeping is a cheap and popular agricultural enterprise.
Honey produced in bee-hives is the source of honey used in food and medicines. Taste
and the quality of the honey depend upon the flowers the bees visit for nectar
collection.
Wax obtained from these hives is used in ointments, polishes etc.

TYPES OF BEES
There are three types of bees in a colony.
a) Queen – The only fertile female in the hive and it’s function is to lay eggs.
b) Drones – These are fertile male bees and it’s function is to mate with queen bee and fertilize
the eggs.
c) Workers – These are sterile females. They take care of the queen and young bees, collect
nectar build honey combs and protect the bee hive.

HONEYBEE VARIETIES
a) Indigenous varieties
i. Apis Indica – Common Indian honey bee.
ii. Apis dorsata – Rock bee
iii. Apis florea – Little bee.
b) Exotic varieties
i. Apis mellifera (Italian bee)
ii. Apis adamsoni (South African bee)

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF HONEY BEES

Honey bees are used in the production of honey and bee wax.
USES OF HONEY
1. Honey is an energy rich food. For eg. 1 Kg of honey contains 3200 calories of energy.
2. Honey contains sugars, minerals, vitamins, enzymes and pollen.
3. Honey is an antiseptic and contains formic acid as the preservative.
4. Honey is a blood purifier, a cure against cough, cold,sore throat, ulcers of tongue, stomach
and intestine.
5. Honey is helpful in building up the haemoglobin content of the blood.
6. Honey is used in the preparation of bread, cakes and biscuits.

BEE WAX
It is utilized in the manufacture of cosmetics, lubricants, cold creams, shaving creams,
polishes, candles, ointments and in medical preparations.

INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 213

Q1. How are fish obtained?

Answer:
Fish can be obtained by two ways:
(i) Capture fishing: It is the process of obtaining fish from natural resources.
(ii) Culture fishery: It is the practice of farming fishes. Farming can be done in both freshwater
ecosystem (which includes river water, pond water) and marine ecosystem.

Q2. What are the advantages of composite fish culture?

Answer:
An advantage of composite fish culture is that it increases the yield of fish. In a composite fish
culture, five or six different species are grown together in a single fish pond. Fishes with
different food habitats are chosen so that they do not compete for food among themselves.
Also, this ensures a complete utilization of food resources in the pond. As a result, the survival
rate of fish increases and their yield also increases.

Q1. What are the desirable characters of bee varieties suitable for honey production?
Answer:
Bee varieties having the following desirable characters are suitable for honey production:
(i) They should yield high quantity of honey.
(ii) They should not sting much.
(iii) They should stay in the beehive for long durations.
(iv) They should breed very well.
Q2. What is pasturage and how is it related to honey production?
Answer:
Pasturage is the availability of flowers from which bees collect nectar and pollen. It is related
to the production of honey as it determines the taste and quantity of honey.

EXERCISE QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 12

Q1. Explain any one method of crop production which ensures high yield.
Answer:
Crop rotationis one of the methods of crop production that ensures high yield. It is the method
of growing two or more varieties of crops on the same land in sequential seasons. A crop
utilises some particular nutrients in larger quantities from the soil. Then, if the same crop is
grown in subsequent seasons those nutrients will get depleted in the soil. Therefore, crops
having different nutrient requirements are rotated. For example, legumes which have nitrogen-
fixing bacteria in their root nodules supply the soil with nitrogen. Therefore, these legumes are
rotated with nitrogen requiring cereals such as wheat and maize. This method reduces the need
of fertilizers, thereby increasing the overall yield of crops.

Q2. Why are manure and fertilizers used in fields?

Answer:
Manures and fertilizers are used in fields to enrich the soil with the required nutrients. Manure
helps in enriching the soil with organic matter and nutrients. This improves the fertility and
structure of the soil. On the other hand, fertilizers ensure a healthy growth and development in
plants. They are a good source of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. To get an optimum
yield, it is instructed to use a balanced combination of manures and fertilizers in the soil.

Q3. What are the advantages of inter-cropping and crop rotation?

Answer:
Inter-cropping and crop rotation both play an important role in increasing the yield of crops.
Inter-cropping helps in preventing pests and diseases to spread throughout the field. It also
increases soil fertility, whereas crop rotation prevents soil depletion, increases soil fertility, and
reduces soil erosion. Both these methods reduce the need for fertilizers. It also helps in
controlling weeds and controls the growth of pathogens and pests in crops.

Q4. What is genetic manipulation? How is it useful in agricultural practices?

Answer:
Genetic manipulationis a process where the gene for a particular character is introduced inside
the chromosome of a cell. When the gene for a particular character is introduced in a plant cell,
a transgenic plant is produced. These transgenic plants exhibit characters governed by the
newly introduced gene.

For example, let us assume there is a wild plant that produces small fruits. If the gene
responsible for a larger fruit size is introduced in this plant, this plant becomes transgenic, and
starts producing larger fruits. Similarly, genes for higher yield, disease resistance, etc. can be
introduced in any desired plant.

Therefore, gene manipulation plays an important role in agricultural practices. It helps in

improving crop variety. It ensures food security and insect resistant crops. It also improves the
quality and yield of crops.

Q5. How do storage grain losses occur?

Answer:
There are various biotic and abiotic factors that act on stored grains and result in degradation,
poor germinability, discolouration, etc. Biotic factors include insects or pests that cause direct
damage by feeding on seeds. They also deteriorate and contaminate the grain, making it unfit
for further consumption. Abiotic factors such as temperature, light, moisture, etc., also affect
the seed. They decrease the germinating ability of the seeds and make them unfit for future use
by farmers. Unpredictable occurrence of natural calamities such as droughts and floods also
causes destruction of crops.

Q6. How do good animal husbandry practices benefit farmers?

Answer:
Cattle farming is one of the methods of animal husbandry that is most beneficial for farmers.
Using this method, better breeds of draught animals can be produced. Such draught animals are
engaged in agricultural fields for labour work such as carting, irrigation, tilling, etc.
Q7. What are the benefits of cattle farming?
Answer:
Benefits of cattle farming:
(i) Good quality and quantity of milk can be produced.
(ii) Draught labour animals can be produced for agricultural work.
(iii) New variety that are resistant to diseases can be produced by crossing two varieties with
the desired traits.

Q8. For increasing production, what is common in poultry, fisheries and bee-keeping?
Answer:
The common factor for increasing production in poultry, fisheries, and bee keeping is the
proper management techniques that are to be followed. Regular cleaning of farms is of utmost
importance. Maintenance of temperature and prevention and cure of diseases is also required to
increase the number of animals.

Q9. How do you differentiate between capture fishing, mariculture and aquaculture?
Answer:
Capture fishing: It is the method of obtaining fishes from natural resources.
Mariculture: It is the culture of marine fishes for commercial use.
Aquaculture: It involves the production of aquatic animals that are of high economic value
such as prawns, lobsters, fishes, crabs, etc.