Physics II: Electromagnetism

PH 1217 / PH 1218

Lecture-2

January-February 2026
From Cartesian to Curvilinear: Transformations
Given a point P with Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z), we can associate a unique
set of coordinates (u1 , u2 , u3 ) called Curvilinear Coordinates of P .
z
~r = xx̂ + y ŷ + z ẑ u3-curve

x = x(u1 , u2 , u3 ), y = y(u1 , u2 , u3 ), z = z(u1 , u2 , u3 )

u1 = c 1
Suppose, above eqns can be solved for u1 , u2 and u3 P
in terms of x, y, z: u2 = c 2
u3 = c 3 u2
u1 = u1 (x, y, z), u2 = u2 (x, y, z), u3 = u3 (x, y, z) u1 -curve -curve
y
Coordinate
TheSurfaces
surfaces u1 = c1 , u2 = c2 and u3 = c3 where c1 , c2 , c3 are constants =)
Coordinate surfaces x
If Coordinate surfaces intersect at right angles =) Orthogonal Curvilinear
Each pair of these surfaces intersect at Coordinate Curves/lines

Orthogonality: x̂i .x̂j = ij

Remember also: x̂i ⇥ x̂j = ✏ijk xk .
~r 6= u1 û1 + u2 û2 + u3 û3
d~r 6= du1 û1 + du2 û2 + du3 û3 Think about u1 = r, u2 = ✓, u3 = ,
q then the LHS has dimension of length,
|d~r| 6
= du21 + du22 + du23 but RHS does not have the proper
dimension.
2
From Cartesian to Curvilinear: unit vectors
We have just seen x = x(u1 , u2 , u3 ), y = y(u1 , u2 , u3 ), z = z(u1 , u2 , u3 )
Therefore ~r = x(u1 , u2 , u3 )x̂ + y(u1 , u2 , u3 )ŷ + z(u1 , u2 , u3 )ẑ ...and d~
r = dxx̂ + dy ŷ + dz ẑ.

The goal is to write the line element d r ⃗ in terms of du1 , du2 and du3.

@x @x @x @y @y @y @z @z @z
dx = du1 + du2 + du3 ; dy = du1 + du2 + du3 ; dz = du1 + du2 + du3
@u1 @u2 @u3 @u1 @u2 @u3 @u1 @u2 @u3

Hence,
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ⌘
◆
@x @x @x @y @y @y @z @z @z
d~r = du1 + du2 + du3 x̂ + du1 + du2 + du3 ŷ + du1 + du2 + du3 zẑ̂
@u1 @u2 @u3 @u1 @u2 @u3 @u1 @u2 @u3
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
@x @y @z @x @y @z @x @y @z
= x̂ + ŷ + ẑ du1 + x̂ + ŷ + ẑ du2 + x̂ + ŷ + ẑ du3
@u1 @u1 @u1 @u2 @u2 @u2 @u3 @u3 @u3
@~r @~r @~r
du1 du2 du3
@u1 @u2 @u3

= h1 ê1 du1 + h2 ê2 du2 + h3 ê3 du3

where ê1 , ê2 , ê3 are unit vectors in the direction of increasing u1 , u2 , u3 .
h1 , h2 , h3 are called Scale Factors.
3
From Cartesian to Curvilinear: unit vectors
@~r @~r @~r
d~r = du1 + du2 + du3 = h1 ê1 du1 + h2 ê2 du2 + h3 ê3 du3
@u1 @u2 @u3
@~r @~r @~r
) h1 ê1 = ; h2 ê2 = ; h3 ê3 =
@u1 @u2 @u3
@~
r @~
r @~
r
The scale factors are therefore: h1 = | @u1
|; h 2 = | @u2 |; h 3 = | @u3 |

Unit vectors here are analogous to the unit vectors in cartesian coordinates but are unlike
them in that they may change directions from point to point.

Di↵erential of arc length ds: ds2 = d~r.d~r 2(why?)

ds = h21 du21 + h22 du22 + h23 du23 . Since êi .êj = ij ,

Hence, the di↵erential arc length ds1 along u1 curve at P is h1 du1 .

Similarly ds2 = h2 du2 and ds3 = h3 du3 along u2 and u3 at P.

Surface element: d ai ⃗ = hj duj eĵ × hk duk ek̂ = hj hk duj duk ϵjki eî
Look at the parallelepiped formed out of the vectors h1 du1 ê1 , h2 du2 ê2
h3 du3 ê3 : the volume element is given by:

Volume element: d⌧ = |(h1 du1 ê1 ).(h2 du2 ê2 ) ⇥ (h3 du3 ê3 )| = h1 h2 h3 du1 du2 du3 ,

since |ê1 .(ê2 ⇥ ê3 )|.

4
Gradient operator in Curvilinear coordinate
We have already seen that d~r = h1 ê1 du1 + h2 ê2 du2 + h3 ê3 du3
@T @T @T
But, dT (u1 , u2 , u3 ) = du1 + du2 + du3 .
@u1 @u2 @u3
~ (u1 , u2 , u3 ).d~r.
Therefore, dT (u1 , u2 , u3 ) = rT h3
~ @T @T
= rT.(h1 ê1 du1 + h2 ê2 du2 + h1 ê3 du3 ) =
@u1
du1 +
@u2
du

We need to find the operator ∇ ⃗

General form: ∇ ⃗ T = α1e1̂ + α2e2̂ + α3e3̂

dT (u1 , u2 , u3 ) =
@T
du1 +
@T
du2 +
@T
du3 . = α1 h1 du1 + α2 h2 du2 + α3 h3 du3
@u1 @u2 @u3
1 ∂T
After comparison, we get αi =
hi ∂ui
⃗
∇ = e1̂
1 ∂
+ e2̂
1 ∂
+ e3̂
1 ∂
This implies
h1 ∂u1 h2 ∂u2 h3 ∂u3

5
Divergence, Curl and Laplacian in Curvilinear Coordinates
Proceeding in a similar manner, one can check, after a few lines of calculations:

1 ⇣ @(h h V ) @(h h V ) @(h h V ) ⌘

~ ~ 2 3 1 3 1 2 1 2 3
Divergence: r.V = + +
h1 h2 h3 @u1 @u2 @u3

h1 ê1 h2 ê2 h3 ê3

~ ⇥V
~ = 1 @ @ @
Curl: r @u1 @u2 @u3
h1 h2 h3
h1 V 1 h2 V 2 h3 V 3
" #
1 @ ⇣h h @T ⌘ @ ⇣h h @T ⌘ @ ⇣h h @T ⌘
2 3 3 1 1 2
Laplacian: r2 T = + +
h1 h2 h3 @u1 h1 @u1 @u2 h2 @u2 @u3 h3 @u3

Quick Check
For Cartesian coordinates, h1 = h2 = h3 = 1 and ê1 = x̂, ê2 = ŷ, ê3 = ẑ. This
reduces the above expressions to the familiar expressions in Cartesian coordinate
where (u1 , u2 , u3 ) are replaced by (x, y, z).
6
 Speci c examples:
Spherical Polar and Cylindrical Polar
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Spherical Polar Coordinates
• Cartesian coordinate of P : (x, y, z) z

• Position vector of P : ~r P

• Length of ~r: r = |~r| ~r

u=✓
• Polar angle (angle between z axis and ~r): ✓
y
• Azimuthal angle (angle between x axis and v=
projection of ~r on xy plane):

• Spherical Polar Coordinate: (r, ✓, )⌘ (u1 , u2 , u3 ) x

• Range of r: 0  r < 1

• Range of ✓: 0  ✓  ⇡

• Range of : 0  
< 2⇡
• Transformations: x = r sin ✓ cos , y = r sin ✓ sin ,
and z = r cos ✓
• ~r = r sin ✓ cos x̂ + r sin ✓ sin ŷ + r cos ✓ẑ
p ⇣y⌘
p x2 + y 2
1 1
• Inverse transformations: r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 , ✓ = sin p , = tan
2 2
x +y +z 2 x
8
Spherical Polar Coordinates: Unit vectors and Scale factors
z
r̂
• ~r = r sin ✓ cos x̂ + r sin ✓ sin ŷ + r cos ✓ẑ
ˆ

Hence h1 ⌘ hr = | @~@r
r
| = 1, h 2 ⌘ h ✓ = | @~
r
@✓ | = r,
h3 ⌘ h = | @@~r | = r sin ✓ ✓ˆ
x

Unit vectors: y

@~
r
@r
ê1 ⌘ r̂ = @~
r
= sin ✓ cos x̂ + sin ✓ sin ŷ + cos ✓ẑẑ
@r
@~
r
ê2 ⌘ ✓ˆ = @✓
@~
r
= cos ✓ cos x̂ + cos ✓ sin ŷ sin ✓ẑ
@✓
@~r
ˆ= @ 1 @~r @~
r
ê3 ⌘ = sin x̂ + cos ŷ Recall that êi = hi @ui , where hi = | @u |.
@~r i
@

This shows that the unit vectors in spherical polar coordinates are dependent on position

The unit vectors r̂, ✓ˆ and ˆ are in the directions of increasing r, ✓ and
respectively.
9
 Spherical Polar: Line, Volume and Surface elements
@~r @~r @~r
d~r = du1 + du2 + du3 = h1 ê1 du1 + h2 ê2 du2 + h3 ê3 du3
@u1 @u2 @u3
Therefore, for spherical polar d~r = r̂dr + rd✓✓ˆ + r sin ✓d ˆ 6= drr̂ + d✓✓ˆ + d ˆ

r d~r Scale factors take care of

the length scale
Volume element: d⌧ = hr h✓ h drd✓d = r2 sin ✓drd✓d .

Surface element: No general expression. Depend on orientation of the surface:

2 ✓
dar = h✓ h d✓d r̂ = r sin ✓d✓d r̂ (r constant surface)
da✓ = hr h drd ✓ˆ = r sin ✓drd ✓ˆ (✓ constant surface)
da = hr h✓ drd✓ ˆ = rdrd✓ ˆ ( constant surface)

r sin ✓d

r rd✓ ✓ r
d✓ d
r sin ✓

10
Cylindrical Polar Coordinates z
• Cartesian coordinate of P : (x, y, z)

• Distance of P from z axis: s s

• Height: z (same as Cartesian)

• Azimuthal angle: (same as spherical polar) x

y

• Cylindrical Polar Coordinate: (s, , z) ⌘ (u1 , u2 , u3 )

• Range of s: 0  s < 1
• Range of : 0  
< 2⇡
• Range of z: 1<z<1
• Transformations: x = s cos , y = s sin , z = z
p y
1
• Inverse transformations: s = x2 + y 2 , = tan x , z=z

• Coordinate surfaces and curves: Find out!

11
Cylindrical Polar Coordinates
ẑ
ˆ
ŝ As usual, the scale factors are given by:
h1 ⌘ hs = 1, h2 ⌘ h = s, h3 ⌘ hz = 1.

The unit vectors are:

ŝŝ =
= cos x̂ + sin
sin ŷŷ
ˆˆ =
= sin x̂ + cos
cos ŷŷ
ẑ = ẑ

Line element: d~r = hs ŝds + h ˆd + hz ẑdz = dsŝ + sd ˆ + dz ẑ

Surface element: d~as = h hz d dzŝ = sd dzŝ (for s constant surface)

Volume element: d⌧ = hs h hz dsd dz = sdsd dz

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 ∂x ∂y ∂z
Take home exercises !
∂vz ∂v y
" !
∂vx ∂vz
" !
∂v y ∂vx
"
Curl : ∇×v = − x̂ + − ŷ + − ẑ
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
Find out the expressions for the gradient, divergence, curl and Laplacian in the
2 2 2
spherical polar coordinate
2 ∂ t
system∂ t ∂ t
Laplacian : ∇ t = 2
+ 2+ 2
∂x ∂y ∂z
Use already discussed definitions of gradient, divergence and curl in terms of
(h1, h2 , h3) dl = dr r̂ + r dθ θ̂ + r sin θ dφ φ̂; dτ = r 2 sin θ dr dθ dφ
Spherical.

∂t 1 ∂t 1 ∂t
Gradient : ∇t = r̂ + θ̂ + φ̂
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ

1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂vφ
Divergence : ∇ · v = 2 (r vr ) + (sin θ vθ ) +
r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
# $
1 ∂ ∂vθ
Curl : ∇×v = (sin θ vφ ) − r̂
r sin θ ∂θ ∂φ
# $ # $
1 1 ∂vr ∂ 1 ∂ ∂vr
+ − (r vφ ) θ̂ + (r vθ ) − φ̂
r sin θ ∂φ ∂r r ∂r ∂θ
! " ! " 2
2 1 ∂ 2 ∂t 1 ∂ ∂t 1 ∂ t
Laplacian : ∇ t= 2 r + 2 sin θ +
r ∂r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r 2 sin2 θ ∂φ 2

Cylindrical. dl = ds ŝ + s dφ φ̂ + dz ẑ; dτ = s ds dφ dz
13
Take home exercises
1
#
1 ∂vr ∂
$ #
1 ∂
$
∂vr
+ − (r vφ ) θ̂ + (r vθ ) − φ̂
r sin θ ∂φ ∂r r ∂r ∂θ
Find out the expressions for the gradient, divergence, curl and Laplacian in the
! " ! " 2
cylindrical polar coordinate system
1 ∂ 2 ∂t 1 ∂ ∂t 1 ∂ t
2
Laplacian : ∇ t = 2 r + 2 sin θ +
r ∂r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r 2 sin2 θ ∂φ 2
Use already discussed definitions of gradient, divergence and curl in terms of
(h1, h2 , h3)
Cylindrical. dl = ds ŝ + s dφ φ̂ + dz ẑ; dτ = s ds dφ dz

∂t 1 ∂t ∂t
Gradient : ∇t = ŝ + φ̂ + ẑ
∂s s ∂φ ∂z

1 ∂ 1 ∂vφ ∂vz
Divergence : ∇ · v = (svs ) + +
s ∂s s ∂φ ∂z
# $ # $ # $
1 ∂vz ∂vφ ∂vs ∂vz 1 ∂ ∂vs
Curl : ∇×v = − ŝ + − φ̂ + (svφ )− ẑ
s ∂φ ∂z ∂z ∂s s ∂s ∂φ
! " 2 2
2 1 ∂ ∂t 1 ∂ t ∂ t
Laplacian : ∇ t= s + 2 2+ 2
s ∂s ∂s s ∂φ ∂z

14
 Line, Surface and Volume Integrals

In electrodynamics, we encounter several di↵erent kinds of integrals, among

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which the most important are line (or path) integrals, surface integrals (or flux),
and volume integrals
Line Integrals
Line integral is an integral where the function to be integrated1.3 Integral Calculus
is evaluated along a path.

dl
b b

∫a,P
v ⋅ dl,
a
y

FIGURE 1.20

integral is independent of path and is det

be our business in due course to characte
that has this property is called conserva

∮
If the path is closed loop v ⋅ dl, Line integrals are basically one
Example 1.6. Calculate
dimensional the line integr
integrals
from the point a = (1,!1, 0) to the point
in Fig. 1.21. What is v · dl for the lo
16 returns to a along (2)?
 be our business in due course to characterize this special class of vectors. (A force
Line Integrals
that has this property is(Example)
called conservative.)

2 ̂
Calculate the line integral of the function v = y
Example 1.6. Calculate the line integral of the function
(i) x + 2x(y x̂ y+̂ from
v = +y 21) 2x(ythe ŷ a=(1,1,0) to
point
+ 1)
the point
from theb=(2,2,0)
point a =along
(1, 1,the paths
0) to (1) and
the point b=(2)(2,
shown
2, 0),inalong
the gure.
the paths (1) and (2)
!
in Fig. 1.21. What is v · dl for the loop that goes from a to b along (1) and
returns
(ii) to a along
Calculate (2)?closed line integral from a to b via path (1) and back from b to a via path (2)
also the
Solution
As always, dl = d x x̂ + dy ŷ + dz ẑ. Path (1) consists of two parts. Along the
“horizontal” segment, dy = dz = 0, so
2
" "2
(i) dl = d x x̂, y = 1, v · dl = y d x = d x, so v · dl = 1 d x = 1.

On the “vertical” stretch, d x = dz = 0, so

1.3 Integral Calculus 25
(ii) dl = dy ŷ, x = 2, v · dl = 2x(y + 1) dy = 4(y + 1) dy, so
z
# # 2
y
v · dl = 4dl (y + 1) dyb = 10.
1 2 b
(2)
By path (1), then, (ii)
a 1
# b y a (i) (1)
v · dl = 1 + 10 = 11.
a
x 1 2 x
Meanwhile, on path (2) x = y, d x = dy, and dz = 0, so
dl = d x x̂ + d x ŷ, v · dl = x 2 FIGURE
d x + 2x(x d x = (3x 2 + 2x) d x,
+ 1)17
1.20 FIGURE 1.21
and
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 By path (1), then,
Line Integrals (Example)
# b
v · dl = 1 + 10 = 11.
a

Meanwhile, on path (2) x = y, d x = dy, and dz = 0, so

dl = d x x̂ + d x ŷ, v · dl = x 2 d x + 2x(x + 1) d x = (3x 2 + 2x) d x,
and
# b # 2
2 3
$
2 $2
v · dl = (3x + 2x) d x = (x + x ) 1 = 10.
a 1.3 Integral
1 Calculus 25
(The strategy here is to get everything in terms of one variable; I could just as well
have eliminated
Chapter in favor ofzy.)
1 Vector xAnalysis y
dl b
2 b
For the loop that goes out (1) and back (2), then, (2)
(ii)
!
a 1
v · dl = 11 − 10 = 1. y a (i) (1)

x 1 2 x
(b) Surface Integrals. A surface integral is an expression of the form
FIGURE
" 1.20 FIGURE 1.21
For a special class of vectors, it can become path independent
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v · da, (1.50)
integral is independent
S of path and is determined entirely by the end points. It will
be our business in due course to characterize this special class of vectors. (A force
where v is again some
that has Conservative
vector function,
this isvector
propertyand field
the integral
called is over a specified surface
conservative.)
S. Here da is an infinitesimal patch of area, with direction perpendicular to the
surface (Fig. 1.22). There are, of course, two18 directions perpendicular to any
2
ˆ ˆ
 Conservative vector eld
ZZ bb ZZb b✓ Z b✓ ◆ ◆
~ @ @ @@ @ @
=
, ~
r .d~
F .d~r =r = ~x̂ +
r .d~r = ŷ + ẑ
x̂ .(dxx̂
+ ŷ + ẑ ŷ +.(dxx̂
+ dy dz ẑ) + dy ŷ + dz ẑ)
aa aa @x @y
a
@z
@x @y @z
Z b✓ Z b✓ ◆ ◆
@ @ @ @ @ @ Fundamental theorem for gradients.
= dx=+ dy + dx + dz dy + dz Will discuss later in detail.
a @x @y
a @x @z @y @z
Z b Z b
= d = =(b) (a) = (b)
d (a) Integral depends only on the end points,
a a but not on the path chosen.

If a vector eld can be written as F ⃗ = ∇ ⃗ ϕ, then F ⃗ ⋅ dl ⃗ =

∮ ∮
dW = 0 (integral form)

• Work done by such vector elds in a closed loop is zero.

• Gradient of a scalar function is always a conservative eld ( F ⃗ = ∇ ⃗ ϕ).

• We have the vector identify : ∇ ⃗ × ( ∇ ⃗ ϕ) = 0 (Check it !!)
• If F ⃗ = ∇ ⃗ ϕ ⟹ ∇ ⃗ × F ⃗ = 0 (differential form)
• Note : Every vector eld can not be written as a gradient of some scalar eld.

19
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fi
fi
fi
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Surface integrals
Surface integral is an expression of the form

∫S
v . da

Here, v is some vector function and da is an in nitesimal patch of area

∮
v . da

Closed surface integration gives the total or net ux through a closed surface

20
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fl
Elementary area on a surface
z
ẑ • Let S be a smooth surface: z = f (x, y).
n̂

• Project it on xy-plane : R be the projection.

da S

• Choose an elementary area da on S and

let n̂ be a unit vector perpendicular to it.
y
• Projection of da on xy-plane is dxdy.
dxdy
) dxdy = |n̂.ẑ| da
x R
dxdy
da =
|n̂.ẑ|
• Hence we can denote da as vector area
✓ ◆
dxdy
d~a = n̂ = n̂da
|n̂.ẑ|
For an open two-sided surface, the “outward” normal shows the direction for
the surface. Open surfaces are bounded by curves and “outward” normal is
defined by the right hand rule-if the bounding curve is traversed in the direction
of rotation of a right handed screw, the direction in which the head of screw
moves is the direction of outward normal.
21
Concept of area as a vector
Imagine a tiny area (like a postage stamp) in 3 dimensions at some location ~r.
What can I do to specify it?

• how big it is? • in which plane it lies?

da square meters (say). in the xy plane (say)

it lies perpendicular to z axis

=) A vector d~a, of magnitude da and direction along the z axis can be
associated with this area.
But, there are two ways to draw ? to xy plane: up or down the z axis.

To further specify the area, to make it an oriented one, we draw arrows that
run around the perimeter of the area in one of the two possible directions.

Area vector will point in the direction following the right hand thumb rule.
Only a planar area can be represented as a vector. Non-Planar areas like a
hemisphere can not be represented by a single vector.

The use of right hand rule in defining areas might remind you of the cross
product and indeed that is true as we will see soon.
Surface integrals (Example)
Closed Surface integral

Given a vector A ⃗ = 2xz x ̂ + 2zx ŷ − yz z,̂ calculate the closed surface integral of it over
the surface de ned by a cube. The cube occupies the space between 0 ≤ x, y, z, ≤ 1.

Solution

23
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Surface integrals (Example contd.)

24
Surface integrals (Example contd.)

25
Thank You

26
Supplementary slides

27
Example:
R
~ a, where A
Evaluate S A.d~ ~ = 18z x̂ 12ŷ + 3yẑ and S is that part of the plane
2x + 3y + 6z = 12 which is located in the first octant.

The surface S and its projection R are shown in figure.

z
We have already seen that
S
Z Z
ẑ
~ a =
A.d~ ~
A.n̂da n̂
S S da
Z yy
~ dxdy
= A.n̂
R |n̂.ẑ| dxdy
R 3 y==1122
= , 2x++3y
0,2x
x z
z= 0

To find the normal to the surface:

~
A vector perpendicular to 2x + 3y + 6z = 12 is given by r(2x + 3y + 6z) =
2x̂ + 3ŷ + 6ẑ.
2x̂ + 3ŷ + 6ẑ 2 3 6
Then a unit normal to any point on S is: n̂ = p 2 = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ
2 + 32 + 62 7 7 7

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Example (contd.):
dxdy
Then n̂.ẑ = ( 27 x̂ + 37 ŷ + 67 ẑ).ẑ = 6
7 and |n̂.ẑ| = 76 dxdy.

~ = (18z x̂ (36 12x)

Also, A.n̂ 12ŷ + 3yẑ).( 27 x̂ + 37 ŷ + 67 ẑ) = 7 z
12 2x 3y
, using the fact that z = 6 . S
ẑ
Z Z n̂
~ ~ dxdy da
A.n̂da = A.n̂ yy
S R |n̂.ẑ|
Z ✓ ◆ P
Q
36 12x 7 dxdy
= dxdy R
+33yy==1122
R 7 6 x z z==0,0
,22xx+

The integral is a double integral and to do it, first keep x fixed and integrate
with respect to y from y = 0 (P in the figure) to y = 12 3 2x (Q in the figure);
then integrate [Link] x from x = 0 to x = 6.

Z 6 Z (12 2x)/3 Z 6
4x2
(6 2x)dxdy = (24 12x + )dx = 24
x=0 y=0 x=0 3

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Spherical Polar Coordinates
Coordinate Surfaces:
Recall: coordinate surfaces were defined as surfaces obtained by keeping one of
the coordinates (either u1 or u2 or u3 constant) constant. Here (u1 , u2 , u3 ) =
(r, ✓, ).

The coordinate surfaces are:

r = c1 , spheres having centre at the origin

✓ = c2 , cones having vertex at origin (line if c2 = 0 or ⇡, xy plane if c2 = ⇡/2)
= c3 , planes through z axis

z
P
~r
u=✓

y
v=

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Spherical Polar Coordinates
z
Coordinate Curves:
Recall: coordinate curves were obtained by keeping two
coordinates fixed (intersection of u1 = c1 or u2 = c2 or
u3 = c3 surfaces).

Intersection of r = c1 and ✓ = c2 ( curve) is a circle

Intersection of r = c1 and = c3 (✓ curve) is a semi circlex y

Intersection of ✓ = c2 and = c3 (r curve) is a line

Constant
lines Constant
r lines

• Lines of constant : Longitude

• Lines of constant ✓ : Lattitude
Constant
✓ lines

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