Einstein A and B Coefficients
In 1916, Albert Einstein introduced a theoretical framework that explained how atoms and light
interact, which laid the foundation for the development of lasers. He proposed that three
fundamental processes occur when atoms interact with radiation.
The Einstein A coefficient describes the probability of spontaneous emission. This is when an
excited atom naturally drops to a lower energy state without any external influence, emitting a
photon in the process. (The probability per unit time that an atom in the excited state will
spontaneously emit a photon and transition to a lower energy state.) The photon produced
has a random phase and direction, which means spontaneous emission produces incoherent light.
The magnitude of the A coefficient indicates how fast spontaneous emission occurs.
The Einstein B coefficients describe two additional processes: stimulated absorption and
stimulated emission. Stimulated absorption occurs when a photon of the right energy causes an
atom in a lower state to absorb it and jump to a higher energy state. (B12: probability per unit
time of absorption, where an atom in state 1 absorbs a photon and goes to state 2).
Stimulated emission, on the other hand, is the process crucial to lasers: when a photon of the right
energy passes by an excited atom, it can induce the atom to release another photon of exactly the
same energy, phase, direction, and polarization. The two photons then move together coherently,
doubling the light intensity. (B21: probability per unit time of stimulated emission, where an
atom in state 2 emits a photon (stimulated by another photon) and drops to state 1.)
Essential Elements of a Laser
A laser requires three essential components working together:
The pump is the energy source that excites the atoms in the laser medium. It can be electrical
current, optical light from another source, or even chemical reactions. Its job is to create a
population inversion; a situation where more atoms are in the excited state than the ground state,
which is necessary for stimulated emission to dominate.
The laser medium (also called the gain medium) is the material in which light amplification
occurs. It can be a gas like helium-neon, a crystal like ruby, a semiconductor like GaAs, or even
a fiber. The medium defines the wavelength of light the laser produces, because it depends on the
energy difference between atomic or molecular states in the material.
The resonator is an arrangement of mirrors surrounding the medium. One mirror is fully
reflective, while the other is partially transparent. The mirrors trap photons inside the medium,
bouncing them back and forth to stimulate more emission, amplifying the light as it passes
repeatedly through the medium. Eventually, a portion of the light escapes through the partially
reflective mirror, forming the laser beam.
Without these three elements; pump, medium, and resonator; the amplification process would not
sustain itself and no coherent laser output would be achieved.
Description of Laser Operation
The operation of a laser begins with pumping energy into the gain medium. This raises atoms
from their ground state into higher excited states. Through relaxation processes, the system is
arranged so that a large number of atoms accumulate in a specific excited state; this is the
population inversion.
When a photon of the right energy passes through the medium, it triggers stimulated emission,
producing more identical photons. These photons bounce between the mirrors of the resonator,
building up in number as they stimulate further emissions. Each pass through the medium
increases the amplification until the intensity is high enough that light emerges through the
partially transmitting mirror.
The result is a highly organized beam of light with unique characteristics: it is monochromatic
(single wavelength), coherent (photons in phase), directional (travels in a narrow beam), and
intense. This process is self-sustaining as long as the pump keeps providing energy.
Characteristics of Laser Light
Unlike ordinary light, laser light possesses distinct and extraordinary qualities.
Monochromaticity: Laser light is highly monochromatic, meaning it consists of a single
wavelength or color. This is due to the specific energy transitions in the laser medium.
Coherence: Coherence refers to the fixed phase relationship among photons. Laser light
is both spatially and temporally coherent. All photons are in phase in space and time,
allowing for interference effects and high beam quality.
Directionality: Unlike light from a bulb that spreads in all directions, laser light is highly
collimated. Laser beams are highly directional, with very low divergence compared to
ordinary light sources. This is a result of the optical cavity and the amplification process.
Intensity (or Brightness ): Because of coherence and directionality, lasers can
concentrate a huge amount of energy into a small area. Even a few milliwatts of laser
power can be more intense than the sun when focused.
Focusability: Due to their coherence and low divergence, laser beams can be focused to
very small spots, achieving high power densities. This property is essential for
applications like cutting, welding, and microscopy.
Sample Questions
a) Explain the physical meaning of the Einstein A coefficient. How does it differ from the B
coefficients?
b) Why is stimulated emission considered the fundamental process behind laser operation?
c) Describe the role of each essential component of a laser: the pump, the gain medium, and the
resonator.
d) What is meant by population inversion, and why is it necessary in laser operation?
e) List and explain four unique characteristics of laser light that distinguish it from ordinary light.
2. Assignment
a) Derive the relation between the Einstein A and B coefficients using Planck’s law of blackbody
radiation.
b) The transition frequency of a certain atomic system is 6×1014 Hz. If the Einstein B21
coefficient is 2.5×1021J−1s−2, calculate the corresponding A21 coefficient.
c) A He-Ne laser emits at a wavelength of 632.8 nm. Explain how the gain medium, resonator,
and pump interact to produce this coherent beam.
d) A laser beam is directed over 1 km and its divergence is 0.5 mrad. Estimate the beam spot size
at the target. Why is this small divergence useful?