land degradation & development

Land Degrad. Develop. 13: 45±59 (2002)

DOI: 10.1002/ldr.477

CARBON SEQUESTRATION IN DRYLAND ECOSYSTEMS

OF WEST ASIA AND NORTH AFRICA
R. LAL*
School of Natural Resources, The Ohio State University, USA

Received 5 June 2001; Accepted 24 October 2001; Published online 8 January 2002

ABSTRACT
The West Asia±North Africa (WANA) region has a land area of 1
7 billion ha, and a population of 600 million. Deserti®cation
and soil degradation are severe problems in the region. The problem of drought stress is exacerbated by low and erratic rainfall
and soils of limited available water holding capacity and a soil organic carbon (SOC) content of less than 0
5 per cent. The SOC
pool of most soils has been depleted by soil degradation and widespread use of subsistence and exploitative farming systems.
The historic loss of a SOC pool for the soils of the WANA region may be 6±12 Pg compared with the global loss of 66±90 Pg.
Assuming that 60 per cent of the historic loss can be resequestered, the total soil-C sink capacity of the WANA region may be
3±7 Pg. This potential may be realized through adoption of measures to control deserti®cation, restore degraded soils and
ecosystems, and improve soil and crop management techniques that can enhance the SOC pool and improve soil quality. The
strategies of soil C sequestration include integrated nutrient management (INM) and recycling, controlled grazing, and
growing improved fodder species on rangeland. Improved technologies for cropland include use of INM and biofertilizers,
appropriate tillage methods and residue management techniques, crop rotations and cover crops, and water and nutrient
recycling technologies. Through adoption of such measures, the potential of soil-C sequestration in the WANA region is
0
2±0
4 Pg C yr 1. Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

key words: Middle East; West Asia; North Africa; deserti®cation; greenhouse effect; intensive agriculture

INTRODUCTION
The WANA Region
The West Asia±North Africa (WANA) region extends from Pakistan in the east to Morocco in the west, and from
Turkey in the north to Ethiopia and Sudan in the south. The region is mainly characterized by the Mediterranean
climate, with cool to cold wet winters and warm to hot dry summers (Kassam, 1981). Countries surrounding the
Mediterranean Sea are characterized by a milder climate due to maritime effect and low elevation. Rainfall is low,
highly variable, and ranges from 100±600 mm yr 1 (Dennett, 1987). Winter rains normally occur from October±
February (Harris, 1995), and the pattern is different in southern Asia (e.g., Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan) where
monsoon rains occur in summer (July±September). Drought stress, a severe problem in rainfed agriculture, is
exacerbated by erratic and unreliable rains.
Predominant soils of the WANA region are derived from limestone residuum, and hence are calcareous (FAO,
1978, 1979; Kassam, 1981, 1988). These soils include Inceptisols, Lithosols or shallow soils, Entisols, Aridisols,
and others comprising sand dunes and desert pavements (Dregne, 1976; Kassam, 1981; FAO-UNESCO, 1974).
Distribution of cropland soils (with growing period of 75±210 days) of the region is shown in Table I. Soils exhibit
a strong variability even over short distances (Shroyer et al., 1990), and there is a close relationship between

 Correspondence to: Prof. R. Lal, School of Natural Resources, The Ohio State University, 2021 Coffey Road, Columbus, OH 43210-1085,
USA.
E-mail: lalr@[Link]
Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
46 R. LAL

Table I. Distribution of major soil groups in North Africa and West Asia with a 75 to 210-day
growing period
Soil group North Africa (Mha) West Asia (Mha)

Cambisols 7
0 10
2

Lithosols 5
4 20
6
Luvisols 3
8 7
7
Fluvisols 2
1 1
9
Regosols 2
4 7
9
Vertisols 1
2 4
1
Xerosols 5
6 22
0
Yermosols 3
1 6
3
Others 4
1 9
1
Total 34
7 89
8
Source: adapted from Kassam, 1981; Matar et al., 1992.

rainfall and soil organic matter content (Ryan et al., 1997). Most soils of dryland ecosystems are characterized by
low soil organic carbon (SOC) content, but contain relatively large content of soil inorganic carbon (SIC) or
carbonates (Lal et al., 2000). The SOC content of most soils is 0
1±0
5 per cent, and rarely exceeds 1
0 per cent
(Ryan and Monem, 1998; Matar et al., 1992).

Land Use and Farming Systems

The total land area of the region is 1
6 billion hectares (Bha) comprising 140 million hectares (Mha) of arable land
and 13 Mha of permanent crops (Table II). The mean per capita arable land area of the region is 0
23 ha, with a
range of 0
04 ha for Egypt to 0
59 ha for Sudan. However, the population of the region is rapidly increasing

Table II. Land use in some countries of the Mediterranean region

Country Area Arable Permanent Population in Per capita
(Mha) land (Mha) crops (Mha) 1998 (millions) arable land (ha)

Afghanistan 65
2 7
9 0
1 21
4 0
37

Algeria 238
2 7
5 0
5 30
0 0
25
Egypt 100
1 2
8 0
5 66
0 0
04
Eritrea 11
8 0
4 0
002 3
6 0
11
Ethiopia 110
4 9
9 0
7 59
6 0
17
Iran 162
2 17
8 1
7 65
8 0
27
Iraq 43
8 5
2 0
3 21
8 0
24
Jordan 8
9 0
3 0
1 4
7 0
06
Kuwait 1
8 0
006 0
001 1
8 0
003
Lebanon 1
0 0
2 0
1 3
2 0
06
Libya 176
0 1
8 0
3 5
3 0
34
Morocco 44
6 8
7 0
8 27
4 0
32
Oman 21
2 0
02 0
05 2
4 0
008
Pakistan 79
6 21
0 0
6 148
2 0
14
Saudi Arabia 215
0 3
7 0
1 20
2 0
18
Sudan 250
6 16
7 0
2 28
3 0
59
Syria 18
5 4
8 0
8 15
3 0
31
Tunisia 16
4 2
9 2
0 9
3 0
31
Turkey 77
5 26
6 2
6 64
5 0
41
UAE 8
4 0
04 0
04 2
3 0
018
Yemen 52
8 1
6 1
4 16
9 0
09
Total 1704
0 139
8 12
8 618.00 0
20
Source: adapted from FAO, 1998a.

Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, 13: 45±59 (2002)
 CARBON SEQUESTRATION IN DRYLAND ECOSYSTEMS 47

Table III. Percent increase in population of some countries (millions)

Country Year

1900* 1925* 1950* 1975* 1980* 1998y 2000z 2025z

Algeria 5 6 9 16 19 30 32 47
Egypt 10 14 20 37 42 66 68 96
Morocco 5 6 10 18 20 27 28 39
Pakistan 16 22 33 70 82 148 156 263
Sudan 6 7 9 13 19 28 29 46
*McEvedy and Jones, 1978.
y
FAO, 1998a.
z
Engelman, 2000.

(Table III), causing a rapid decrease in the per capita land area, further jeopardizing the natural resources that are
already under great stress.
The statistics on land use for the region in 1990 are shown in Table IV. Out of a total land area of 1
6 Bha,
predominant land use includes 34
4 Mha irrigated cropland, 74
2 Mha rainfed cropland, 828
3 Mha rangeland, and
665
3 Mha hyperarid land. However, the irrigated land area has increased during the 1990s, and was estimated at
47
1 Mha for 1997±98 (Table V). With a total cropland area of 108
6 Mha and fertilizer use of 8
6 Mt (metric ton ˆ
1000 kg), the average rate of fertilizer use on cropland is 80 kg ha 1
The cropping period is normally from October±November (at the onset of fall rains) to May±June when
harvesting occurs. As the soil has little or no residual moisture after a long dry season, adequate rainfall is crucial for
successful crop production. In regions with winter rainfall, rainfed cropping is dominated by cereals (e.g., wheat,
barley) and legumes (e.g., chickpea, faba bean, peas, and forage legumes), combined with livestock production.

Table IV. Land use in different agroecoregions

Country Irrigated cropland Rainfed cropland Rangeland Hyperarid Total drylands

1000 ha

Afghanistan 2660 2734 50 928 0 56 322

Algeria 338 6934 38 120 190 063 235 455
Egypt 2486 10 2604 94 900 100 000
Ethiopia 94 10 956 69 556 1400 82 006
Iran 5287 2849 142 024 2802 152 962
Iraq 1750 1950 38 395 0 42 095
Jordan 43 375 6862 1820 9100
Kuwait 1 0 2306 0 2307
Lebanon 86 214 688 0 988
Libya 234 1659 17 172 157 655 176 720
Morocco 525 7484 36 693 1050 45 752
Oman 41 6 19 642 7506 27 195
Pakistan 15 440 4807 60 000 0 80 247
Saudi Arabia 415 760 112 345 126 480 240 000
Sudan 1700 5108 142 542 68 700 218 050
Syria 652 4971 12 945 0 18 568
Tunisia 215 4258 7968 3037 15 478
Turkey 2150 16 893 33 914 0 52 957
UAE 5 0 1008 8197 9210
Yemen 309 1209 32 590 1692 35 800
Total 34 431 73 177 828 302 665 302 1 601 212
Source: modi®ed from Dregne, 1992.

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48 R. LAL

Table V. Irrigation in the WANA region

Country Irrigated area Fertilizer use
(1000 ha) (1000 Mt)

Afghanistan 2800 5
Algeria 560 97
Egypt 3300 1010
Eritrea 28 6
Ethiopia 190 132
Iran 7265 1152
Iraq 3525 340
Jordan 75 23
Kuwait 5 1
Lebanon 117 60
Libya 470 62
Morocco 1251 304
Oman 62 7
Pakistan 17 580 2659
Saudi Arabia 1620 327
Sudan 1950 77
Syria 1168 368
Tunisia 380 96
Turkey 4200 1826
UAE 72 31
Yemen 485 19
Total 47 103 8602
Source: FAO, 1998 a and b.

Principal livestocks are sheep and goats. In general, crop yield increases with increase in rainfall amount (Ryan et al.,
1991). In regions with high rainfall (>350 mm yr 1), wheat is grown in rotation with beans, and barley replaces
wheat in the drier regions with a limited range of alternate crops. Barley is used mainly as feed in systems where
livestock forms a major output. In both wheat-based and barley-based systems, fallows may be weed-free or the
traditional weedy fallows for winter followed by spring grazing (Cooper et al., 1987; Tully, 1989; Harris, 1995).

Soil Degradation and Deserti®cation

Both vegetation and soil resources are prone to severe degradation in the Mediterranean region (Brandt and
Thornes, 1996; Conacher and Sala, 1998), and in other dryland ecosystems of the world (Kishk, 1986; UNEP,
1991; Dregne, 1992). The WANA region is characterized by a severe problem of soil degradation by salinization,
accelerated erosion, nutrient imbalance, depletion of SOC, and the overall deserti®cation. Land area affected by
deserti®cation in the WANA region is estimated at 11
3 Mha of irrigated cropland, 50
0 Mha of rainfed cropland,
and 709
2 Mha of rangeland. A total of 770
2 Mha or 45
2 per cent of the total land area is subject to some degree of
deserti®cation (Table VI). On the basis of land area affected, deserti®cation is a severe problem in Iran, Sudan,
Saudi Arabia, Ethiopia, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Turkey, Algeria and Morocco (Table VI). In addition, irrigated land
is prone to salinization. The total area affected by salinization is estimated at 89
1 Mha (Table VII). Secondary
salinization of irrigated land is a severe problem in Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Pakistan and Syria. Soil degradative processes
adversely affect biomass productivity, reduce the amount of biomass returned to the soil, and deplete the SOC pool.

SOIL CARBON POOL AND THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT

Global Soil Carbon Pool and the Greenhouse Effect
The global soil-C pool, comprising SOC and SIC components, is about 4
1  the biotic pool and about 3
0  the
atmospheric-C pool (Batjes, 1996, 1998; Nordt et al., 2000; Lal, 2001a). The SOC pool includes highly active

Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, 13: 45±59 (2002)
 CARBON SEQUESTRATION IN DRYLAND ECOSYSTEMS 49

Table VI. Estimates of the land area affected by deserti®cation

Country Irrigated cropland Rainfed cropland Rangeland Total % of the total area*

1000 ha
Afghanistan 655 1480 45 900 48 035 73
6
Algeria 50 6450 34 300 40 800 17
2
Egypt 751 1 2100 2852 2
8
Ethiopia 6 6800 59 000 65 806 53
8
Iran 1200 2000 128 000 131 200 80
9
Iraq 1250 1400 34 500 37 150 84
9
Jordan 13 210 6200 6423 71
2
Kuwait 0 0 1960 1960 90
0
Lebanon 6 130 620 756 75
6
Libya 55 580 13 700 14 335 8
2
Morocco 51 5200 33 000 38 251 85
9
Oman 11 3 17 700 17 714 83
5
Pakistan 6100 3360 54 000 63 460 79
8
Saudi Arabia 260 460 90 000 90 720 42
2
Sudan 360 2090 114 000 116 090 46
3
Syria 110 3500 11 600 15 210 82
2
Tunisia 7 2940 6800 9810 59
8
Turkey 290 12 700 28 900 41 890 54
1
UAE 2 Ð 900 902 10
7
Yemen 50 780 26 000 26 830 50
7
Total 11 277 50 084 709 180 770 491 45
2
Source: modi®ed from Dregne, 1992.
*Based on the total area shown in Table I.

Table VII. Distribution of salt-affected soils in the WANA region

Country Area of salt-affected % of irrigated land
soil (1000 ha) affected by salinization

Afghanistan 3101 NA
Algeria 3150 10±15
Egypt 7360 30±40
Eritrea Ð NA
Ethiopia 11 033 NA
Iran 27 085 30
Iraq 6726 50
Jordan 180 16
Kuwait 209 NA
Lebanon Ð NA
Libya 2457 NA
Morocco 1148 NA
Oman 290 NA
Pakistan 10 456 40
Saudi Arabia 6002 NA
Sudan 4874 20
Syria 532 30±50
Tunisia 990 NA
Turkey* 2403 NA
UAE 1089 NA
Yemen NA NA
Total 89 085
Source: adapted from Goudie, 1990; Balba, 1995; Cangir et al., 2000.
*3
1% of the total land area.

Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, 13: 45±59 (2002)
50 R. LAL

humus and relatively inert charcoal carbon. The `humus' is the principal ingredient of the SOC. The latter includes
a mixture of plant and animal residue at various stages of decomposition, of substances synthesized
microbiologically and/or chemically from the breakdown products, and of the bodies of live microorganisms
and small animals and their decomposing products (Schnitzer, 1991). The SIC is an important constituent in
subsurface horizons of soils in arid and semiarid regions, and comprises primary and secondary carbonates. The
atmospheric C pool is increasing, mostly at the expense of the geologic, soil and biotic C pools. Depletion of the
soil C pool is accentuated by soil degradation and deserti®cation, and that of the biotic pool by deforestation,
conversion of natural to agricultural ecosystems and biomass burning. There is a close link between the soil quality
and the soil C pool, and the depletion of the latter leads to soil degradation and vice versa.
The atmospheric C pool has increased steadily from 280 ppmv in the pre-industrial era to 365 ppmv in 2000, and
is increasing at the rate of 1
8 ppmv or 0
5 per cent or 3
3 Pg C yr 1 (IPCC, 1995). Enrichment of the atmospheric C
pool has been caused by the combustion of fossil fuel, cement manufacturing, land-use change and soil cultivation.
Global contribution of fossil fuel combustion to atmospheric enrichment of CO2 is estimated at 270  55 Pg C
(IPCC, 2000). The global historic loss of C from the soil C pool is estimated at 55 Pg by IPCC (1995) and 66±90 Pg
by Lal (1999, 2001b). Of the loss from the soil C pool, 19±32 Pg is due to accelerated soil erosion, which on
deserti®ed lands currently leads to emission of 0
21±0
26 Pg C yr 1 (Lal, 1999).

Carbon Pool in Soils of Dryland Ecosystems

Soils of dryland ecosystems are characterized by low SOC content, and low nutrient reserves especially N. The
SOC content is generally low, but is more in soils of wetter than drier regions, and in those containing high rather
than low clay contents. Most soils have low SOC content ranging between 0
2 and 0
8 per cent. Low levels of SOC
content have also been reported from soils of Pakistan (Rashid et al., 1988), Iraq (Aziz et al., 1988), and elsewhere
in the WANA region (Amar and Houssa, 1988; Bowman et al., 1999; ICARDA, 1991; Khalil and El-Shinawi,
1989; Osman et al., 1999; Ryan and Matar, 1988). However, not all soils have low SOC content, which in some
soils may be 1
5±2
0 per cent (Yurtsever and Gedikoglu, 1988).
The low biomass productivity of soils of these ecoregions, a principal cause of the low SOC pool, is due to
drought stress, deserti®cation and low water- and nutrient-use ef®ciencies. The soil C pool to 1 m depth is about
300 Pg for the hot desert ecosystems, and 135 Pg for the semiarid tropics. Estimates of the soil C pool of the WANA
regions are not available.
The SOC content is generally high in soils of the undisturbed ecosystems, and cultivation and cropping leads to
depletion of the SOC pool. Both rate and the magnitude of the historic depletion of the SOC pool are more in soils
managed by subsistence methods of farming, based on low or no external input and low yields (Lal, 2001a).

TECHNOLOGICAL OPTIONS FOR SOIL CARBON SEQUESTRATION

Historic Loss of Soil Carbon Pool
The largest potential of soil-C sequestration lies in restoration of degraded soils and ecosystems. These soils,
especially those affected by accelerated erosion (by water and wind) and salinization, have lost a large fraction
of the original soil-C pool. The magnitude of the loss may be 10±30 Mg C ha 1 (1 Mg ˆ megagram ˆ 106 g ˆ
1 metric ton) (Lal, 2001b), depending on the antecedent pool and the severity of the degradative process. With total
managed land area of 153 Mha, the historic loss of SOC may be 1
5±4
5 Pg. Assuming the loss of SOC from
rangeland in the range of 5±10 Mg ha 1 (Lal et al., 1999), the historic loss from 828 Mha of rangeland may be
4
1±8
3 Pg. Thus, total loss of soil-C from the WANA region may be 6±12 Pg. These estimates provide a reference
point with regard to the sink capacity of the soils. Assuming that 60 per cent of historic loss can be resequestered
(Cole, 1996), the potential of soil-C sequestration for the WANA region may be 3±7 Pg C over a 50 year
period.
There are several strategies of resequestration of the historic loss of C in soils of the dryland ecosystems. These
strategies can be grouped into the three categories in the following sections.

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 CARBON SEQUESTRATION IN DRYLAND ECOSYSTEMS 51

Deserti®cation Control and Restoration of Degraded Soils and Ecosystems

Soils in which the SOC pool has been depleted by degradative processes because of land misuse and soil
mismanagement generally exhibit a linear increase in SOC in direct proportion to increased C inputs through
adoption of soil restorative measures. Recommended technologies for deserti®cation control and soil restoration
include establishing the vegetative cover with appropriate species adapted to the ecosystem, controlled grazing,
water harvesting, growing halomorphic plants, and enhancing nutrient recycling mechanisms (Squires et al., 1998;
Lal et al., 1999; Lal, 2001b). Adoption of these technologies would reverse degradative trends, enhance soil quality
and sequester C in soil and biota.
The potential of soil C sequestration through deserti®cation control and soil restoration is generally in the order
of irrigated cropland > rainfed cropland > rangeland. There are numerous traditional techniques of soil and water
conservation that are widely used in the North African region. Important among these are dry-stone walls built on
the contour. This technique allows the natural construction of small terraces behind the old walls. Stones and large
rocks are also used as gabiens to control gully erosion. In addition, there are several modern erosion control
practices including vegetative barriers including lines of fruit trees with multipurpose objectives. The effectiveness
of these techniques has been a debateable issue (Heusch, 1995). Some of the improved management options for
restoration of rangeland/grazing land and cropland are listed in Table VIII. Technological options for grazing land
include improving soil P level, replacing native with improved forage species through innovative seed dispersal
system, controlled grazing, and integration of crop/livestock systems in regions with favorable rainfall distribution.
Improved systems of cropland management include appropriate methods of seedbed preparation, supplemental
irrigation and water harvesting, nutrient management, and suitable crop rotations that eliminate fallow (Table VIII).
The rate of soil C sequestration, both SOC and SIC, are generally low in dryland ecosystems (Lal, 1999). Adoption
of soil-speci®c restorative measures may lead to SOC sequestration at the rate of 0
1±0
2 Mg ha 1 yr 1 for irrigated
cropland and 0
05±0
1 Mg ha 1 yr 1 for both rainfed cropland and rangeland. The leaching of SIC is an important
process in irrigated systems (Nordt et al., 2000), and the rate of leaching of carbonates may be 0
2±0
3 Mg ha 1 yr 1
for lands under a canal irrigation system (Lal et al., 1999). In other lands, the rate of formation of secondary
carbonates and leaching may be low.
Calculations in Table IX show the potential of soil C sequestration through deserti®cation control and restoration
of degraded ecosystems. The total potential is 2
0±5
1 Pg C over a 50 year period at an average rate of
40±100 Tg C yr 1 (1 Tg ˆ teragram ˆ 1012 g ˆ 1 million metric tonnes).
In addition to deserti®cation, there are 89 Mha of salt-affected soils in the WANA region. Most of these soils
prone to secondary salinization are irrigated lands, and the technology for reclamation of salt-affected soils is well
known (Gupta and Abrol, 1990). Some forage species can also be grown on saline-sodic soils for biomass
production and soil reclamation (Qadir et al., 1996). Restoration of salt-affected soils can lead to SOC
sequestration at the rate of 0
1±0
2 Mg C ha 1 yr 1 (Garg, 1998). Therefore the potential of SOC sequestration
is as shown in Equation 1:
1
SOC sequestration through reclamation of salt-affected soils ˆ 89 Mha†  0
1 0
2 Mg C ha yr 1 †
ˆ9 18 Tg C yr 1 : 1†
Biofuel Production
Despite large fossil fuel reserves of the WANA region, the potential of biofuel production through establishment of
speci®c biofuel plantations cannot be overemphasized. Afforestation is an important strategy, and several
multipurpose trees can be grown in dryland ecosystems. However, many arid and semiarid ecoregions may not
support trees. Thus the selection of appropriate site and speci®c tree species are critical. Afforestation has been
widely practiced in Morocco and Algeria. In Morocco, 153 500 ha were reforested in 1939. In the ®rst 20 years of
independence, 370 000 ha were forested, but by 1977 only 500 000 ha of forests were planted. At present, 1 Mha of
forest have been planted (Conacher and Sala, 1998). In Algeria, 8200 ha were reforested from 1850±1930 (Plit,
1983). During the period 1963±81, 560 000 ha were reforested (Conacher and Sala, 1998). Some of these
plantations can be used as sylvopastoral systems and others as permanent meadows.

Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, 13: 45±59 (2002)
 52

Table VIII. Some improved management systems for soil organic carbon sequestration and soil quality enhancement
Farming system Improved management Country/region Reference

A. Grazing/rangeland
1. Soil P level Residual phosphate and grassland restoration Syria, WANA Osman et al., 1999; Matar et al., 1992
2. Controlled grazing Extending growing period of shrubs Egypt Duivenbooden, 1993

Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

3. Seed dispersal Using sheep to disperse leguminous seeds Syria Ghassali et al., 1998
4. Fodder trees Nutrient cycling Le Houreou, 2000
5. Crop/livestock integration Improving carrying capacity WANA Thomson and Bahhady, 1995
B. Cropland
1. Tillage methods Time and method of seedbed preparation Syria, Dryland Ryan, 1998; Schomberg and Jones, 1999
2. Supplemental irrigation Increasing wheat yield Syria Oweis et al., 1998
3. N fertilization 50±100 kg N ha 1 Syria Oweis et al., 1998
4. N and P management Enhancing biomass yield Sudan, WANA Farah (paper presented at 2nd Afr. Soil Sci. Soc. Conf.
Cairo, 1993); Matar et al., 1992
R. LAL

5. Water/nutrient recycling Sewage irrigation Egypt El-Naim et al., 1987

6. Crop rotations Legume-based systems Syria, Jenkinson et al., 1999
Midemanian Osman et al., 1990
region

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 CARBON SEQUESTRATION IN DRYLAND ECOSYSTEMS 53

Table IX. Potential of soil C sequestration through deserti®cation control and restoration of degraded soils in the WANA
region
Rate of soil C sequestration with improved
management (Mg C ha 1 yr 1)
Total potential over
Ecosystem Land area (Mha) SOC SIC Total 50 yrs (Tg C)

Irrigated cropland 11
3 0
1±0
2 0
2±0
3 0
3±0
5 170±283

Rainfed cropland 50
1 0
05±0
1 0
01±0
1 0
06±0
2 150±500
Rangeland* 578
3 0
05±0
1 0
01±0
05 0
06±0
15 1735±4337
Total 2055±5120
*The rangeland area has been reduced by 250 Mha allocated for biofuel production.

There is a wide range of tree species that can be grown in the WANA region. Some tree species adapted for these
ecosystems include tamarisk (Tamarix spp.), gum tree (Eucalyptus spp.), lencaena (Leucaena spp.), cypress
(Cupressus spp.), casuarina (Casuarina spp.), mesquite (Prosopis spp.), neem (Azadirachta spp.), acacia (Acacia
spp.), teak (Tectona grandis), casia (Casia siamea) and many others (Lal et al., 1999). Further, several tree species
are tolerant to high salinity. In addition to biofuel production, tree plantations also enhance SOC content. Ruecker
et al. (1998) observed in eastern Spain that natural tree establishment on degraded soils signi®cantly increased
SOC content in the 0±10 cm layer after 30 years of growth. In northeastern Sudan, Alstad and Vetaas (1994)
observed improvement in soil quality under the stand of Acacia tortillis. Garg (1998) observed that establishement
of mesquite (Prosopis juli¯ora.) plantation on salt-affected soils in northwestern India increased SOC pool from
10 Mg ha 1 to 45 Mg ha 1 over an eight year period. This increase is over and above that of the above-ground
biomass that was useful as fuelwood.
With a coordinated effort, it is assumed that 250 Mha of rangeland (35 per cent of deserti®ed rangeland) can be
grown to dedicated species for fuelwood production. Even at a modest rate of biomass production of
0
5±1 Mg ha 1 yr 1, the total biomass produced is 0
25±0
5 Pg yr 1. The average biofuel C offset on this land
is shown in Equation 2:
Average biofuel C offset ˆ 250 Mha  0
5 1 Mg ha yr 1 †  0
7† ˆ 88 175 Tg C yr 1
2†

1
The potential of SOC sequestration in 250 Mha of forested lands, at the modest rate of 0
1±0
3 Mg ha yr 1, can
be as much as 25±75 Tg C yr 1.

Agricultural Intensi®cation on Prime/Undegraded Soils

Total arable land in the WANA region is 108
6 Mha, of which 61
3 Mha is degraded or deserti®ed and have been
accounted for in the restoration of degraded soils and deserti®cation control. The remainder 47
5 Mha of cropland
and 12
8 Mha of land under permanent crops (a total of 60 Mha) has a potential of soil C sequestration through
adoption of improved agricultural practices. The potential of these practices is especially high in regions that
receive favorable rainfall and have high irrigation potential. The data in Table X show the areal extent of regions
with different rainfall regimes in some countries of the WANA region. Soils of these regions would respond to
adoption of technologies leading to agricultural intensi®cation and high yields.
There is a vast potential for improvement of agriculture in the Middle Eastern region (Salman, 1990; Clawson
et al., 1991). There are several technological interventions that can enhance biomass yield and lead to soil C
sequestration. Use of biosolids and organic material in agricultural soils has been shown to increase SOC content in
several soils of Egypt (Abdel-Ghaffar, 1982; El-Abedine and Hosny, 1982; Moustafa, 1982; Makawi, 1982; Riad,
1982) and elsewhere in the WANA region. Soil fertility management, especially judicious use of N and P through
INM, is an important option. Although the importance of organic manure in increasing cereal yields is well
recognized, it is unlikely that there is a suf®cient quantity available on a regional basis. Therefore, adopting the

Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, 13: 45±59 (2002)
54 R. LAL

Table X. Rainfall distribution in dryland ecosystems of the WANA region

Country Total area Non-arid/non-desert Arid Desert Desert wasteland
(Mha) (> 400 mm) (100±400 mm) (50±100 mm) (< 50 mm)

Egypt 6
0 0
0 0
5 3
5 2
0

Iraq 43
5 4
8 29
1 9
6 0
0
Jordan 9
8 1
5 4
0 2
5 1
8
Kuwait 1
8 0
0 1
8 0
0 0
0
Oman 21
2 0
2 1
2 9
1 10
7
Qatar 2
2 0
0 0
0 2
2 0
0
Saudi Arabia 215
0 1
0 20
0 124
0 70
0
Syria 18
5 1
0 15
7 1
0 0
0
Turkey 78
1 67
1 11
0 0
0 0
0
UAE 8
4 0
0 0
0 8
4 0
0
N. Yemen 19
5 3
0 14
0 2
5 0
0
S. Yemen 33
2 1
0 2
0 23
2 7
0
Source: adapted from a paper presented by H. N. Le Houreou and L. Boulos at IVth Congress International des Terres de Parcours, 1991.

strategy of INM is crucial to sustainable use of soil and water resources. Ryan and Monem (1998) demonstrated
improvement in soil quality through soil fertility management for sustained production. Matar et al. (1992) showed
that judicious application of P to soils of the WANA region improve water-use ef®ciency, enhance biomass
production and improve crop yield. Further, there is a close link between water and nutrient use ef®ciencies, and in
increasing the SOC content (Cooper et al., 1987). For Vertisols in the Ethiopian Highlands, Wakeel and Astartke
(1996) suggested adoption of recommended agricultural practices (RAPs) (e.g., fertilizer use, water conservation,
new varieties and improved cropping systems) to minimize risks of soil degradation and improve soil quality.
Legume-based crop rotations are important to strengthening nutrient cycling mechanisms (Ryan et al., 1997). In
Saudi Arabia, Shahin et al. (1998) observed that introducing alfalfa in rotation with wheat grown on a sandy soil
decreased salinity and increased SOC content threefold as compared with continuous wheat. In Algeria, Arabi and
Roose (1992) and Roose (1996) observed bene®cial effects of improved crop rotations and sylvopastoral systems on
soil and water conservation and enhancement of soil quality. In Syria, Ryan (1998) reported a signi®cant increase in
SOC content by elimination of fallow and application of recommended rates of fertilizers. When Medicago was
grown in a long-term rotation, increase in SOC content was observed to 1 m depth, probably because of its deep root
system. The data on SOC dynamics from a 10 year experiment on rotation and grazing at Aleppo, Syria are shown in
Table XI. Grazing had no signi®cant effect in any of rotations on SOC or microbial biomass C, except in the wheat±
Medicago rotation. Whereas the SOC content decreased in the wheat±fallow rotation, there was signi®cant increase
in the wheat±Medicago rotation vis-aÁ-vis the wheat±medicago rotation. Total soil-C pool in the wheat±meadow
rotation increased by 1
6 Mg ha 1 at the mean rate of 0
17 Mg ha 1 yr 1 in comparison with wheat±wheat rotation,
and by 3
8 Mg ha 1 at the mean rate of 0
38 Mg ha 1 yr 1 in comparison with the wheat±fallow rotation. It is
important to note that changes in SOC pool are slow to manifest in the WANA region and are detectable after about
10 years of conversion to a different management practice (White et al., 1994; Ryan, 1998).
Despite the severe problem of soil erosion, the concept of conservation tillage is new to the region. Whether
mechanized or animal driven, both primary and secondary tillage operations are used for seedbed preparation.
Nonetheless, adoption of conservation tillage and mulch farming techniques can lead to improvement in the SOC
pool. Experiments conducted in southern Spain by Murillo et al. (1998) demonstrated that conservation tillage was
effective in increasing SOC content. Conservation tillage for sun¯ower cultivation was adopted in 1993. The SOC
content in 1995 was 1
1 per cent for conservation tillage compared with 0
84 per cent for traditional tillage for
0±5 cm depth, and 0
76 per cent for conservation tillage and 0
75 per cent for traditional tillage for 5±30 cm depth.
The SOC content in 1997 was 1
34 per cent for conservation tillage and 0
89 per cent for traditional tillage for
0±5 cm depth, and 0
76 per cent for both conservation tillage and traditional tillage for 5±30 cm depth. The
increase in SOC content caused an overall increase in soil quality and productivity (Table XII).

Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, 13: 45±59 (2002)
 Table XI. Effects of grazing, fallow and medic in the rotation on carbonates, organic and microbial biomass carbon in 0±20 cm depth after 10 years of the rotation

Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

cycle at Aleppo, Syria
Rotation Carbonate C Organic C Microbial biomass C

Grazed Ungrazed Grazed Ungrazed Total C Grazed Ungrazed Total C

(%) (%) (%) (%) (Mg ha 1) (%) (%) (Mg ha 1)

Wheat±vetch 3
1 3
1 0
87 0
88 16
9 0
036 0
035 0
69

Wheat±lentil 2
8 3
0 0
85 0
84 16
4 0
036 0
035 0
68
Wheat±wheat 2
8 2
9 0
84 0
85 16
3 0
034 0
035 0
66
Wheat±chickpea 3
1 3
1 0
84 0
85 16
3 0
036 0
033 0
67
Wheat±fallow 2
8 2
8 0
77 0
75 14
7 0
033 0
030 0
60
Wheat±medic 2
8 2
8 0
93 1
0 18
5 0
038 0
036 0
61
SE 0
7 0
69 0
17 0
22 0
3 0
001 0
001 0
02
Source: adapted from Jenkinson et al., 1999.
CARBON SEQUESTRATION IN DRYLAND ECOSYSTEMS
55

LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, 13: 45±59 (2002)

56 R. LAL

Table XII. Soil organic carbon and N contents in conservation and traditional tillage for sun¯ower
cultivation under rainfed conditions in southern Spain
Year Tillage Depth (cm) SOC (%)

1995 Conservation 0±5 1
12a

Traditional 0±5 0
84b
Conservation 5±30 0
76b
Traditional 5±30 0
75b
1997 Conservation 0±5 1
34a
Traditional 0±5 0
89b
Conservation 5±30 0
76b
Traditional 5±30 0
76
Source: modi®ed from Murillo et al., 1998. Figures in the column followed by the same letter are statistically similar.

The available literature thus shows that adoption of recommended practices of soil, crop and water management
on croplands can enhance soil quality and improve SOC content. Despite the potential for enhancing SOC content,
however, the rate of increase is likely to be low for drylands of the WANA region. Lal (1999) observed that
potential rate (Mg C ha 1 yr 1) of SOC sequestration for dryland ecosystem may be 0
1±0
2 for conservation
tillage, 0
05±0
1 for mulch farming at the rate of 2±4 Mg of straw ha 1 yr 1, 0
1±0
2 for application of farmyard
manure on a regular basis, 0
05±0
1 for elimination of summer fallow, and 0
1±0
2 for integrated nutrient
management and improved cropping systems. For a given ecoregion, however, the effects of different components
listed above may not be additive. Therefore, the potential of SOC sequestration through adoption of RAPs may be
0
1±0
2 Mg C ha 1 yr 1 on undegraded prime land. Assuming that RAPs can be adopted on 60 Mha, the potential
of soil C sequestration is as shown in Equation 3:
1
SOC sequestration potential on prime agricultural land ˆ 60 Mha†  0
1 0
2 Mg C ha yr 1 †
1
ˆ6 12 Tg C yr 3†

THE POTENTIAL OF DRYLAND ECOSYSTEMS TO SEQUESTER CARBON

The data in Table XIII compares the soil C sequestration potential for the global dryland ecosystems and the
WANA region. The mean potential of the global dryland ecosystems to sequester C is about 1000 Tg C yr 1 or
1 Pg C yr 1. Squires et al. (1998) also estimated that drylands have the potential to reach an annual C sequestration
rate of 1
0 Pg C yr 1. In comparison, soils of the WANA region have a potential to reach an annual C sequestration
rate of 0
2±0
4 Pg C yr 1 or about 20 per cent of the potential of the global dryland ecosystems. This potential rate
of C sequestration can be maintained over a 25±50 year period, provided that coordinated efforts are made to adopt
appropriate land use and recommended soil, water and crop management technologies.

Table XIII. The potential of the WANA region and the global dryland ecosystems to sequester C
WANA region (this study) Global dryland ecosystem (Lal, 2001)
1 1
Strategy (Tg C yr ) (Tg C yr )

1. Deserti®cation control 40±100 200±300

2. Reclamation of salt-affected soils 9±18 200±400
3. Agricultural intensi®cation on undegraded soils 6±12 10±20
4. Fuel C offset 88±175 300±500
5. Soil C sequestration under biofuel planting 25±75 NA
Total 168±380 710±1220

Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, 13: 45±59 (2002)
 CARBON SEQUESTRATION IN DRYLAND ECOSYSTEMS 57

There are numerous hidden costs of soil-C sequestration in agricultural ecosystems that need to be considered
(Schlesinger, 1999). Agricultural intensi®cation involves carbon-based inputs including tillage, herbicides,
pesticides, fertilizers, and irrigation. Emission of C in all these inputs need to be considered in evaluating the
net SOC sequestration. Careful analytical procedures are to be developed to assess the comparative C budget for
traditional vis-aÁ-vis the improved systems of crop/animal production. While the need for food production from
agricultural systems cannot be overemphasized, the objective is to enhance production per unit consumption of
C-based input.

DATA NEEDS TO REALIZE THE POTENTIAL

Soil C sequestration is a win-win strategy, because it has numerous ancillary bene®ts. It improves soil quality and
enhances agronomic productivity. Improvement in soil quality reverses degradative trends and improves resilience
of soil and ecosystems. Consequently, risks of soil erosion, soil degradation, and land deserti®cation are
minimized. Improvement in soil quality increases water and nutrient use ef®ciencies and minimizes risks of
eutrophication of surface water and/or contamination of ground water. Afforestation and establishment of
dedicated biofuel crops increase biodiversity.
Realization of the vast potential (0
2±0
4 Pg C yr 1 for the WANA region) through deserti®cation control, soil
restoration, and agricultural intensi®cation is possible only if a coordinated effort is made to achieve the following:
(1) Obtain credible statistics on land use, farming systems and soil/crop management practices on regional basis.
(2) Obtain reliable data on the extent and rate (severity) of soil and vegetation degradation by different processes
at regional and national scales.
(3) Understand soil-C dynamics in relation to the effect of land-use change and soil management, and in relation
to degradative/restorative processes.
(4) Identify soil-speci®c practices of soil management and restorative technologies and assess the rate of SOC/SIC
sequestration in relation to these practices.
(5) Understand the role of SIC in soil-C dynamics in relation to irrigation, biofertilizers, and other land use
practices.
(6) Develop institutional support at all levels of technology transfer (e.g., farm, regional, national).
(7) Provide policy incentives to land managers to facilitate adoption of improved technology.
(8) Develop C trading mechanisms through its commodi®cation as a farm product.

RELEVANCE TO THE KYOTO PROTOCOL

Article 3
3 of the Kyoto Protocol, established under the UNFCCC in December 1997, stating that the `the net
changes in greenhouse gas emissions by sources and removals by sinks resulting from direct human-induced land-
use change and forestry activities, limited to afforestation, reforestation and deforestation since 1990, measured as
veri®able changes in carbon stocks in each commitment period', provides for C credits due to land-use change.
Further, Article 3
4 stating that `additional human-induced activities related to changes in greenhouse gas
emissions by sources and removal by sinks in the agricultural soils and land use change' makes provision for credit
of C sequestered in agricultural soils. Thus, the soil-C sequestration potential in the WANA region is extremely
relevant to implementation of the Kyoto Protocol. Further, C sequestration in soils and terrestrial ecosystems of the
WANA region can be traded with Annex-I countries through the Clean Development Mechanism. At a modest
price of $50 per ton, the economic worth of the annual C sequestration potential of 0
2±0
4 Pg C is US $10±20
billion. The agronomic, ecologic, and economic potential of soil-C sequestration thus cannot be overemphasized.

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