Physics

1.1 Motion

Definitions:

●​ Distance: How far an object moves (m).​

●​ Displacement: Distance + direction (vector).​

●​ Speed: Distance ÷ Time (m/s)​

●​ Velocity: Displacement ÷ Time (m/s, with direction)​

●​ Acceleration: Change in velocity ÷ Time (m/s²)​

Formulas:

●​ v=dtv = \frac{d}{t}v=td​(speed)​

●​ a=vf−vita = \frac{v_f - v_i}{t}a=tvf​−vi​​(acceleration)​

Graphs:

●​ Distance-time: slope = speed​

●​ Velocity-time: slope = acceleration, area = distance​

Examples:

●​ A car travels 100 m in 10 s → speed = 10 m/s​

1.2 Forces

Definition: A push or pull that changes motion.

●​ Types: Gravity, friction, tension, air resistance, normal reaction​

●​ Unit: Newton (N)​

Newton’s Laws:
 1.​ Inertia – object at rest stays at rest, object in motion stays in motion unless acted on.​

2.​ F = ma → force = mass × acceleration.​

3.​ Action-reaction – every action has an equal and opposite reaction.​

Example Problem:

●​ Mass = 2 kg, acceleration = 3 m/s² → F = 2 × 3 = 6 N​

1.3 Energy

●​ Kinetic Energy (KE): KE=12mv2KE = \frac{1}{2} m v^2KE=21​mv2​

●​ Potential Energy (PE): PE=mghPE = m g hPE=mgh​

●​ Work Done: W = F × d (force × distance)​

●​ Power: P = W ÷ t​

Energy Transformations:

●​ Examples: Electrical → Light → Heat (bulb), Chemical → Kinetic → Thermal (car

Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed.

1.4 Electricity

●​ Current (I) = Q ÷ t (amperes, A)​

●​ Voltage (V) = Energy ÷ Charge (volts, V)​

●​ Resistance (R) = V ÷ I (ohms, Ω)​

Ohm’s Law: V = IR​

Safety Devices: Fuses, circuit breakers

●​ Longitudinal: Vibrations along direction of motion (sound)​

●​ Transverse: Vibrations perpendicular to direction of motion (light)​

●​ Properties: Reflection, refraction, diffraction, absorption​

Sound:

●​ Frequency = pitch, amplitude = loudness​

●​ Travels fastest in solids, slower in liquids, slowest in gases​

Light:

●​ Reflection: Angle of incidence = angle of reflection​

●​ Refraction: Bending at boundary, denser → slows down, bends toward normal​

1.6 Magnetism

●​ Magnetic fields: lines from north to south​

●​ Electromagnet: current through coil → temporary magnet​

●​ Applications: motors, generators, transformers​

1.7 Heat

●​ Conduction: direct contact​

●​ Convection: fluids, currents transfer heat​

●​ Radiation: transfer without medium (infrared)​

Specific Heat Capacity: Q = mcΔT

1.8 Experiments / Practical Skills

●​ Motion: Measure distance & time using stopwatches, draw graphs​

●​ Force: Springs & weights to demonstrate Hooke’s Law​

●​ Electricity: Set up circuits, measure voltage/current/resistance​

●​ Waves: Ripple tank, sound resonance experiments​

Atoms and Elements

●​ Atom: Smallest particle of an element.​

●​ Parts:​

○​ Proton (+) → in nucleus, defines element​

○​ Neutron (0) → in nucleus, adds mass​

○​ Electron (-) → in shells, chemical reactions​

●​ Isotopes: Same protons, different neutrons​

●​ Ions: Charged atoms (cation +, anion -)​

Diagram tip: Draw nucleus with protons & neutrons, electrons in shells.

2.2 The Periodic Table

●​ Groups: Columns – same number of outer electrons, similar properties​

●​ Periods: Rows – increasing number of protons & electrons​

●​ Metal properties: Malleable, conductors, high melting points​

●​ Key trends:​

○​ Reactivity: Alkali metals ↑ down group, Halogens ↓ down group​

2.3 Chemical Bonding

●​ Ionic: Metal + Non-metal, electrons transferred → ions formed​

●​ Covalent: Non-metal + Non-metal, electrons shared​

●​ Metallic: Metal + Metal, sea of electrons​

Example: NaCl (ionic), H₂O (covalent)

2.4 Chemical Reactions

Types:

●​ Combustion → fuel + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O​

●​ Neutralisation → Acid + Base → Salt + Water​

●​ Displacement → more reactive metal displaces less reactive​

●​ Decomposition → compound breaks down​

●​ Oxidation & Reduction → electrons lost/gained​

Balancing equations: Count atoms on both sides; show step-by-step

2.5 Acids, Bases, Salts

●​ Acid: pH < 7, H⁺ ions, sour taste​

●​ Base: pH > 7, OH⁻ ions, bitter/slippery​

●​ Neutralisation: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O​

2.6 States of Matter

●​ Solid: Fixed shape & volume, particles vibrate​

●​ Liquid: Fixed volume, shape of container, particles slide past​

●​ Gas: No fixed shape or volume, particles move freely​

Changes: Melting, freezing, condensation, evaporation, sublimation

Gas Laws:

●​ Boyle’s Law → P₁V₁ = P₂V₂ (constant T)​

●​ Charles’ Law → V₁/T₁ = V₂/T₂ (constant P)​

2.7 Chemical Calculations

●​ Moles: n = Mass ÷ Molar mass​

●​ Concentration: c = n ÷ V​

2.8 Key Experiments

●​ Electrolysis: Decomposition using electricity (e.g., CuSO₄)​

●​ Displacement reaction: Zn + CuSO₄ → ZnSO₄ + Cu​

●​ Gas collection: Hydrogen test (pop sound), oxygen test (relights glowing splint)​

●​ Titration: Acid-base reactions with indicator​

Exam Tips
 ●​ Always include states of matter (s, l, g) in chemical equations.​

●​ Show step-by-step calculations.​

●​ Label diagrams of atoms, reactions, lab apparatus.​

3. Biology
3.1 Cells

●​ Animal vs Plant cells:​

○​ Nucleus → control center​

○​ Cytoplasm → chemical reactions​

○​ Cell membrane → controls movement in/out​

○​ Chloroplasts → photosynthesis (plant only)​

○​ Cell wall → support (plant only)​

○​ Vacuole → storage, turgor pressure​

Microscopy: Magnification = image size ÷ actual size

3.2 Human Body Systems

Digestive System: Mouth → Esophagus → Stomach → Small intestine → Large intestine

●​ Enzymes: Amylase (starch → sugar), Protease (protein → amino acids), Lipase (fat
→ glycerol + fatty acids)​

Circulatory System:

●​ Heart: Right side → lungs, Left side → body​

●​ Blood: RBC (carry O₂), WBC (fight infection), Platelets (clot), Plasma (transport)​
 ●​ Arteries → away from heart, veins → to heart, capillaries → exchange​

Respiratory System: Lungs → alveoli → gas exchange O₂ in, CO₂ out

Excretory System: Kidney → nephron filters blood → urine

3.3 Reproduction

●​ Sexual reproduction: 2 parents, genetic variation​

●​ Asexual reproduction: 1 parent, clones​

●​ Human organs: Testes (sperm), Ovaries (eggs)​

●​ Menstrual cycle: ~28 days, hormones regulate ovulation​

3.4 Genetics

●​ DNA: Double helix, stores genetic info​

●​ Genes & Alleles: Dominant (uppercase), Recessive (lowercase)​

●​ Punnett Squares: Predict offspring traits​

●​ Mendelian laws: Segregation & independent assortment​

3.5 Health & Disease

●​ Pathogens: Bacteria, virus, fungi, protozoa​

●​ Transmission: Direct, indirect, vectors​

●​ Prevention: Vaccines, hygiene, antibiotics (bacteria only)​

3.6 Plants
 ●​ Photosynthesis: CO₂ + H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + O₂​

●​ Leaf structure: Cuticle, epidermis, palisade mesophyll, spongy mesophyll, stomata​

3.7 Experiments

●​ Osmosis in potato, diffusion in agar​

●​ Starch test: Iodine → blue-black​

●​ Photosynthesis test: Leaf in sunlight → starch presence​

4. Earth & Environmental Science

●​ Igneous: Formed from cooled lava/magma (granite, basalt)​

●​ Sedimentary: Compressed sediments (sandstone, limestone)​

●​ Metamorphic: Heat & pressure (marble, slate)​

Rock Cycle: Igneous → Sedimentary → Metamorphic → Igneous

Minerals: Quartz, feldspar, mica, iron ore

4.2 Weather & Climate

●​ Water cycle: Evaporation → Condensation → Precipitation → Collection​

●​ Clouds: Cumulus, Stratus, Cirrus​

●​ Weather symbols: Rain, snow, sun, wind direction​

●​ Air pressure: Measured by barometer​

●​ Renewable (wind, solar, water)​

●​ Non-renewable (coal, oil, gas)​

●​ Conservation: Reduce, Reuse, Recycle​

4.4 Human Impact

●​ Pollution: Air, water, soil, noise​

●​ Deforestation → soil erosion, biodiversity loss

4.5 Experiments

●​ Rock identification: Hardness, streak, acid test​

●​ Measuring rainfall, wind, temperature​

●​ Soil experiments: Permeability, water retention​

Exam Tips

●​ Always label diagrams clearly (organs, rocks, cycles).​

●​ Include units for measurements.​

●​ Show step-by-step methods for practical experiments.​

●​ Use proper scientific terminology (e.g., diffusion, photosynthesis, chemical