QUANTUM CIRCUITS PHYS C-0254

Lecture 6

Lecturer: G. S. Paraoanu
Department of Applied Physics, School of Science,
Aalto University, P.O. Box 15100, FI-00076 AALTO, Finland

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I. INTRODUCTION TO SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

• 1911 – Heike Kamerlingh Onnes

Electrical resistance of Hg (metal!) dropped to < 10−5 Ω at Tc = 4.2 K.

Other metals become superconductors:

Tc = 1.2 K for Al
Tc = 7.2 K for Pb
Tc = 9.2 K for Nb.

• 1986 – Discovery of high Tc compounds by J.G. Bednorz and K.A. Müller.

Tc = 95 K for YBa2 Cu3 O7−δ
Tc = 125 K for Tl2 Ba2 Ca2 Cu3 O10
Tc = 9.2 K for HgBa2 Ca2 Cu3 O8+δ . These are not metals! They are ceramic materials
at room temperature!

• Meissner effect

– In the beginning of superconductivity research it was hoped that the electromagnetic

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 properties could be derived from the property of infinite conductivity.


σ = ∞, J⃗ = σ · E
⃗
⃗ = 0 =⇒ ∇
=⇒ E ⃗ ×E
⃗ =0 (1)
J⃗ = finite 
⃗ ⃗
Maxwell: ∇ ⃗ = − ∂ B =⇒ ∂ B = 0 .
⃗ ×E (2)
∂t ∂t

⃗ = constant inside a superconductor and also we expect it to be dependent on

So B
the way it was cooled down (e.g. either in the presence or absence of the magnetic
field).

⃗ = 0. The magnetic field

But in 1933 Meisner and Ochsenfeld discovered that B
inside the superconductor is not just constant, but it is exactly zero. Magnetic field
lines are expelled. A superconductor is a perfect diamagnet.

• Theory development

1935 – Phenomenological theory developed by F. & H. London (two brothers!)

1957 – BCS (Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer) theory.

high-TC superconductivity – maybe YOU?

II. ELEMENTS OF LONDON THEORY

Consider a particle of mass m⋆ and charge q⋆ . It will turn out that m⋆ = 2me and
q⋆ = −2e; these particles are Cooper pairs, and a complete understanding of what they are
is provided by the BCS theory.

Recall:
⃗ =∇
B ⃗ × A,
⃗ ⃗ = magnetic vector potential,
A V = electric potential.

Schrödinger equation:
∂ 1  ⃗ ⃗
2
iℏ ψ(⃗r, t) = − iℏ∇ − q⋆ A(⃗r) ψ(⃗r, t) + q⋆ V (⃗r, t)ψ(⃗r, t) , (3)
∂t 2m⋆

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 ⃗ = − ∂ A⃗ − ∇V
Recall also that: E ⃗ .
∂t

⃗2
Π ⃗ r) =
Note: the Hamiltonian of a free particle in a magnetic field is H = 2m⋆
, where Π(⃗
⃗ − q⋆ A(⃗
−iℏ∇ ⃗ r) is the canonical momentum.

The probability density: P (⃗r, t) = |ψ(⃗r, t)|2

∗
nh  2 i
∴ ∂P (⃗
r,t)
= ∂ψ ∂t(⃗r,t) ψ(⃗r, t) + ψ ∗ (⃗r, t) ∂ψ(⃗
r,t)
= i 1
iℏ∇⃗ − q⋆ A(⃗
⃗ r) ψ ∗ (⃗r, t) ψ(⃗r, t) −
∂t ∂t ℏ 2m⋆
h  2 i o
ψ ∗ (⃗r, t) 2m1 ⋆ − iℏ∇ ⃗ − q⋆ A(⃗ ⃗ r) ψ(⃗r, t) = −∇ ⃗ · ⃗j(⃗r, t).

∂P (⃗r, t) ⃗ · ⃗j(⃗r, t) ,
∴ = −∇ (4)
∂t
h  i∗ h
where ⃗j(⃗r, t) = 2m1 ⋆ ⃗ − q⋆ A(⃗
− iℏ∇ ⃗ r) ψ(⃗r, t) ψ(⃗r, t) + 1
ψ ∗ (⃗r, t) · ⃗ −
− iℏ∇
2m⋆
 i
⃗ r) ψ(⃗r, t) is the probability current.
q⋆ A(⃗

So far we have not departed from single-particle standard quantum mechanics, obtaining
a probability current ⃗j(⃗r, t). But in a superconductor we expect to have many such particles
- let us call ns (⃗r, t) (units of 1/volume) their density. Let us assume now that these particles
are each described by the same wavefunction ψ (this - you may learn in other more advanced
⃗ r, t)
courses - is called Bose-Einstein condensation). This means that the electrical current J(⃗
can be obtained simply by mutiplying ⃗j with ns (⃗r, t) with the charge q⋆ and with the
probability current j(r,⃗ t),
⃗ r, t) = q⋆ ns (⃗r, t)⃗j(⃗r, t)
J(⃗ (5)

The modern way to think about this is through the concept of order parameter and
broken symmetry. We can only very lightly touch these concepts here. The wavefunction
√
ψ(⃗r, t) can be multiplied by ns and can be regarded as an order parameter (a macroscopic
√
wavefunction!). Let us denote it by Ψs = ns ψ. Note that Ψs is normalized to the par-
ticle density rather than 1 (as usual for a wavefunction). Ψs is called the superconductor
Ginzburg-Landau order parameter.

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 p
The Ginzburg-Landau Order Parameter: Ψs (⃗r, t) = ns (⃗r, t)eiθ(⃗r,t) , where ns (⃗r, t) =
density of superconducting particles, and θ(⃗r, t) = superconducting phase. Appears as a
result of a broken symmetry.

The dynamical equation of the Ginzburg-Landau order parameter looks the same as the
Schrödinger equation
∂ 1  ⃗ ⃗
2
iℏ Ψs = − iℏ∇ − q⋆ A Ψs + q⋆ V Ψs . (6)
∂t 2m⋆
´
Note that indeed with this definition d⃗rΨ∗s (⃗r, t)Ψs (⃗r, t) = density of superconducting
particles.
h i
From now on we will assume ns (⃗r, t) ≡ ns = constant, therefore ℏns ⃗ q⋆ ⃗
∇θ(⃗r, t) − ℏ A(⃗r, t)
m⋆

is the particle current density (number of particles per unit time and per unit area) associ-
ated with Ψs ; the electrical current density J⃗s is obtained simply by another multiplication
with the charge q⋆

To conclude, we have
ℏq⋆ ns h ⃗ q⋆ ⃗ i
J⃗s (⃗r, t) = ∇θ(⃗r, t) − A(⃗ r, t) = superconducting current density , (7)
m⋆ ℏ
As usual for current densities, this is measured in units of current (Amperes) per unit
area (square meters).
h i
⃗ r, t) − e⋆ A(⃗
Note also that ∇θ(⃗ ⃗ r, t) is a gauge-invariant phase under the transformation:
ℏ


θ → θ + q⋆
χ

ℏ
(8)
A
 ⃗→A
⃗ + ∇χ
⃗ .

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Consequences:
⃗ = 0.
Let us consider θ = constant in ⃗r, ∇θ

Perfect Conductivity
2 2 ⃗
⃗ =⇒
J⃗s = − mq⋆⋆ ns A dJs (⃗
dt
r,t)
= − mq⋆⋆ ns dA(⃗
r,t)
dt

Recall now Maxwell’s equations : ∇ ⃗ = − ∂ B⃗ and with B

⃗ ×E ⃗ =∇
⃗ ×A
⃗ we get
∂t

dJ⃗s (⃗r, t) q 2 ns ⃗
= + ⋆ E(⃗ r, t) . (9)
dt m⋆
What does it mean? A constant-in-time current can flow through a superconductor
even if the electric field is zero (resulting in a zero voltage drop - therefore zero electrical
resistance).
Take a ballistic superelectron (no collision with atoms, impurities, etc.)


⃗
m⋆ ddtv⃗s = q⋆ · E dJ⃗s q 2 ρs ⃗
=⇒ = ⋆ E (10)
J⃗s = ρs · q⋆ · v⃗s  dt m⋆

Note the difference with respect to J⃗ = σ E

⃗ (Ohm’s law)!

Meissner Effect
2
⋆ ns ⃗
First, we can write J⃗s = − qm ⋆
⃗ on both the right hand side and left hand
A and apply ∇×
⃗ =∇
side. Since B ⃗ ×A ⃗ we get
⃗ = − m⋆ ∇
B ⃗ × J⃗s . (11)
ns q⋆2
To obtain the Meissner effect, we can proceed in several ways. Let us for example look
at Maxwell’s equations:

∇
 ⃗ ·B
⃗ =0,

∇
 ⃗ ×B
⃗ = µ0 J⃗s .

Now B⃗ =∇ ⃗ ×A⃗ so ∇
⃗ ×B⃗ =∇⃗ × (∇
⃗ × A)
⃗ = ∇(
⃗ ∇⃗ · A)
⃗ −∇
⃗2·A
⃗ = −∇
⃗ 2 A,
⃗ where we can

use the Coulomb gauge ∇⃗ ·A

⃗ = 0.


∇
 ⃗ 2A
⃗ = −µ0 J⃗s , 2
∴ =⇒ ∇ ⃗ = µ0 q ⋆ ns A
⃗ 2A ⃗. (12)
J⃗s = − q⋆2 ns A
 ⃗, m⋆
m⋆

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 Notation:

q
m⋆
λL = µ0 ns q⋆2
= London penetration length.

2
⋆ ns ⃗
Since J⃗s = − qm ⋆
A, we have

J⃗s = − 1 2 A
 ⃗,
µ0 λ L
(13)
∇
 ⃗ 2A
⃗= 1 ⃗
A .
λ2L

∴ µ0 λ2L J⃗s = −A
⃗ =⇒ µ0 λ2 ∇
L
⃗ × J⃗s = −∇
⃗ ×A
⃗ = −B,
⃗

 
∂ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ = − ∂ A⃗ − ∇V
or µ0 λ2L ∂t (∇ × J⃗s ) = −∇
⃗ × ∂A
∂t
⃗ , since voltage is zero and E
≡ −E ∂t
⃗ .

But J⃗s = 1 ⃗
µ0
∇ ⃗
× B,

∴ ∂
λ2L ∂t ⃗ × (∇
· (∇ ⃗ × B))
⃗ =∇ ⃗ = − ∂ B⃗ .
⃗ ×E
∂t

⃗ × (∇
Note ∇ ⃗ × B)
⃗ =∇
⃗ · (∇
⃗ · B)
⃗ −∇ ⃗ and that ∇
⃗ 2 B, ⃗ ·B
⃗ = 0.

This implies λ2L ∇ ⃗ = +B,

⃗ 2B ⃗ or

h 1 i
⃗ 2 ⃗
− ∇ B(⃗r) = 0 . (14)
λ2L
Here is another way to derive this in a more direct way: from ∇ ⃗ ×B
⃗ = µ0 J⃗s we take
2 2
⃗ × (∇
the curl: ∇ ⃗ × B)
⃗ = µ0 ∇⃗ × J⃗s = − µ0 ns q⋆ ∇
⃗ ×A
⃗ = − µ0 ns q⋆ B.
⃗ But ∇
⃗ × (∇⃗ × B)
⃗ =
m⋆ m⋆
⃗ · (∇
∇ ⃗ · B)
⃗ −∇ ⃗ 2B
⃗ and ∇⃗ ·B
⃗ = 0 (Maxwell’s equations), from which the equation above

follows.
⃗ r) = (0, B(z), 0) (the field is parallel to the surface of the superconductor, let’s
Take B(⃗
say in the y direction). The solution of the equation above is B(z) = B0 exp(−z/λL ). This
is the Meissner effect. The field decays exponentially in the superconductor.
To review: we found

1 ⃗
J⃗s = − A, (15)
µ0 λ2L

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and
⃗= 1 ⃗
∇2 A A, (16)
λ2L
or
dJ⃗s 1 ⃗
= E — called 1st London equation, (17)
dt µ0 λ2L

⃗ = −µ0 λ2L ∇
B ⃗ × J⃗s — called 2nd London equation. (18)

So the magnetic field can penetrate at most to depths of ≃ λL .

Currents can flow in this region, but deep in the bulk they will be zero.

Quantization of Flux
So far we have not discussed the phase θ from the general expression of the current. Now
it’s time ... with a spectacular example!

We consider a superconducting ring and choose a contour of integration deep in the bulk
where J⃗s (⃗r, t) = 0. This implies

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 2πn
˛
z }| {
⃗ r) = q⋆ A(⃗
ℏ∇θ(⃗ ⃗ r) =⇒ ℏ ⃗ · θ(⃗r)d⃗ℓ = q⋆ Φ, where Φ = magnetic flux, and n = inte-
∇
˜
⃗ s, we have
ger number. With Φ = Bd⃗

2πnℏ h
Φ= = ·n. (19)
q⋆ q⋆
The flux quantum is Φ0 = h
2e
= 2.067 × 10−15 Wb, and q⋆ = −2e.

III. OVERVIEW

Recap of the main results

Electrodynamics of superconductors is described by

1st London equation dJ⃗s 1 ⃗
= E ,

dt µ0 λ2L
(20)
2nd London equation
 ⃗ 2⃗ ⃗
B = −µ0 λL ∇ × Js .
h i h i
Here J⃗s = ℏqm⋆ ⋆ns ∇θ
⃗ − q⋆ A
ℏ
⃗ or J⃗s = − Φ0 2 ∇θ
2πµ0 λ
⃗ + 2π A
ϕ0
⃗ , where the London penetration
L
m⋆ h
length is λ2L = µ0 ns q⋆2
and Φ0 = 2e
= flux quantum, q⋆ = −2e. Note that London’s equations
refer to the “real” the fields and their derivatives, not the potentials, vector potentials, or
phases.
⃗ +
The quantity ∇θ 2π ⃗
A is called the gauge-invariant phase gradient.
ϕ0

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 The energy-phase relationship

This is another useful relation that we will use in the next lecture.

∂θ 1 µ0 λ2L ⃗ 2
−ℏ = · Js + q⋆ V (21)
| {z∂t} 2 ns |{z}
“change of phase” “kinetic energy” “potential energy”
| {z }

Proof:

 2
∂
From the Schrödinger-like equation for the order parameter iℏ ∂t Ψs = 1 ⃗ ⋆A
−iℏ∇−q ⃗ Ψs +
2m⋆
√ iθ
q⋆ V Ψs we replace Ψs = ns e where ns = const.

√ 
⃗ · √ns + q⋆ V √ns ,
⃗ − q⋆ A
2
=⇒ −ℏ ∂θ
∂t
· ns = 1
2m⋆
+ ℏ∇θ
2
 2
q⋆2 n2s
but J⃗s = m∗2
⃗ − q⋆ A
ℏ∇θ ⃗

m⋆ 2
=⇒ −ℏ ∂θ = 1
J + q ⋆V .
∂t 2
n2s q⋆2 s
| {z }
µ0 λ2
≡ L
ns

References

• Terry P. Orlando and Kevin A. Delin — Foundations of Applied Superconductivity.

• D.R. Tilley and J. Tilley — Superfluidity and Superconductivity.

• Antonio Barone and Giafranco Paternò — Physics and Applications of the Josephson
Effect.

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