1 Life Processes

"The basic functions

performed by living
organisms to
maintain their life on
the Earth are called
life processes."

Introduction
If an organism is alive, it must keep repairing and maintaining its structures. The maintenance
functions of living organisms must go on even when they are not doing anything particular. The
processes which together perform this maintenance job are called life processes.
To maintain various life processes energy is required. Energy is taken from the food (complex
organic matter).
The process which involves taking food inside the body and utilizing it for various activities is
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called nutrition.
The digested food and inhaled oxygen are transported to every cell of the body through blood by
the circulatory system, this process is called transportation.
Oxidation of food takes place inside every cell of the body by a process called respiration. In
respiration, energy is generated and waste products are formed. Waste products are required to
be removed from the body by a process called excretion.
➢ In unicellular organisms (like Amoeba), all the life processes take place through the entire
surface of cell because it is in direct contact with the environment.
➢ In multicellular organisms, all the cells may not be in direct contact with the surrounding
environment, so they require specific organs for performing all the life processes.
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NCERT Basics: Class 10

How does life on the Earth depend on carbon-based molecules?

Explanation
Life on the earth depends on carbon-based molecules because food is essential for life and food is
made of carbon-based molecules like carbohydrates, fats and proteins. Carbohydrates and fats
provide energy and proteins are required for body building, repair and maintenance.
Criteria to decide whether something is alive -
Living beings respond to stimuli and they show movement
which may be visible (locomotion or movement of body parts)
The branch of biology
and invisible (at the molecular level). For example, organization
that deals with the
of cells into tissues, tissues into organs and organs into organ study of life processes
system, all are dependent upon the movement of molecules. or vital activities is
called physiology.
Therefore, molecular movement is basic to living beings.
Living beings can respire, grow, reproduce and they have the
ability to evolve.
All living beings have definite shape, size, life span and they perform metabolic activities.

1. Which activity is basic to living beings?

2. Name the organism which have the entire surface in direct contact with the environment.
3. Name the life process which provides energy to living organisms. Publishing$\PNCF\2024-25\LIVE Module\SET-1\NCERT\10th\Biology\01. Nutrition

4. What processes would you consider essential for maintaining life?

Why is molecular movement absent in virus when it is outside the host cell?
Explanation
Outside the living cells, viruses behave as non-living. It does not exhibit any life process or any
molecular movement. But when it enters inside a living cell it takes over the metabolic
machinery of the host cell for the synthesis of its proteins, multiplication of genetic material
that has all information necessary to produce new viruses.

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 Biology
There are mainly four important life processes which are required for maintaining life, without
which living beings cannot survive.
1. Nutrition (for obtaining nutrients)
2. Respiration (for releasing energy)
3. Transportation (for distribution of food and other materials)
4. Excretion (for removal of toxic wastes)
All these life processes take place only in living organisms.

1. Molecular movement
2. Unicellular organism - Amoeba
3. Respiration
4. Nutrition, respiration, transportation, excretion

Nutrition

"Nutrition is the
process of procuring
and utilization of
food."
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Introduction
All living organisms require energy and other raw materials for performing all the vital activities
and for body building, repair, growth, development and
regulation. Both energy and raw materials are obtained from the
food. The food taken in by an organism contains a large number Nutrients are the
organic or inorganic
of nutrients like carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins
substances required for
and water. the maintenance of life
Carbohydrates and fats provide energy. Proteins are required for and survival of living
organisms.
body building, growth and healing. Vitamins and minerals are
the regulating nutrients.
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NCERT Basics: Class 10
Nutrition
Nutrition is the process of intake of nutrients (like carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals,
vitamins and water) by an organism as well as the utilization of these nutrients by the
organism.
Modes of nutrition
Way of obtaining food by the organisms are called modes of nutrition.

Modes of nutrition

Autotrophic nutrition Heterotrophic nutrition

Holozoic nutrition Saprotrophic nutrition Parasitic nutrition

Autotrophic nutrition
It is the process by which organism take in simple inorganic substances from outside and use
them to synthesize organic molecules and then convert into stored forms of energy. For
example, green plants prepare their food by using carbon dioxide and water in the presence
of chlorophyll and sunlight. The organisms having autotrophic mode of nutrition or can make
their own food are called autotrophs or autotrophic organisms.
Examples: Green plants and some bacteria.

What would happen if green plants disappear from earth?

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Explanation
Green plants are the source of energy for all organisms. They trap the solar energy and convert
it into chemical energy in the form of food (starch) and they give off oxygen. If all green plants
disappear from the earth, then all the herbivores will die due to starvation so carnivores will
also die. Without plants, animals would have no oxygen to breathe and would die.
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process of preparing organic food (carbohydrate) by combining carbon
dioxide and water, using solar energy by help of chlorophyll pigments.
The sugar produced in photosynthesis is stored in the form of starch in plants and it is the
source of reserved internal energy.
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 Biology

First true and oxygenic

Sunlight photosynthesis started
O2 in cyanobacteria (blue
Oxygen green algae). 90% of
total photosynthesis is
carried out by
hydrophytes (mostly
Sugar (glucose) marine algae).

Water

Photosynthesis
The overall equation of photosynthesis is -
Sunlight
6CO2 + 12H2O ⎯⎯⎯⎯ →C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
Chlorophyll
(from air) (from soil) (Glucose)

Requirements for photosynthesis -

(1) Sunlight (2) Photosynthetic pigment
(3) Carbon dioxide (4) Water
1. Sunlight
Sun is a natural source of light for photosynthesis.

We have learned in the previous classes about the test for starch: When iodine reacts with starch,
it produces blue-black colour, indicating the presence of starch.

Aim
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To demonstrate that sunlight is essential for photosynthesis.

Method
(1) Take a potted plant and keep it in a dark place for 2-3 days so that leaves get destarched.
(Destarching means to remove starch content from a plant or leaf by keeping the plant in
dark room for 2-3 days because of which plant cannot photosynthesize and uses up stored
starch and is destarched).
(2) Fold a circular black paper and cut a design in its centre. Fix black paper or tin foil, with the cut
design in its centre on the surface of a leaf of destarched potted plant by means of cellotape
strips or clips. Alternately attach a Ganong’s light screen over it. Ganong's light screen is a small
metallic box with a spring handle, ventilating holes and a lid having a design cut in the centre.
Now place the plant in strong sunlight for at least 6 hours.

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NCERT Basics: Class 10
(3) Remove the black paper or Ganong’s light screen. Pluck the leaf. Test it for starch by first
boiling in water for 5–10 minutes to kill the cells. Then dry it in folds of blotting paper and
dip it in warm denatured spirit for 30–45 minutes to remove chlorophyll. Then wash it
with water and pour iodine over it.

Black
Black
Black paper
paper
paper
Blackpaper
Black paper Dropper

Ganong’s light
Ganong's
Ganong's light
light
Ganong’s
Ganong’s screen
screen
screen
light
light screen
screen Dropper
Iodine solution
Iodine solution

Destarched
Destarched
Destarched
Distarched plant
plant
plant
Distarched plant
plant

(1) (2) (3)

Observation Yellow (starch less
Yellow (starch less
The covered part of leaf remains yellow while parts of leaf portion)
portion)
which received light turn bluish black. Bluish black colour Blue black (starch
Blue black (Presence
indicates the presence of starch or photosynthesis. ofcontaining
starch) portion)
Conclusion
Leaf part that is exposed to sunlight shows positive starch test. It gives blue black colour. The
covered part does not receive sunlight. It does not perform photosynthesis. So, no starch
formation occurs and it does not turn into blue black colour. Therefore, light is necessary for
photosynthesis.

• Always remember that the leaf must be covered with The plants reflect
black paper properly to prevent the entry of light. mainly the green colour
of the white light falling
2. Photosynthetic pigments: These are chlorophylls which on them due to the Publishing$\PNCF\2024-25\LIVE Module\SET-1\NCERT\10th\Biology\01. Nutrition

are responsible for absorbing light energy. presence of chlorophyll,

so plants look green to
Photosynthetic pigments are present in all the green us.
parts of the plant.

Aim
To demonstrate that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.
Method
(1) Destarch a potted plant of Croton or Pothos (Money Plant) having variegated leaves (contains
both green and non-green parts) by keeping it in complete darkness for three days.
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 Biology
(2) Expose the destarched potted plant to sunlight for six
hours. Desert plants take up
(3) Pluck a variegated leaf. Place a rice paper over it. Draw CO2 at night and
prepare an
the outline of green and non-green areas. The green areas intermediate which is
contain chlorophyll. The non-green areas are pale in acted upon by the
energy absorbed by the
colour and devoid of chlorophyll. chlorophyll during the
day and form glucose.

(1) (2) (3)

(4) Place the leaf in boiling water for 5 – 10 minutes. Boiling kills the leaf.
(5) Dip the leaf in spirit or alcohol kept at 50° – 60° C with the help of a water bath to remove
chlorophyll.
(6) After 30 – 45 minutes, the leaf will be decolourized completely. Take out the decolourized
leaf, dip in hot water for softening the same.
(7) Pour dilute iodine solution over the leaf. After 4 – 5 minutes, rinse off excess iodine and
observe.

oiling
lcohol
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ater

Observation
Leaf has two types of patches, bluish black and yellowish. The bluish
Yellow coloured
Yellow coloured
black areas are the ones which have starch. The bluish black colour is
Blue coloured
Blue coloured
due to reaction of iodine with starch. The yellow areas are without
starch. Compare the bluish black and pale areas of leaf with green and
non-green areas sketched on rice paper. Bluish-black areas are the ones which were previously
green while non-green areas of leaf remain pale coloured.
Conclusion
Only chlorophyll containing areas produce starch which is product of photosynthesis. Therefore,
chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.
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NCERT Basics: Class 10

• The experimental leaf should be healthy.

• Boiling of leaves in alcohol should be done in the water bath.
• After boiling the leaf in alcohol, it should be washed in water.
3. Carbon Dioxide: All the plants need carbon dioxide to form carbohydrates. The carbon
dioxide is obtained by the plants from the atmospheric air. In the terrestrial plants, the CO2
enters into the cells of leaves through tiny pores called stomata which always remain
present on the surface of leaves.
In aquatic plants, CO2 is obtained from the water where it remains present in dissolved
form. Such plants absorb CO2 in dissolved form through diffusion, all over their surface
from the surrounding water.

Aim
To demonstrate that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.
Method
Take two potted plants which have been destarched by keeping them in dark for three days. Place
them on glass plates. Keep a watch glass containing (KOH) potassium hydroxide by the side of one
of the plants. Invert bell jar over each potted plant. Seal the edges of bell jars by vaseline so that
the setup is air tight. Place the two sets of plants in the sunlight. After two hours pluck one leaf
from each plant and test the same for starch.
Destarched potted plant
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Bell Jar

Watch glass containing

Potassium hydroxide
Setup A Setup B
Carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis

Observation
The leaf of the set (B) which was without potassium hydroxide turns blue-black while the leaf of
the other set (A) with potassium hydroxide remains pale coloured.
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 Biology
Conclusion
Leaf of set (B) which turns blue-black has synthesized starch by the process of photosynthesis.
Its bell jar contains carbon dioxide as there is no potassium hydroxide. Leaf of set (A) has not
synthesized starch as photosynthesis did not take place. The bell jar of set (A) does not contain
carbon dioxide as the same is absorbed by potassium hydroxide. Therefore, carbon dioxide is
necessary for photosynthesis.

• The apparatus should be kept airtight by applying grease or vaseline.

Stomata
These are tiny pores or microscopic aperture guarded by two kidneys shaped or bean shaped
guard cells. Stomata are present on the surface of the leaves.
Functions of stomata
(i) Massive amount of gaseous exchange takes place in the leaves through stomata.
Exchange of gases also occurs across the surface of stem and roots.
(ii) Transpiration takes place through the stomata. Large amount of water is lost in the
form of water vapour through stomata is known as transpiration.
Guard cells
Nucleus

Stomatal pore

Chloroplast

(A) (B)
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Open stomata Closed stomata

Guard cells
These are kidney shaped cells which cover a single stoma. They contain chloroplast also.
Function of guard cells
They regulate the opening and closing of the stoma and also perform photosynthesis.
Opening and closing of stomata
When the guard cells swell (turgid) due to the entry of water, the stomata get opened. But
when the guard cells shrink (flaccid) due to the loss of water, the stomata get closed.
Generally, stomata open during daytime and close during night time but in desert plants
stomata open in the night time to check excessive loss of water.
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NCERT Basics: Class 10

• In some desert plants like cactus, the process of photosynthesis takes place in their
stem and its branches, as leaves are modified into spines to avoid loss of water due to
transpiration.
4. Water: Water is always needed by the plants for its use during photosynthesis. It is
absorbed by the roots of the plant from the soil through the process of osmosis.
Inside the chloroplasts of the leaves, the water molecules split into hydrogen and
oxygen with the help of light energy of the sun.
Some nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, magnesium required by the plants are
also transported to different parts of the plant along with the water.
Nitrogen is an essential element used in the synthesis of proteins and other compounds
(chlorophyll, DNA and RNA). Nitrogen is taken up in the form of inorganic nitrates or
nitrites from the soil or it is taken up as organic compounds which have been prepared
by bacteria from atmospheric nitrogen.

1. The leaves of a plant prepare food A by photosynthesis. Food A then gets converted into
food B which is stored in the leaves. What are A and B?
2. Why do we boil the leaf in alcohol when we are testing it for starch?
3. What element does a plant need to be able synthesize into proteins?
4. What type of the plants do we use in the experiment to prove that chlorophyll is
necessary for photosynthesis?
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Why does less availability of water reduce the rate of photosynthesis?

Explanation
Under water deficient conditions the stomatal aperture closes to reduce the loss of water by
transpiration. As a consequence, the entry of CO 2 is also stopped into the leaves. That’s hy
rate of photosynthesis will be reduced due to less availability of both water and carbon dioxide
which are required for photosynthesis.
Site of Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis takes place in the green plastid (Chloroplast or Kitchen of the cell) present in
tissues inside leaves and young stem.
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 Biology

Midrib Lamina/leaf blade

Vein

Xylem and phloem

Vascular bundle Stroma
Stroma

Waxy cuticle
Upper epidermis Thylakoid
Thylakoid
Chloroplast
Vacuole Grana
Grana

Air spaces Mesophyll cells

Guard cell
Lower epidermis Fig. Chloroplast
(a) Cross section of a leaf (b) Chloroplast

When we observe the cross section of a leaf under microscope, we can see the mesophyll cells full
of green dots. These green dots are chloroplasts containing chlorophyll pigments.
Mechanism of photosynthesis
During photosynthesis following events occur
(i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophylls.
(ii) Conversion of light energy into chemical energy and splitting of ater molecule into
hydrogen and O2.
(iii) Hydrogen reduces CO2 and synthesis of glucose (reduction of CO2 into carbohydrates)
occurs.
The events of photosynthesis can be categorized into two main events light reaction and dark
reaction.
Dark reaction
Light energy
6CO2 +12H2O C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
Chlorophyll
Light reaction
Importance of photosynthesis
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(i) Photosynthesis is an anabolic process in nature for providing food supply to the living
organisms.
(ii) It purifies the atmospheric air, by consuming CO2 and evolving oxygen.
(iii) It converts light energy into chemical energy.

1. (A) Glucose (B) Starch

2. To remove the chlorophyll pigments from the leaves.
3. Nitrogen.
4. Destarched potted plants with variegated leaves (leaves which have both green and non
green parts) eg. Croton or Pothos.

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NCERT Basics: Class 10
Heterotrophic nutrition
Mode of nutrition in which the organisms derive their nutrition
In Paramecium, the
by taking readymade food, from other dead or living plants and cell has a definite shape
animals e.g., Animals, fungi and most of bacteria. The survival of and a specific spot for
ingestion of food. The
heterotrophs depends directly or indirectly on autotrophs. food is moved to this
Heterotrophic mode of nutrition is classified into three types on spot by the movement
of cilia, which cover the
the basis of methods of obtaining food. entire surface of cell.
(i) Holozoic nutrition - Ingestive nutrition
Mode of nutrition in which, the animals take complex
solid food or whole material and break down (digest) it inside the body. They may be
herbivores (Cow), carnivores (Lion) and omnivores (Rat).
(ii) Saprotrophic nutrition
In this type of nutrition, the organisms obtain their food from decaying organic substances.
They are also called saprotrophs. They breakdown the food material outside the body and
then absorb it. e.g., Bacteria, Fungi (bread moulds, yeasts and mushrooms).
(iii) Parasitic nutrition
Mode of nutrition in which organisms (parasite) derive nutrition from other plants and
animals (host) without killing them. e.g., Cuscuta (Amarbel), ticks, lice, leeches and
tapeworms.
➢ Organism which lives in/on the body of host and derive their nutrition from them is called
parasite and organisms which provide food and shelter to the parasite are called host.
Nutrition in Amoeba
The digestive system is different in various organisms since the
food and the way it is obtained differs in these organisms. The Food particle
mode of nutrition in amoeba is holozoic and it is omnivorous. Nucleus
(i) When Amoeba comes in contact with food particles, it
forms pseudopodia which engulf the prey by forming a Pseudopodia
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food cup. This process is ingestion or phagocytosis.

(ii) When the tips of encircling pseudopodia touch each
other, the food is encaptured into a bag called food
vacuole. The food vacuole serves as a temporary stomach Food vacuole
Food particle
secreting digestive juices.
(iii) The digested food gets absorbed and diffuses into the
cytoplasm and then assimilated.
(iv) Assimilation is the utilization of digested food in various
anabolic and catabolic reactions and conversion Nutrition in Amoeba
(resynthesis) of absorbed food into complex molecules
for various purposes such as production of energy growth, repair and storage.
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 Biology
(v) The egestion of undigested food takes place at any point on the surface of the body.
Digestive system of human
Human digestive system consists of the alimentary canal and digestive glands and it involves
mastication, swallowing, digestion of food and elimination of undigested matter.
Alimentary canal
The alimentary canal is basically a long tube extending from the mouth to the anus.
It is differentiated into following parts.

Alimentary canal

Mouth Buccal cavity Oesophagus Stomach Intestine

Small intestine Large intestine

Duodenum Jejunum Ileum Caecum Colon Rectum

Salivary glands

Mouth Oesophagus

Liver
Stomach

Gall bladder Pancreas

Small Large
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intestine intestine

Appendix
Rectum Anus
Human digestive system

1. Mouth
It is a transverse slit bounded by two soft movable lips. The lips serve to close and open
mouth, holding the food in between and also help in speaking.
2. Buccal cavity/mouth cavity/oral cavity
Mouth leads into a large space known as mouth cavity or oral or buccal cavity. It
accommodates muscular tongue, teeth and salivary glands.

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NCERT Basics: Class 10
(i) Tongue
The floor of the mouth cavity is occupied by large, muscular, mobile tongue. It is the organ
of taste with taste buds on its upper surface.
Functions of tongue
(i) It moves food in buccal cavity for mixing with saliva.
(ii) It helps in swallowing food.
(iii) It plays a role in speech.
(iv) It helps to clean the teeth.
(ii) Teeth
Four different types of teeth are present in our buccal cavity.
Four types of teeth found in humans are Incisors (biting the food), Canines (tearing of
food), Premolars and molars (crushing and grinding of food).

What is dental caries and how are they caused?

Explanation
It is the tooth decay which starts with the destruction of the enamel layer of the tooth. Masses of
bacterial cells together with food particles stick to the teeth to form dental plaque. These bacteria
act on sugars and produce acids that softens or demineralizes the enamel. If the dental caries is
not treated, it can spread to the dentine and pulp of the tooth, causing pain and inflammation of
the tooth.
(iii) Salivary glands Enzymes are the
These secrete saliva which contains a digestive enzyme biological catalysts
which break down
called ptyalin or salivary amylase that breaks down
complex organic Publishing$\PNCF\2024-25\LIVE Module\SET-1\NCERT\10th\Biology\01. Nutrition

starch. compounds into

Salivary Amylase
Starch ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ → Maltose + Dextrin simpler forms.

Aim
Study of action of saliva on starch.
Method
Pour 1 ml of 1% starch solution in each of two test tubes (A) and (B). Pour 1 ml of saliva over the
starch solution of test tube (B) and shake well. After 15 minutes add 1–2 drops of iodine solution
in both the test tubes (A) and (B).
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 Biology

Saliva is an antiseptic
as it kills germs and
bacteria due to
Blue Black presence of an enzyme
called lysozyme. Saliva
makes the food soft and
(A) (B) slippery and helps in
1 ml (1%) 1 ml saliva digestion of starch.
Starch solution 1 ml (1%)
Starch solution
Study of Action of Saliva on Starch

Observation
Starch solution of test tube (A) turns blue. There is no change in colour of solution in test
tube (B). Only pale yellow colour of iodine is observed.
Conclusion
Iodine solution reacts with starch to form blue-coloured product. The reaction is almost
immediate. This happens in test tube (A). In test tube (B) no such change occurs, indicating
that its starch has been broken down into simpler carbohydrates. This is p ossible by
salivary amylase enzyme present in saliva.
3. Pharynx
The buccal cavity opens into a short narrow chamber called pharynx. It is a common
passage for both food and air.
4. Oesophagus (food pipe)
The oesophagus is a collapsible muscular tube leading the food by peristalsis from
pharynx to stomach. There are no digestive glands, but mucus glands are present.
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5. Stomach
It is a thick, muscular and J shaped sac present on the left side of upper part of
abdomen just below the diaphragm. Gastric glands are present in the wall of
stomach. These release gastric juice which contains mucus, hydrochloric acid and
two inactive protein digesting enzyme called pepsinogen and prorennin. The
muscular walls of the stomach help in mixing the food thoroughly with digestive
juices.
HCl activates pepsinogen to pepsin and prorennin to rennin.
HCl
Pepsinogen ⎯⎯→ Pepsin
HCl
Prorennin ⎯⎯→ Rennin

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NCERT Basics: Class 10
It produces an appropriate acidic medium (pH = 2). It facilitates the action of enzyme
pepsin and kills the bacteria present in food. Pepsin breaks down proteins into peptides.
Pepsin
Proteins ⎯⎯⎯→ Peptides
Rennin is a milk protein digesting enzyme. Mucus lubricates the food and protects the inner lining
of the stomach from the action of HCl. Sphincter muscles regulate the exit of food from stomach
into intestine due to peristaltic waves of stomach.

Oesophagus

Stomach

Stomach

1. When we eat something, we like, our mouth 'waters'? What is the actual meaning of this
statement?
2. Why food coming from the buccal cavity is to be made acidic?
3. What are peristaltic movements? Why do they occur?
6. Intestine
It is the largest part of alimentary canal which is fitted into a compact space because of
extensive coiling. It is distinguished into small intestine and large intestine.
(i) Small intestine
The small intestine is the site of the complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Publishing$\PNCF\2024-25\LIVE Module\SET-1\NCERT\10th\Biology\01. Nutrition

It receives the secretions of the liver and pancreas for digestion.

Digestion of proteins in man starts from stomach. In buccal cavity there is no digestion of
proteins because saliva does not contain proteolytic (protein digesting) enzyme.
Liver is lobed and reddish brown coloured largest gland of body present in the right side
of upper part of the abdomen. It synthesizes bile juice. Gall bladder is present below the
right lobe of liver. It stores bile.
Emulsification is the phenomenon of physically breaking of large sized fat globules into
large number of fat droplets by the bile-salts of the bile juice. This increases the surface
area for digestion of fats by the lipase enzyme. Pancreas is a yellow- coloured gland present
just behind the stomach. It secretes pancreatic juice. Pancreatic duct carries pancreatic
juice to small intestine.

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Food is mixed with three digestive juices (bile
Liver
Liver
juice, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice).
Bile juice (from the liver) provides alkaline
medium and emulsifies fats (conversion of Gall
Gall bladder
Bladder

larger fat globules into smaller fat droplets) Pancreas

Pancreas
but it is a non-enzymatic digestive juice so has
Small intestine
Small Intestine
no chemical action on food. Pancreatic juice
Liver and pancreas
Fig. Liver and Pancreas
(from the pancreas) contains trypsin,
pancreatic amylase and pancreatic lipase enzyme which digest the proteins, starch and emulsified
fats into peptides, maltose, fatty acids and glycerol respectively.
Trypsin
Proteins ⎯⎯⎯→ Peptides

Pancreatic lipase
Fats ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯→Glycerol + fatty acid
Pancreatic amylase
Starch ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ → Maltose(sugar) + Dextrin
The wall of the intestine secretes intestinal juice which contains enzymes for complete digestion
of peptides into amino acids, maltose into glucose and fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
Intestinalenzyme
Proteins ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ → Amino acid
Intestinal enzyme
Maltose ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ →Glucose + Glucose
Intestinal enzyme
Fats ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ → Fatty acid + Glycerol
The inner lining of the small intestine has numerous fingers like projections called villi which
increase the surface area for absorption of digested food. These are richly supplied with blood
vessels which take the absorbed food to each and every cell of the body where it is assimilated for
various purposes.
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The length of small intestine differs in various animals depending on the food they eat. Herbivores
eating grass need a longer small intestine to allow the cellulose to be digested. Meat is easier to
digest hence carnivores like tiger have a shorter small intestine.

It is said that ‘small intestine is the site of the complete digestion’.

Why is it so?
Explanation
In the small intestine food is acted upon by the secretions of liver, pancreas and small intestine
which helps in the complete digestion of various food components carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
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NCERT Basics: Class 10
(ii) Large intestine
It is the site of absorption of water from indigestible food. It helps in formation and
temporary storage of faeces.
7. Anus
The digestive wastes solidify into faeces and are removed/egested (defecation) from
the body via anus. The exit of waste material is regulated by an anal sphincter.

1. This is actually not water, but a fluid called saliva (secreted by salivary glands) which
is required for the digestion of starch.
2. The food coming from the buccal cavity is alkaline and has to be made acidic so that the
proteolytic enzyme in the stomach can act on proteins.
3. The rhythmic contraction of muscles that takes place all along the alimentary canal is
referred to as peristaltic movements. These movements help to push food forward.

Why are villi richly supplied with blood vessels?

Explanation
Villi increases the surface area of absorption. The absorbed food
from villi enters into the blood supply of villi and takes the
absorbed food to each and every cell of the body, where it is
utilized for obtaining energy, building up new tissues and the
repair of old tissues. Villi

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[18]
 Biology

Biology Diagrams made Easy

amina
idrib eaf blade

ein

Phloem ylem
ascular bundle a y cuticle

pper epidermis

Chloroplast

Guard cell
ir spaces
o er epidermis

outh

Tongue Oesophagus

iaphragm
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tomach
Gall bladder

Pancreas mall intestine

iver
arge intestine

ppendi nus

[19]
NCERT Basics: Class 10
Guard cells

Nucleus

Stomatal pore
Chloroplast

(a) (b)
(a) Open and (b) closed stomata

ucleus

a ood particle

Pseudopodia
b

ood vacuole
ood particle
c

d Publishing$\PNCF\2024-25\LIVE Module\SET-1\NCERT\10th\Biology\01. Nutrition

[20]
 Biology

Chapter At a Glance

Nutrition

Autotrophic Heterotrophic

Photoautotrophic (e.g. Green Plants)

Holozoic Saprotrophic Parasitic

e.g. Amoeba, e.g. Yeast, Bread e.g. cuscuta
Human. etc mould, Fungi,
Bacteria

Light reaction Dark reaction

Photosynthesis Light energy
6CO2 +12H2O C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
Mechanism Chlorophyll
Dark reaction Light reaction

Human Digestive System

Alimentary canal Digestive glands

Mouth Buccal Cavity Pharynx Oesophagus Stomach

Intestine Salivary Glands Liver Pancreas

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Small Intestine Large Intestine

Duodenum Caecum

Jejunum Colon

Ileum Rectum

[21]
NCERT Basics: Class 10
SOME BASIC TERMS
1. Destarching of leaves: Removal of all stored starch from the leaves.
2. Unicellular: Made up of single cell.
3. Multicellular: Made up of many cells.
4. Osmosis: Osmosis is the net diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane
towards a higher solute concentration.
5. Vital: Absolutely necessary.
6. Organic substances: Substances which consist of carbon, hydrogen.
7. Synthesized: Prepared.
8. Omnivore: An omnivore is an organism that eats plants and animals.
9. Variegated: Having different colour especially in irregular patches.
10. Pale: Light in colour.
11. Petridish: A covered dish that is not very deep, used for growing bacteria.
12. Symbiotic: Involving two types of animals or plant in which each provides the conditions
necessary for the other to continue to exist.
13. Regulate: Control.
14. Splitting: The action of dividing.
15. Anabolic: Building up.
16. Appendix: is a vestigial structure attached to the large intestine in the human body.
17. Mastication: Chewing.
18. Herbivore: Animals who eat only plants and plant products.
19. Carnivore: Animals who eat other animals.
20. Defecation: The removal of faeces from the body.
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[22]
 2 Respiration

“The process of
releasing energy
from food is called
Respiration”.

Introduction
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Most living beings need oxygen (of air) to obtain energy from food. This oxygen reacts with the
food molecules (like glucose) present in the body cell and burns them slowly to release energy.
The energy thus released is stored in ATP molecules in the cells.
The body can use this stored energy whenever it wants to do so. Respiratory substrates
Respiration are the organic
compounds which are
Respiration is the process by which the food taken through used in respiration to
provide energy. Most
nutrition gets oxidized to release energy for various activities. common respiratory
substrate is glucose.
Types of Respiration:
Process of respiration can be divided into the following two
categories :
(1) Aerobic respiration (2) Anaerobic respiration
(1) Aerobic respiration
It is a process in which complete breakdown of food (glucose) into carbon dioxide and
water in the presence of oxygen and energy is released.
Glycolysis Oxygen
Glucose ⎯⎯⎯⎯
(Cytoplasm)
→ 2(Pyruvate) + 2 ATP ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
(in mitochondria )
→ 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38 ATP
(6 carbon (3 carbon
molecules) molecules)

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NCERT Basics : Class 10

Aim
To demonstrate that exhaled air contains CO2.
Method
Take a test tube containing lime water. Blow air through this lime water. Now take a syringe or
pichkari to pass air through lime water. Note the time taken by blown air and syringe for this lime
water to turn milky.

Syringe

Rubber Rubber
tube tube

Test tube
Lime
containing
water
lime water
(a) Air being passed into lime water with a pichkari/syringe,
(b) air being exhaled into lime water
Observation

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Lime water which is blown by us turns milky faster than the lime water blown by syringe.
Conclusion
Carbon dioxide is present in the air we breathe out.

Aim Tube
Tube
Beaker
Beaker
To demonstrate that germinating seeds produce CO2
in aerobic respiration.
Potassium
Potassium
Method Hydroxide
Hydroxide
Put some germinating seeds in a conical flask. With
Conical
Conical
the help of a thread suspend a small tube containing Flask
flask
KOH in the flask. Through the hole of the cork pass a
glass tube bent twice at right angles. One end of the
tube is in the flask while the other end is in the beaker
filled with water. Make the apparatus airtight. Note Water
Water
Germinating
Germinating
the level of water in the tube. Keep the apparatus for seeds
seeds
some time and again note the level of water. Experimental setup for aerobic
Fig.: Experimental setup forrespiration
Aerobic Respiration
[34]
 Biology
Observation
It is observed that water rises in the tube. The rise in the level of water is due to a partial vacuum
created in the flask because the gas produced during respiration i.e. CO2 is absorbed by KOH.
Conclusion
As KOH has the property to absorb CO2 hence, this shows that germinating seeds produce CO2
during aerobic respiration.
(2) Anaerobic respiration
It is partial breakdown of food (glucose) without using
molecular oxygen, the respiration is called anaerobic
respiration. In this type of respiration very less amount of First step is glycolysis
energy is produced. It also includes glycolysis which takes common in aerobic and
anaerobic respiration.
place in the cytoplasm. During this process one molecule
Oxygen is not required
of glucose is degraded into two molecules of pyruvic acid
in glycolysis.
(pyruvate) and little energy (2 ATP) is produced. The
pyruvic acid is further broken down into two different
manners:
(i) Fermentation
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(ii) Anaerobic respiration in muscle cells

(i) Fermentation [Alcoholic Fermentation] : It is a kind of anaerobic respiration in which
the microorganisms (yeast) break down glucose into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide and
energy (2 ATP) is released.
Glycolysis No O2 required
Glucose ⎯⎯⎯⎯
(Cytoplasm)
→ 2 (Pyruvate) + 2 ATP ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
( yeast ) → 2(Ethanol) + 2CO2 + 2ATP
 6 carbon 
 
 molecules  (3molecules
carbon
) ( cytoplasm ) (2molecules
carbon
)

Can cell survive in the absence of oxygen?

Explanation
Yes, some cells can survive in the absence of oxygen. For example, yeast and most of bacteria can
survive in anaerobic conditions. Thus, all the cells do not use oxygen to produce energy.

Aim
To demonstrate that yeast produces CO2 by fermentation of sugar.
[35]
NCERT Basics : Class 10
Method
Take some fruit juice or sugar solution in conical Glucose +
Yeast solution
flask and add some yeast into it. Put a few drops of Lime water
oil to cut contact of external air. Close the opening CO2 bubbles
of conical flask with a one holed cork. Insert a bent Oil layer

glass tube in the cork and dip the other end of tube
into the beaker containing lime water (solution of
calcium hydroxide). Observe after few hours. To demonstrate the
process of fermentation
Observation and conclusion
The lime water turns milky. This shows that CO2 is liberated from the mixture of sugar solution
and yeast. Fermentation of sugar results in the production of ethyl alcohol and CO2.

• Use sterile equipments like flasks to prevent contamination of the yeast with other
microorganisms that may interfere with the experiment.
(ii) Anaerobic respiration in muscle cells [Lactic acid fermentation]:
Human muscle cells make ATP by lactic acid fermentation, when oxygen is scarce. This occurs

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at the time of vigorous exercise, when demand of oxygen by the muscles is greater than its
supply. Therefore, the muscles switch from aerobic respiration to fermentation resulting in
the production of lactic acid. This lactic acid accumulates in the muscles causing cramps or
muscle fatigue.
Glycolysis Lack of O2
Glucose ⎯⎯⎯⎯
(cytoplasm)
→ 2Pyruvate + 2 ATP ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ → 2(Lactic acid) + 2ATP
(muscle cell cytoplasm)
(6 carbon (3 carbon (3 carbon molecules)
molecules) molecules)

Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration:

[Link] Features Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration
1 O2 requirement O2 required Not required
2 Occurs in Cytoplasm and mitochondria Cytoplasm only
3 Breakdown Complete breakdown of glucose Incomplete breakdown of
takes place glucose takes place

4 End products CO2 and H2O CO2 and ethyl alcohol or

lactic acid
5 Energy produced from one 38 ATP 2 ATP
glucose molecule

[36]
 Biology
➢ ATP is Adenosine triphosphate which functions as energy currency in various cellular
activities. Phosphorylation is the addition of a phosphate group to a molecule for example
synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.

➢ Single molecule of ATP is broken down giving rise to 30.5 kJ/mol or 7.3 kcal/mol energy which
can drive the endothermic reactions taking place in the cell. ATP can be used in the cells for the
contraction of muscles, protein synthesis, conduction of nerve impulse and many other
activities.
Absence of
oxygen
Anaerobic 2 Ethanol + CO2
respiration (In yeast) + Energy (2 ATP)
2 Pyruvate
Glucose (3 -carbon
In Lack of oxygen 2 Lactic acid +
(6 – carbon molecule)
Cytoplasm
molecule) + Energy (In our Energy (2 ATP)
(2ATP) muscle cells)

Aerobic respiration
6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (38 ATP)
Presence of oxygen
(in mitochondria)
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Different ways in which glucose is oxidised to provide energy in various organisms

1. Name an organism which can produce energy in the absence of oxygen.

2. Name two substances which are produced in anaerobic respiration but not in aerobic
respiration.
3. During respiration in organism A, 1 molecule of glucose produces 2 ATP molecules
whereas in another organism B, 1 molecule of glucose produces 38 ATP molecules. Identify
A and B.
Gaseous Exchange in Plants:
The plants do not have any special respiratory system, so they
have to respire through all of their individual parts like leaf, stem
and root. In terrestrial plants
The plants also have to exchange gases with the atmosphere by gaseous exchange
simple diffusion process. Direction of diffusion depends upon the occurs through
environmental condition and the requirement of the plant. stomata, lenticels and
root hairs.
Aquatic plants can carry out gaseous exchange by diffusion over
their whole surfaces.
[37]
NCERT Basics : Class 10
Gaseous Exchange Through Stomata

Oxygen enters into the plant body through stomata by the process of diffusion and then goes
into other cells of the leaf. The intercellular spaces which are present throughout the plant
ensure that all the cells are in contact with air. These intercellular spaces reduce the distance
of diffusion between cells and air.
During the day, CO2 generated during respiration is used up for photosynthesis hence there is
no CO2 release instead oxygen release in the atmosphere is the major event. Rate of
photosynthesis is high as compared to respiration during day time.
During the night, stomata is closed and photosynthesis does not occur. CO 2 elimination is the

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major exchange activity going on because CO 2 liberated during respiration is not used in
photosynthesis.

Light

Energy

Chloroplast
Photosynthesis
Co2 + H2O O2 + sugars
Cellular respiration
Mitochondria

Energy
Cyclic representation of relation between photosynthesis and respiration

[38]
 Biology

Why a land plant may die if the soil is water logged?

Explanation
Plants often die in waterlogged soil because the soil is unable to supply sufficient oxygen to roots.
Under these conditions the root will respire anaerobically, producing alcohol.
Gaseous Exchange in Aquatic Animals:
The rate of breathing
Water flows in
in aquatic organisms is
through
Fish gill much faster than
mouth Water flows terrestrial organisms,
Over gills, because water has low
then out content of oxygen than
Gaseous exchange in fish air.

Fish takes dissolved oxygen from water. Fish has special organs
of breathing called gills.
Fish breathes by taking in water through its mouth and sending it over the gills. When water
passes over the gills, the gills extract dissolved oxygen from this water. The extracted oxygen is
absorbed by the blood and carried to all the parts of the fish and carbon dioxide produced by
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respiration is brought back by the blood into the gills for expelling into the surrounding water.

1. Yeast and most of bacteria.

2. Ethyl Alcohol (C2H5OH) and lactic acid
3. (A) Yeast ; (B) Human

Why do fishes die when taken out of water?

Explanation
Fishes have gills as respiratory structures which can take in only dissolved oxygen from water.
So, outside water, they cannot respire and therefore die.
Gaseous Exchange in Terrestrial Animals
Different land animals have different organs for gaseous exchange like skin or general body
surface, as in earthworm, air tubes or trachea, as in insects (grasshopper, cockroach, housefly)
and lungs as in frog, lizard, birds, rat and humans.
[39]
NCERT Basics : Class 10

What are the adaptations for gaseous exchange in terrestrial organisms?

Explanation
Terrestrial animals possess some adaptation in their respiratory structures to promote better
exchange of gases. These adaptations are -
(i) Large surface area to get enough oxygen.
(ii) Thin permeable membrane for easy diffusion of gases.
(iii) Abundant blood supply for transporting respiratory gases.

We have learned in a previous class that alveoli are structural and functional units of lungs as
these are actual sites of gaseous exchange.
Gaseous exchange in human beings
Respiratory system In our body the voice
A pair of external nostrils open into a pair of nasal passages. The box called larynx is
present. Two vocal
nasal passages are highly vascularized, have fine hairs and cords are present inside
mucus secreting cells, so that the inspired air gets warmed, the larynx. Vibration in

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the vocal cords results
moistened and becomes dust free (filter). The dust particles are
in production of sound
entrapped in the mucus secreted by mucus cells. by expired air.
The nasal cavities are separated from the oral cavity by a bony
palate. Due to this reason, we can breathe while we eat. Epiglottis prevents the entry of food into
respiratory tract.
The nasal chambers open into pharynx. The pharynx provides passage into trachea or wind pipe
via larynx.
The wall of trachea has incomplete cartilaginous rings
(C-shaped), which prevent the trachea from collapsing even if
there is not much air in it. Trachea runs down the neck and Space between two
ribs is called intercostal
extends into thoracic cavity.
space in which 2 types
Trachea divides into bronchi (singular : bronchus). Each of muscles are present
bronchus divides and redivides to form finer branches called that are known as
bronchioles. After repeated divisions each bronchiole ends external and internal
into a cluster of tiny air chambers called air sacs or alveoli. intercostal muscles.
Route of inhaled air
External nostrils → Nasal cavity → Pharynx → Larynx → Trachea → Bronchi → Bronchioles
→ Alveoli.

[40]
 Biology

Lungs
The lungs are a pair of spongy, bag-like organs, which is enclosed by a double layered membrane
or covering called pleura.
Alveoli are structural and functional units of lungs as these are the actual site of gaseous exchange.
There are very large number of alveoli present in lungs which have a total surface area of about
80 m2. Alveoli are covered with a network of capillaries.
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Exchange of Gases in Alveoli:

Exchange of gases takes place in the alveoli. Inhaled air in the alveoli has high oxygen concentration
than that in the blood. Hence, the oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood. It passes first into
the blood plasma and then combines with the haemoglobin in the red blood corpuscles to form
oxyhaemoglobin. Carbon dioxide in the blood capillaries is in higher concentration than that in the
alveoli. Therefore, carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli. CO2 is more soluble in water
than oxygen hence CO2 is mostly transported in the dissolved form in our blood.

Why there is a need of respiratory pigment in multicellular

organisms?
Haemoglobin is the
Explanation respiratory pigment
In multicellular organisms, the diffusion pressure alone cannot which is present in the
red blood corpuscles
take care of oxygen delivery to all parts of body, instead
(RBC). Haemoglobin
respiratory pigment present in blood takes up oxygen from the air has a very high affinity
in the lungs and carries it to tissues which are deficient in oxygen. to oxygen.

[41]
NCERT Basics : Class 10

1. What can happen if cartilaginous rings are absent in the walls of trachea ?
2. Why is CO2 mostly transported in the dissolved form in our blood?
Breathing :
The stage of respiration during which air is inhaled into the lungs through the mouth or nose
due to muscle contraction and then exhaled due to muscle relaxation is called breathing.
Mechanism of Breathing :
Lungs cannot expand or contract on their own. The contraction and expansion of lungs is
brought about by diaphragm muscles and external intercostal muscles.
(1) Inhalation (Inspiration)
Inhalation is intake of fresh air from outside into the alveoli of the lungs.
It occurs by expansion of lungs which is brought about by enlargement of thoracic
cavity. Inhalation involves the following steps:-
The diaphragm (a dome shaped, muscular structure that separates thoracic cavity from
abdominal chamber) contracts so that the diaphragm lowers down and becomes flat.

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External intercostal muscles contract so that the ribs and sternum are pulled upward
and outward. This causes enlargement of thoracic cavity resulting in the expansion of
lungs.
Expansion of lungs reduces the pressure of air inside so that the fresh air is pulled from
outside into the lungs passing through nostrils, trachea and bronchi.
Fresh air has a rich supply of O 2 which goes into the blood passing through thin
membranes of alveoli and blood capillaries. As a result, the blood in the capillaries
becomes loaded with oxygen and expels carbon dioxide into the alveoli for exhalation.
(2) Exhalation [Expiration]
The mechanism of breathing out of carbon dioxide rich air is called exhalation.
During exhalation, muscle of the diaphragm relaxes so that the diaphragm becomes
dome shape.
The external intercostal muscles also relax by which ribs and sternum comes
downward and inward, by which the volume of thoracic cavity is reduced . It increases
the air pressure so that the foul air moves out.

[42]
 Biology

Intercostal Intercostal
Trachea
Muscles pull up Muscles relax
Lungs

Diaphragm
Diaphragm relaxes
pulls down
Inhalation and Exhalation
➢ Residual volume (RV) is the amount of air remaining in the lungs at the end of a maximum
expiration.
Rate of breathing :
In children – 18-22/min, In adolescents – 14-18/min, In adult – 12-14/min

6
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How is smoking injurious to health?

Explanation
The upper part of respiratory tract is provided with small hair-like structures called cilia. These
cilia help to remove germs, dust and other harmful particles from inhaled air. Smoking destroys
these hair due to which germs, dust, smoke and other harmful chemicals enter lungs and cause
infection, cough and even lung cancer. Lung cancer is one of common causes of deaths in the
world.

1. Trachea or windpipe will collapse and air (oxygen) will not reach into alveoli. Exchange of
gases will be stopped.
2. Because CO2 is more soluble in water than oxygen hence CO2 is mostly transported in the
dissolved form in our blood.
Note: Using tobacco directly or any product of tobacco in the form of cigar, cigarettes, bidis,
hookah, gutkha, etc., is harmful. Use of tobacco most commonly affects the tongue, lungs, heart
and liver. Smokeless tobacco is also a major risk factor for heart attacks, strokes, pulmonary
diseases and several forms of cancers. There is a high incidence of oral cancer in India due to the
chewing of Tobacco in the form of Gutkha.
[43]
NCERT Basics : Class 10

Biology Diagrams made Easy

Nasal chamber
Oral cavity
Bronchi Pharynx
Bronchioles
Trachea (windpipe)

Lungs
Alveoli

Diaphragm

Human respiratory system

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[44]
 Biology

Chapter At a Glance

Respiration

Aerobic respiration
(Presence of Oxygen) Anaerobic respiration
Glucose + O2 ⎯⎯
→CO2 + H2O + Energy (Absence of Oxygen)

Alcoholic Lactic Acid

fermentation (Yeast) fermentation (Muscle cell)
Glycolysis
Glucose ⎯⎯⎯⎯
(Cytoplasm)
→2 (Pyruvate) + 2 ATP Glycolysis
Glucose ⎯⎯⎯⎯ →2Pyruvate + 2 ATP
(6 carbon (3 carbon (cytoplasm)
(6 carbon
molecules) molecules) (3 carbon
molecules) molecules)
No O2 required
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ →2(Ethanol) + 2CO2 + 2ATP Lack of O2
(yeast cytoplasm)
(2 carbon ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
(muscle cell cytoplasm)
→ 2(Lactic acid) + 2ATP
molecules) (3 carbon molecules)

Passage of air through respiratory System

External Nostrils Nasal Cavity Pharynx Larynx Trachea

Alveoli Bronchioles Bronchi

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Inhalation:
• Diaphragm flat
• Ribs move upward and outward
Mechanism of • Air pressure in lungs decreases
breathing
(Human) Exhalation:
• Diaphragm Dome shaped
• Ribs move downward and inward
• Air pressure in lungs increases

Gaseous Exchange in other Animals

Insect – Tracheal tubes Earthworm - Skin Fishes - Gills Terrestrial animals - Lungs

Gaseous Exchange in plants

Stomata Lenticels Root hairs

[45]
NCERT Basics : Class 10
SOME BASIC TERMS
1. Vigorous : Very forceful.
2. Cramps : Sudden contraction of one or more of your muscles.
3. Endothermic : Need heat or energy in order to take place.
4. Vascularised : Provided with blood vessels.
5. Affinity : Strong attraction for something.
6. Oxidize : To make something combine with oxygen.
7. Contraction: The state of being smaller than before.
8. Accumulation : Increase of something over time.
9. Fatigue : The feeling of being extremely tired.
10. Intercellular : Located or occurring between cells.
11. Diffusion : The movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area of
low concentration.
12. Endothermic : Chemical reaction or process which requires heat in order to take place.
13. Expel : To send something out by force.
14. Entrap : Catch in.
15. Expansion : The state of being bigger than before.

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[46]
 3 Transportation

“Transportation whether in
plants or animals is the key
to the efficient assimilation
of the nutrients that the
organisms synthesize, get
from their environment or
digest”.

Introduction
In unicellular organisms, a single cell carries out all the life processes as the cell itself is the
organism. In advanced form like the few-celled algae, protozoa, sponges, etc., the size of the
organism ensures that all the cells are not very far from each other. The uptake of materials from
the environment is through the general body surface and the transport within the cells is by
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diffusion. However, more advanced multicellular forms need a transportation mechanism. The
sites of absorption and synthesis are very specific and are separated by a greater distance from
the other parts of the body.
The actual movement of materials into the individual cells is by diffusion, osmosis or active transport.
Transportation

Transportation in Animals Transportation in plants

Consists of two systems Occurs in two ways
(1) Blood circulatory system (1) Transportation of water and minerals
(2) Lymphatic system (2) Translocation

Transportation in Human
The process of transporting the absorbed food, gases, water, waste products etc., from one place
to another in the body is called circulation.
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NCERT Basics : Class 10
In human beings, the circulatory (transport) system is divided into two systems :
(i) Blood Circulatory System (ii) Lymphatic System
(a) Blood (a) Lymph Blood is thicker and
(b) Blood vessels (b) Lymph vessels slightly heavier than
(c) Heart (c) Lymph nodes water. Its pH ranges
from 7.35 to 7.45
(d) Lymphatic organs
(slightly alkaline).
Blood circulatory system:
The circulatory system is the main transportation system of the
human body.
The body has about 5 liters of blood continuously travelling
through it by the way of the circulatory system. In humans RBCs are
(1) Blood circular, biconcave
Blood is an important fluid connective tissue which and enucleated. The
red colour of RBC is
transports the materials to different body parts.
due to the presence of
Composition of blood haemoglobin.
Consists of two parts, each with its own job in the body.
(i) Plasma (ii) Cellular components
Blood

Plasma Cellular components (40-45%)

(50-55%)

Water (90-92%) Red blood cells White blood cells Platelets

Protein 7%) – Transport oxygen from Protect against Small plate shaped
(Albumin, globulin, Lungs to all tissues of the diseases & infections cells that cluster together

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fibrinogen) body and return CO2 back to help in forming blood
to the lungs clots when bleeding occurs
Others (1%)
– (Hormones, Wastes,
Gases, Salts, ions

Platelets Platelets
(thrombocytes)

Plasma
About 55% Red blood cells
(erythrocytes)
WBC White blood Cells
& Platelets
Red blood Cells

Whole blood RBC After centrifugation White blood cells

Blood and its components Blood cells

[60]
 Biology
Functions of blood
• Transportation of oxygen from lungs to tissues.
• Transportation of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the Plasma is fluid
medium. It transports
lungs. food, CO2 and
• Transportation of excretory materials from the tissues to nitrogenous wastes in
dissolved form.
the kidneys.
• Transportation of digested food from the small intestine
to the tissues.
• Distribution of hormones and enzymes.
• Formation of clots to prevent blood loss.
• Distribution of heat and temperature control. Prevention from infections and helps in
wound healing.
Blood clotting or Coagulation
When we are injured and start bleeding, the loss of blood from
the system has to be minimized. In addition, leakage would lead
to a loss of pressure which would reduce the efficiency of the Haemoglobin is the
pumping system. To avoid this, the blood has platelets which respiratory pigment
in RBC which help in
circulate around the body and plug these leaks by helping to clot transport of oxygen to
the blood at these points of injury. various parts of the
body.
Blood clot:
Injured tissue + blood platelets releases thrombokinase.
thrombokinase
Prothrombin ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→Ca ++
Thrombin
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Thrombin
Fibrinogen ⎯⎯⎯⎯ →Fibrin
Fibrin + Dead RBC, WBC and Platelets → Blood clot
Prothrombin and fibrinogen are plasma protein synthesized in Serum is watery
fluid expelled from a
liver and are present in plasma. contracting blood clot.
Serum = plasma –
Clotting factors.
1

Why blood does not clot inside a blood vessel?

Explanation
In the blood plasma, the basophil cells (type of WBC) secrete heparin, which is an anticoagulant.
Heparin prevents the blood from clotting within the blood vessels.
Blood Vessels: In humans, three types of blood vessels are present.

[61]
NCERT Basics : Class 10
(i) Arteries
These vessels carry blood from the heart to various organs of the body. The walls of the
arteries are thick and elastic.
(ii) Veins
They collect the blood from different parts of the body and pour it into the heart. The walls of
veins are thin and less elastic. They do not need thick walls because the blood is no longer under
pressure, instead they have valves that ensure that the blood flows only in one direction.
(iii) Capillaries
These are smallest blood vessels and one-cell thick. The walls of capillaries are very
thin. Exchange of materials between the blood and tissue cells take place at capillaries.
➢ Capillaries lack muscular wall and is lined by simple squamous epithelium (endothelium).

Artery Vein
The major differences between various blood vessels have been given in Table.
Comparative Study of Blood Vessels
S.N. Features Arteries Veins Capillaries
1. Direction of Take the blood away Bring the blood towards Blood flows from
blood flow from heart to different the heart from various arterioles to capillaries

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parts of body. body parts. and then to venules.
2. Kind of Oxygenated blood Deoxygenated blood Blood changes from
blood except in pulmonary except in pulmonary oxygenated to
artery. vein. deoxygenated.
3. Blood Pressure is high. Pressure is low. Pressure is extremely
pressure low.
4. Blood flow Blood flows rapidly Blood flows smoothly Blood flows smoothly
with jerks. without jerks. without jerks.
5. Lumen Narrow Wide Very small
6. Valves Absent Present Absent
7. Location Mostly deep seated Mostly superficial Form a network all over
the body and in the
organs.

[62]
 Biology

1. What is coronary circulation?

2. Name the blood vessel that carries blood towards and away from cells or tissue
respectively.
3. Give the name of nucleated blood cells.
Heart
Size – 5 inches length × 3.5 inches wide × 2.5 inches thickness
Colour – Reddish brown
Shape – Conical
The aorta is the largest
Weight – 250 – 300 gm. artery and the vena
The heart is a muscular cone-shaped organ about the size of a cava is the largest vein.
clenched fist of the same person.
It is located in the upper body (chest area) between the lungs, and
with its broad base facing upward and backward and narrow apex
directed downwards, forwards and slightly towards the left.

We have learned in a previous class that pulmonary artery

‘Atrium’ is a Latin word
carries blood from the heart, so it is called an artery and not a
meaning “Entrance Hall”
vein. It carries carbon dioxide-rich blood to the lungs. and ‘Ventricle’ is a Latin
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Structure of heart word that stand for

The heart is enclosed in tough, two layered sac, the pericardium. “Little belly”.
It is divided into separate right and left sections by the septum
or “septa”. Each of these (right and left) sections is also divided into upper and lower
compartments known as atrium or auricle and ventricle, respectively.
The four main chambers of the heart are:
(i) Right Atrium (ii) Right Ventricle
(iii) Left Atrium (iv) Left Ventricle
It is essential that blood flows in the correct direction through the heart so that the structure of
the heart includes a series of valves which ensures that blood does not flow backwards when the
atria or ventricles contract.
The Tricuspid valve (Atrioventricular valve) separates the right atrium from the right ventricle.
The Pulmonary valve (Semilunar valve) separates the right ventricle from the pulmonary artery.
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NCERT Basics : Class 10
The Mitral (also known as the Bicuspid) valve is the atrioventricular valve which separates the
left atrium from the left ventricle.
The Aortic valve (Semilunar valve) separates the left ventricle from the aorta.
➢ Coronary circulation is the circulation of blood in the blood vessels that supply the heart muscles.
The food and oxygen requirement of heart wall are high in view of its constant beating.

Superior Aorta
Vena cava Pulmonary artery
Pulmonary
Pulmonary vein
Vein
Right atrium Left atrium

Pulmonary Valve Mitral valve

Tricuspid Valve
Aortic valve
Inferior Vena cava
Right ventricle Left ventricle
Structure of heart
Working of Heart
The heart functions as a pump in the circulatory system. The right atrium collects deoxygenated blood
from two large veins, superior and inferior vena cava. When the atrium contracts, the blood is pumped
through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. As the right
ventricle contracts, the tricuspid valve closes and the blood is
pumped into the pulmonary artery through the pulmonary valve. Heart in fishes is called
venous heart because
Pulmonary artery carries the blood to the lungs where carbon
only deoxygenated
dioxide is exchanged for oxygen. The left atrium receives
blood pass through the
oxygenated blood via pulmonary veins.

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heart.
When left atrium contract blood enters into the left ventricle
through bicuspid (mitral) valve. Then left ventricle contracts
and blood is pumped into aorta through aortic valve. During contraction of left ventricles mitral
valve get closed to prevent backward flow into atrium. Valves ensure that blood does not flow
backwards when the ventricles contract.
Superior vena cava Right Tricuspid Right Pulmonary Pulmonary
Inferior vena cava atrium Valve ventricle Valve artery

Left Mitral/Bicuspid Left Pulmonary

Aortic lungs
ventricle Valve atrium Vein
valve

Aorta Rest of body

Working of Heart
[64]
 Biology

Why do ventricles have thicker muscular walls than the atria?

Explanation
Since ventricles have to pump blood to various organs of the body therefore, they have thicker
muscular wall than atria.

1. Coronary circulation is the circulation of blood in the blood vessels of the heart muscles.
2. Arteries and veins respectively.
3. White blood cells.
Double circulation
In double circulation, the blood passes twice through the heart to supply once to the body.
(i) Systemic circulation
In this, blood completes its circulation from left Double circulation is
an improvement over
ventricle to right auricle through the body organs.
single circulation. The
Oxygenated blood from lungs → heart → Systemic heart pumps both the
types of blood
arteries → Body parts → Systemic veins → heart (oxygenated and
(ii) Pulmonary circulation deoxygenated) forcefully
through the body.
In this, blood completes its circulation from right
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ventricle to left auricle through the lungs.

Deoxygenated blood from body → heart → Pulmonary arteries → lungs → Pulmonary
veins → heart
The right portion of heart is known as pulmonary heart and it has deoxygenated blood.
The left portion of heart is known as systemic heart and it has oxygenated blood.
Blood vascular system is of two types - open and closed.
➢ Open - The blood comes in direct contact with the tissue cells. Blood vessels arising
from the heart pour the blood into tissue spaces called sinuses. e.g. Arthropods and
molluscs.
➢ Closed - The blood remains in blood vessels during its entire trip round the body and
never comes in direct contact with the tissue cells. E.g. Annelids, All vertebrates.

[65]
NCERT Basics : Class 10

Human heart remains functional even after death. Explain.

Explanation
The heart continues to beat for many hours if kept in a nutritive, oxygenated fluid because the
contractions of cardiac muscle begin with the muscle itself & can occur independently of any nerve
supply.
Difference between pulmonary and systemic circulation
Pulmonary Circulation Systemic Circulation
It is a shorter circulation It is a larger circulation.
The circulation is in between heart and lungs. The circulation is in between heart and remaining
parts of the body except lungs.
Blood is pumped by right part of the heart and Blood is pumped by the left part and received by
received by the left part. right part.
It pumps deoxygenated blood into lungs. It pumps oxygenated blood into different parts of the
body.
It brings back oxygenated blood to the heart. It brings back deoxygenated blood to the heart.

Difference between single and double circulation

Single Circulation Double Circulation
Blood moves through heart only once during Blood passes twice through heart during
completion of whole circuit in the body. completion of full circuit.
Only deoxygenated blood flows through heart. Both oxygenated and deoxygenated blood pass
through heart.
Heart pumps blood only to the organ where Heart pumps blood to both oxygenating organs
oxygenation is to occur. and the rest of the body.

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Pressure of blood flowing through the body is low. Pressure of blood flowing through the body is
high.
Metabolic rate is low. Metabolic rate is high.
It is found in Pisces. It is found in amphibians, reptiles, birds and
mammals.

What is the advantage of having four chambered heart?

Explanation
Four chambered heart ensures complete separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood,
which is useful to animals with high energy needs (due to thermoregulation and higher activity)
such as birds and mammals.
[66]
 Biology
Gills

Pulmonary Circulation
Gills

Pulmonary Pulmonary vein

Lungs
artery to lungs capillaries
from lungs
Aorta
Vena cava
Heart

To body
Systemic Circulation

From body
Capillaries in body
organs apart
from the lungs

Artery
Vein

Body organs
Single circulation in fishes Double circulation in mammals and birds
In animals that do not use energy for maintaining their body temperature, their body temperature
depends on the temperature in the environment. Such animals, like amphibians or many reptiles
have three-chambered hearts and tolerate some mixing of the oxygenated and de-oxygenated
blood streams.
Blood Pressure:
The force that blood exerts against the wall of vessel is called blood pressure.
Blood pressure is of two types.
(i) Systolic blood pressure
(ii) Diastolic blood pressure
Characters Systolic blood pressure Diastolic blood pressure
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Definition The pressure of blood inside the artery during The pressure during in artery
ventricular systole (contraction) ventricular diastole (relaxation)
Value 120 mm Hg. 80 mm Hg.
Blood pressure Pressure in cuff Pressure in cuff Pressure in cuff
120/80 (120 above 120 below 120 below 80
systolic,
80 diastolic)
120 120
Rubber cuff 80
inflated with
air
Artery
closed Sounds
audible in Sounds stop
stethoscope
Artery

Measurement of blood pressure

[67]
NCERT Basics : Class 10
Blood pressure is measured with an instrument called sphygmomanometer. High blood pressure
is also called hypertension and is caused by constriction of arterioles which results in increased
resistance to blood flow. It can lead to rupture of an artery and internal bleeding.
The instrument used to listen to the heartbeat is known as a stethoscope.

1. What is the function of valves in the circulatory system?

2. the blood pressure inside the veins is quite low. What then keeps the blood flowing through
the veins?
3. Which valve is present between left auricle and left ventricle?
Lymphatic System
The Lymphatic system is an open circulatory system. It consists of lymphatic capillaries, lymphatic
vessels, lymph nodes and lymphatic organs. Lymph flows in one direction only i.e. from tissues to
heart. Lymph is also called white vascular connective tissue.
Capillaries have very fine pores through which blood plasma filters out and starts flowing into the
inter cellular spaces. This fluid is called extracellular fluid. A part of this fluid enters into the lymph
capillaries. The fluid inside the lymph capillaries is called lymph. Lymph is a transparent fluid
which contains blood plasma except blood proteins, RBC and platelets.
Lymph enters into lymph capillaries which join together to form large lymph vessels. The lymph
vessels finally drain lymph into large veins.
The lymphatic nodes occur at intervals in the course of lymphatic vessels. It contains lymphocytes,
plasma cells and macrophages. The lymph/tissue fluid filters through the lymphatic nodes. The

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macrophages remove microorganisms, cellular debris and foreign particles.

Lymph Nodes
Thymus

Spleen

Lymphatic system in human

[68]
 Biology
Functions of lymph
(i) It takes up excess fluid that has diffused out from the blood capillaries and puts it into blood.
(ii) It has lymphocytes which fight against germs and bacteria and produce antibodies to fight
against infections.
(iii) It absorbs and carries digested fats from the intestine. Serve as a middle-man between
blood and body.

1. To prevent blood from flowing backward, veins and the heart are equipped with valves
that close automatically.
2. Breathing and other forms of muscular activity contribute to venous blood flow.
3. Mitral (bicuspid) valve.
Transportation in plants
Plants take in CO2, photosynthesize and store energy in leaves. Besides CO2 plants need other raw
materials for growth. These raw materials like nitrogen,
phosphorous etc., they get from the soil by the roots. These raw Vascular bundles
consisting of xylem and
materials need to be transported to each and every part of the phloem in the root,
plant, mainly to the leaves. If the distance between roots and stem, left stalk and leaf
veins are all continuous
leaves is small, then these raw materials can reach to the leaves
and form an unbroken
easily by the process of diffusion. system of tubes.

In case the distance between roots and leaves is more, then proper
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system of transportation is required.

In plants, transportation is done by a specialized vascular system which is present in the root,
stem and leaves.
The vascular system is made up of two types of vascular tissues. Xylem consists of
four types of cells. Out
1. Xylem 2. Phloem
of which only xylem
In plants the transport of materials can be divided into two parts. parenchyma is living,
(1) Transport of water and minerals through xylem tissue. rest all are non-living
and lignified.
(2) Transport of food and other substances through phloem
tissue.
(1) Transport of water and minerals [Ascent of Sap]
The plants require water and minerals for making food and performing other functions.

[69]
NCERT Basics : Class 10
Plants absorb water from the soil through the roots. Thus, water has to be transported
upwards to the other parts of the plant. This upward movement of water is called ascent
of sap. It is called the sap as it contains many dissolved minerals. Ascent of sap involves
root pressure and transpiration pull.
Ascent of sap is carried out by xylem tissue which consists of -
(1) Xylem vessels (2) Xylem tracheids
(3) Xylem fibers (4) Xylem parenchyma
In flowering plants, xylem vessels and tracheids both conduct water and minerals upwards.
In non-flowering plants, vessels are absent, tracheids are the only conducting cells.
In xylem tissue, vessels and tracheids of the roots, stems and leaves are interconnected to form a
continuous system of water conducting channels reaching all parts of the plant.
Absorption of water and minerals
The water and minerals are absorbed by land plants from the soil where it is present in the form
of soil solution.
Leaf

Leaf xylem
Cohesion is the
molecular attraction

Stomata
by which the particles
Soil particles Xylem phloem
Transpiration of a body are united
throughout the mass.

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Water Root hair
Epidermis Cortex Endodermis
Ascent of sap
The main water and minerals absorbing organs are root hairs. The root hairs are directly in contact
with the film of water in between the soil particles. Water gets into the root hairs by the process of
osmosis. At the roots, cells in contact with soil actively take up ions (actively means by energy
expenditure). This creates a difference in concentration of these ions between the root and the soil.
Water, therefore, moves into the root from the soil. Hence, there is steady movement of water into
root xylem, creating a column of water that is steadily pushed upwards, from cortex to endodermis
and from endodermis to xylem vessels and tracheids. This is called lateral transportation.
Finally, the water and minerals from the vessel and tracheids move upward by the process called
ascent of sap.
[70]
 Biology
Root pressure
The pressure with which the water is pushed up by the xylem of the roots is called the root
pressure that is developed in the xylem due to metabolic activity of the root cells. Root pressure
explains the transport of water to the leaves and other parts in the case of short plants like the
herbaceous plants. However, in tall trees the root pressure is not sufficient to send the water up
to the leaves. In these trees, transpirational pull transports water.
Transpiration pulls and cohesion-tension theory:
The main force responsible for upward movement of water is transpiration pull generated in the
leaves which pulls the water column filled in the xylem tracheids and vessels.
During the day period cohesion force (attractive force between water molecules) and
transpiration pull helps in the upward movement of sap from roots to leaves.
The effect of root pressure in transport of water is more important at night. During the day when
the stomata are open, the transpiration pull becomes the major driving force in the movement of
water in xylem.
Transpiration
The loss of water in the form of water vapours from the aerial parts of a plant is known as
transpiration.
Transpiration mainly occurs through stomata (about 80% to 90%) but it may also occur through
cuticle (9%) and lenticels (1%).
Functions of transpiration
It helps in absorption and upward movement of water.
It helps in temperature regulation. The plants are protected from the burning due to transpiration.
Evaporation of water from leaves produces cooling effect.
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Plants have low energy needs as compared to animals. Explain

Explanation
Plants are anchored and do not move. Most of their body is made of dead cells and cell walls.
Therefore, their requirements of energy are quite low as compared to animals.

Aim
To demonstrate that the transpiration takes place through aerial part of the plants.
Apparatus
A small potted plant, a small pot of the same size and same amount of soil as that of potted plant,
a stick of the height of the plant, plastic sheets.
[71]
NCERT Basics : Class 10
Method
Cover the soil of two pots with plastic sheets. Fix a stick in the middle of the pot which does not bear
the plant. Cover both the pots with plastic sheets and place them in bright sunlight for half an hour.
Observation
The internal surface of the plastic sheet belonging to the set (A) having potted plant becomes wet.
There is no such change in the set (B).
Plastic sheets

Condensed
Water droplets

Set (A) Set (B)

Soil covered with plastic sheet
Setup to demonstrate transpiration
Conclusion
The wetness of the plastic sheet in set (A) must have occurred due to condensation of water
vapours. Water vapours can come only from aerial shoots of the potted plant. The soil does not
lose any water in evaporation as it is clear from the set (B). Loss of water from aerial parts of the
plant in vapour form is called transpiration.

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• Always remember to take a well-watered potted plant.
Transportation of Food and Other Substances
Sugar, amino acid and other substances are translocated from
site of synthesis to the site of storage through the phloem. Osmotic pressure is
the force that a
The transport of food from leaves to different parts of plants is
dissolved substance exerts
termed as translocation. on a semi permeable
membrane through which
Translocation may be in an upward or downward direction
it can’t penetrate, when
depending on the need of the plant. separated by it from pure
Translocation of food takes place in the sieve tubes with the help solvent.

of adjacent companion cells of phloem tissue.

Phloem tissue consists of four components.
(1) Sieve tubes (2) Companion cells
(3) Phloem parenchyma (4) Phloem fibers
[72]
 Biology
Sieve
Sieveplate
Plate

Sieve
Sieve tube Movement of water
Tube and minerals in plant is
Companion cell unidirectional i.e. from
Phloem
Parenchyma root to leaves only
Phloem parenchyma
Companion
whereas translocation
Cell of food is bidirectional.

Parts of the phloem tissue

Mechanism of translocation
Translocation takes place with energy consumption in the form of ATP.
Sugar (sucrose) made in leaves are loaded into the sieve tubes of phloem by using energy from
ATP.
It increases the osmotic pressure of the sieve tubes.
In phloem tissue,
Water now enters into sieve tubes containing sugar by the except for phloem
process of osmosis. fibers, all the cells are

Soluble material is then transferred from phloem tissue to other living. The mature
sieve tube elements do
tissues which have less pressure than in the phloem. not have nucleus.
Thus, according to plants requirement, the material is
translocated from higher osmotic pressure to lower osmotic
pressure areas.
For example, in the spring, sugar stored in root or stem tissue would be transported to the buds
which need energy to grow.
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[73]
NCERT Basics : Class 10

Biology Diagrams made Easy

Lungs

Pulmonary Pulmonary
artery vein

Heart
Vein

Aorta

Capillaries

Schematic diagram of circulation

Aorta
Pulmonary artery Pulmonary vein

Vena cava

Right atrium Left atrium

Partition completely
separating the two

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halves Left ventricle

Right ventricle

Section of Human Heart

[74]
 Biology

Chapter At a Glance

Transportation

Transportation in animals
Transportation in plants
(Human being)

Blood circulatory system Lymphatic system

Blood Blood Vessels Heart

Artery Veins Capillaries

Plasma (55%) Cellular Components

Water Protein (<7%) Other (1%) Red blood White

(90-92%) • Albumin Platelets
Wastes Corpuscles Blood Cells
• Globulin
• Fibrinogen Gases
• Prothrombin Salts
Hormones
Food

Lungs
Pulmonary Circulation
RA LA
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RV LV Double Circulation

Systemic Circulation

Body parts

Transportation in plants

Transport of water & Transportation of food

Minerals (Ascent of sap) (Translocation)

Xylem Phloem

[75]
NCERT Basics : Class 10
SOME BASIC TERMS
1. Cluster : Group
2. Specific : Exact
3. Clenched : To close or hold tightly.
4. Rupture : Bursting or breaking.
5. Constriction : To become narrower.
6. Efficient : Function in a best possible manner.
7. Osmosis : Movement of a solvent (such as water) through a semipermeable membrane (as
of a living cell) into a solution of higher solute concentration.
8. Aerial : In the air.
9. Fist : A hand with the fingers and thumb closed together tightly.
10. Evaporation : Is the process in which a substance in a liquid state change to a gaseous
state due to an increase in temperature and pressure.
11. Condensation : Water which collects as droplets on a cold surface when humid air is in
contact with it.
12. Adjacent : Next to or touching.
13. Metabolic activity : The sum of the chemical reaction that take place within each cell of a
living organism and that provide energy.
14. Steadily : In a regular and even manner.
15. Suction : Is the force that a partial vacuum exerts upon a solid, liquid and gas.

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[76]
 4 Excretion

“The biological process

of removal of harmful
nitrogenous wastes
from the body is called
excretion.”

Introduction
Metabolic reactions occurring in animal body produce certain nitrogen-containing materials which
are of no use in the cells. These are called nitrogenous waste materials. They are mainly formed from
breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids. They become toxic if allowed to accumulate in the body.
Therefore, these materials must be removed from the body for healthy life. The elimination of
nitrogenous waste products from the animal body to regulate the composition of the body fluids and
tissues is called excretion.
Various metabolic activities generate nitrogenous materials which need to be removed. It is an
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essential process in all forms of life.

Excretory organs/structures in animals:
The organs which remove the waste products of metabolism from the animal body are called
excretory organs. In single-celled organisms, waste products are discharged directly by diffusion
through the surface of the cell. Multicellular organisms utilize more complex excretory methods.
➢ Ammonotelic organisms are those which excrete ammonia e.g., most aquatic animals like
bony fishes, tadpole stage in frog.
➢ Ureotelic organisms are those which excrete urea e.g., cartilaginous fishes like sharks, frogs
and mammals.
➢ Uricotelic organism are those which excrete uric acid e.g., reptiles, birds and insects.
➢ There are some other organs, such as lungs, liver, intestine and skin, that remove certain
metabolic waste e.g., CO2, sweat, oil etc. They are known as accessory or additional
excretory organs.
[87]
NCERT Basics : Class 10
Animals Amoeba Hydra Flatworm Earthworm Insects e.g. All
cockroach vertebrates
Excretory Cellular Body Protonephridia Nephridia Malpighian Kidneys
Structures surface surface (flame cells) tubules
Waste Ammonia Ammonia Mainly ammonia Ammonia or Uric acid Ammonia,
products urea urea or uric
acid

How does skin help in the regulation of body temperature?

Explanation
The thin layer of fat cells in the dermis of the skin insulates the body. The contraction of smooth
muscles attached to hairs forms goosebumps and creates an insulating blanket of warm air. Also,
sweat produced by sweat glands uses excess body heat to evaporate, providing a cooling effect.
Excretory system in human
Human excretory system consists of :
(1) A pair of kidneys (2) A pair of ureters (3) Urinary bladder (4) Urethra

Aorta Vena cava

Right Left
Kidney Kidney

Ureter

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Urinary bladder

Urethra
Human Excretory System
(1) Kidney
The main excretory organs of our body are kidneys.
Colour – Reddish brown
Shape – Bean shaped
Weight – 120–170 gms.
Size – 10–12cm length, 5–7cm breadth, 2–3cm thickness.
Position – Kidneys are located in the abdomen, one on either side
of the backbone (vertebral column).
[88]
 Biology
Function : To remove the poisonous substances like urea, other waste salts and excess water from
the blood and excrete them in the form of a yellowish liquid called urine.
External structure
Each kidney is surrounded and covered by a tough, fibrous, capsule of connective tissues. This
capsule is called renal capsule. The lateral surface of kidney is convex while medial surface is
concave. On the inner border of each kidney is a depression called hilum/hilus.
Internal structure
The internal structure of kidneys can be divided into two parts. Its outer part is called cortex and
inner part is called medulla. A kidney is composed of numerous microscopic, coiled tubules called
nephrons or uriniferous tubules.
Pyramid Minor
calyces
Cortex Major
The human kidney
calyces
are not located at
Renal similar positions due to
pelvis presence of liver above
right kidney, so that
the right kidney get
Fibrous slightly lower position.
capsule
Ureter

Kidney
(2) Ureters
They are tubes which carry urine to urinary bladder. Each
ureter originates from hilum of kidney. The anterior part Kidney is the primary
excretory organ, its
of the ureter is broad, like a funnel and called pelvis and
primary function is
its posterior part is in the form of long tubule. removal of metabolic
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(3) Urinary bladder waste, there by

maintaining homeostasis
Each ureter opens into the urinary bladder. of body.
It is muscular pear-shaped sac. It has thick distensible
wall lined by transitional epithelium that allows
expansion. The contraction of bladder muscles squirts urine out.
(4) Urethra
It is a tubular structure which extends from the urinary bladder to the outside. It carries the
urine to the outside.
➢ Pale yellow colour of urine is due to the urochrome pigment. It is formed in the liver due to
the breakdown of haemoglobin.
➢ Urea (main nitrogenous waste in our body) is formed in liver through ornithine cycle.
➢ Micturition is the term used for urination (Passing out of urine).
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NCERT Basics : Class 10

Why is egestion not a part of excretion?

Explanation
Egestion is the elimination of undigested material in solid or semisolid form from the digestive
tract through the anus. Excretion on the other hand is getting rid of metabolic waste formed from
the chemical reactions of the body such as in urine, sweat etc.
Structure of Nephron :
The nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney. A The nephron cleans
all your body blood in
nephron consists of a twisted tubule closed at one end, open at the 45 minutes. Everyday
nephron sends about six
other with a network of associated blood vessels. Each kidney of
cups of urine to urinary
man is formed of about one million nephrons. Each nephron has a bladder. Main
component of urine is
length of about 3 cm. It is differentiated into 4 regions having
water and urea.
different anatomical features and different physiological roles.
The 4 regions of nephron are :
(i) Bowman’s capsule (ii) Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
(iii) Loop of Henle (iv) Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
(i) Bowman’s capsule
It is a large double walled cup. It lies in the renal cortex. It contains a tuft of capillaries called
glomerulus and the outer wall is continuous with the rest of the nephron. The space
between the two walls of the Bowman’s capsule is continuous with the lumen of the next
part of the nephron. The bowman’s capsule and the glomerulus together constitute the
renal corpuscle or Malpighian body.

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(ii) PCT
It starts from the back of the Bowman’s capsule and it is highly convoluted. It lies in the renal
cortex. The wall consists of a single layer of cuboidal cells bearing a lot of microvilli on the
surface.
(iii) Loop of Henle
It is a U-shaped segment of the nephron located in the renal medulla. It consists of two
straight parallel limbs, a descending limb which is a continuation of the PCT and enters into
the renal medulla and an ascending limb which re-enters the renal cortex and joins the DCT.
(iv) DCT
It is greatly twisted like the PCT and lies in the renal cortex. The terminal relatively short
part of the DCT is called the collecting tubule. It opens into the collecting duct. The collecting
ducts receive the collecting tubules of several nephrons.
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 Biology
➢ The process of maintaining the right amount of water and proper ionic balance in the body
is called osmoregulation. The hormones that regulate the function of kidney are ADH (Anti
diuretic hormone) and aldosterone. ADH or vasopressin is released from the pituitary gland
and aldosterone is released from adrenal gland.

Physiology of excretion:
Kidney filters all of the blood that comes from the heart forming urine. The process of cleaning
takes place in the nephrons present in kidneys in three stages. They are ultrafiltration,
reabsorption and tubular secretion.
(1) Ultrafiltration : The first step in clearing the blood is filtration under pressure, the passage
of a liquid through a filter to remove impurities. Filtration occurs in the glomeruli. Blood
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pressure helps plasma (the liquid portion of the blood) to pass through the capillary walls
in the glomerulus. Glomerular capillaries are more permeable than other capillaries. The
filtrate contains water, glucose, amino acids, ions and urea.
➢ Normally in a healthy adult, the initial filtrate in the kidneys is about 180L daily. However,
the volume actually excreted is only a liter or two a day because the remaining filtrate is
reabsorbed in the renal tubules.
(2) Reabsorption: During reabsorption, substances considered necessary in the filtrate are
reabsorbed by renal tubules which then travel back into the bloodstream. Maximum
reabsorption occurs in PCT because of the presence of microvilli.
(3) Tubular secretion : Passage of unwanted substances out of the capillaries directly into
the renal tubules is called as tubular secretion. This is an additional way of getting waste
materials into the urine.
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NCERT Basics : Class 10
➢ Kidney stones (Nephrolithiasis) are formed due to crystallization or precipitation of uric
acid or oxalate of minerals and waste materials found in urine. They grow & become a
painful irritant that may require surgery or ultrasound treatments.
In Winters In Summers
 
less sweating More sweating
 
More blood volume Less blood volume
 
Less conc. of ADH More conc. of ADH
 
Less permeability of DCT More permeability of DCT
 
Less reabsorption of H 2O into More reabsorption of H 2O
blood capillaries into capillaries
 
More urine formed Less urine formed

How does kidney help in regulating the pH of our body?

Explanation
The kidneys provide a slower but more powerful means to regulate pH. They excrete or absorb

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hydrogen ions (H+) and bicarbonate ions ( HCO −3 ) as necessary for adjusting pH of blood.

1. Name the U-shaped part of nephron.

2. Name the homeostatic organ of our body.
3. What is the main function of the kidney?
Artificial Kidney or Hemodialysis
The blood of a person having both kidney failure can be cleaned regularly by using kidney
machine (or dialysis machine). The procedure used for cleaning the blood of person by
separating the nitrogenous waste substance (urea) from it is called dialysis.

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 Biology
Artificial kidney called hemodialyzer, is a machine that is used to filter the blood of a person whose
kidneys are damaged. The process is called haemodialysis.
The blood from an artery in the patient’s arm is made to flow into the dialyzer or dialysis machine
made of long tubes of semipermeable membrane (like cellophane which are coiled in a tank
containing dialyzing solution). The dialyzing solution contains water, glucose and salts in similar
concentrations to those in normal blood. It does not have urea. As the patient’s blood passes
through the dialyzing solution, most of the wastes like urea present in it pass through the
semipermeable cellphone tubes into the dialyzing solution by diffusion. The clean blood is pumped
back into a vein of the patient’s arm.
Drawbacks of artificial kidney
(i) It involves a great deal of discomfort and a risk of formation of blood clots.
(ii) It may cause fever, cardiovascular problems and hemorrhage.
Line from artery to pump
Tubing made of a
semi-permeable membrane

Dialysing
Line from solution
apparatus
to vein
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Fresh dialysing Used dialysing solution

solution (with urea and excess salts)
Haemodialysis

What do you mean by organ donation?

Explanation
Organ donation is a generous act of donating an organ to a person who suffers from nonfunction
of organ(s). Donation of an organ may be done by the consent of the donor and his/her family.
Anyone regardless of age or gender can become an organ and tissue donor. Organ transplants can
save or transform the life of a person.
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NCERT Basics : Class 10
Transplantation is required because ’ organ has
been damaged or has failed by disease or injury. In organ
The plant get rid of
transplantation the organ is surgically removed from one person
stored solid and liquid
(organ donor) and transplanted to another person (the
wastes by the shedding
recipient). Common transplantations include corneas, kidneys,
heart, liver, pancreas, lungs, intestines and bone marrow. Most of leaves, peeling of bark

organ and tissue donations occur just after the donor has died or and felling of fruits.
when the doctor declares a person brain dead. But some organs
such as kidney, part of a liver, lung, etc., and tissues can be
donated while the donor is alive.

1. Loop of Henle.
2. Kidney.
3. Excretion and Osmoregulation.
Excretion in plants
In plants no definite excretory system or organ is present for removal of wastes. The excretory
products which are easily diffusible are removed by way of diffusion. In higher plants waste
materials are deposited in various body parts, which are later eliminated.
The main waste products produced by plants are carbon dioxide, water vapour and oxygen.
CO2 and water are produced as wastes during respiration by plants.
CO2 produced during respiration in day time is all used by the plant itself in photosynthesis. Plants
excrete oxygen as a waste only during day time.
The gaseous wastes of respiration and photosynthesis in plants are removed through the stomata
in leaves and lenticels in woody stem into the atmosphere.

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Oxygen is produced as a waste during photosynthesis. Plants get rid of excess water by
transpiration. Many plant waste products are stored in cellular vacuole.
Plants also store some of the waste products in their body parts (leaves, bark and fruits). e.g.,
Tannins, essential oils, latex, gums, resins.
Aquatic plants lose most of their metabolic wastes by direct diffusion into water surrounding them.

[94]
 Biology

Biology Diagrams made Easy

Kidney

Ureter

Urinary bladder

Urethra
Urinary opening
Human excretory system

’ capsule Glomerulus PCT

Afferent arteriole

Branch of renal artery

DCT
Efferent arteriole

Collecting duct

Branch of renal vein

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Capillaries

Loop of Henle

Structure of a Nephron

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NCERT Basics : Class 10

Chapter At a Glance
Excretory organs

Excretory system in human Excretory structures in animals

Amoeba Cellular surface

A pair of A pair of Urinary Urethra
Kidneys ureters bladder Hydra Body surface
Flatworm Protonephridia
Structural unit
Earthworm Nephridia
Nephron
Insects Malpighian tubules
All vertebrates Kidneys

Bowman’s capsule PCT Loop of Henle DCT

• Tuft of capillaries • Highly convoluted • Lies in renal medulla • Lies in renal cortex
(Glomerulus) • Lies in renal cortex
• Lies in the cortex • Microvilli on surface

Physiology of excretion

Ultrafiltration Reabsorption Tubular secretion

Excretory products in plants

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CO2, O2, H2O, are Other wastes - Tannins, essential

main wastes. oils, Latex, gums and resins.

[96]
 Biology
SOME BASIC TERMS
1. Metabolic reaction : Metabolic reaction are the chemical processes that occur in all living
organisms, which help them to complete their life cycle.
2. Elimination : Removal of waste matter from the body.
3. Diffusion : Diffusion is the net movement of anything from a region of higher concentration
to region of lower concentration.
4. Extends : To make something larger.
5. Egestion : The process of discharging undigested material from the cell or organism.
6. Restricted : Limited in extent.
7. Reabsorbed : Being absorbed again.
8. Transpiration : Loss of water in the form of water vapour from the aerial parts of plants.
9. Deposited : Set down in a specific place.
10. Get rid : To remove something that you do not want any longer.
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[97]
 5 Control and Coordination

"The nervous system, in

coordination with the
endocrine system
communicates,
integrates and
coordinates the various
organs and organ
systems in the body."

Introduction
All living organisms including plants and animals respond and
react to environmental factors or stimuli. There is a necessity Stimulus : An agent or
to develop some system for control and coordination of a change in external or
internal environment
various body organs. that induces reaction in
To carry out a simple function such as picking up an object from the body. Response : A
the ground there has to be coordination of the eyes, hands, legs change in activity in the
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body of an organism
and the vertebral column. The eyes have to focus on the object, due to stimulus.
the hands have to pick it up and grasp it, the legs have to bend
and so does the back bone (vertebral column). All these actions
have to be coordinated in such a manner that they follow a particular sequence and the action is
completed. A similar mechanism is also needed for internal functions of the body.
The individuals also have to adjust to the changing conditions around them and vary their
responses. At the same time, the internal conditions of the body should be maintained constant.
There are two modes of control and coordination, chemical and nervous. Plant do not have a
nervous system. They possess only chemical control and coordination. Animals have both
chemical and nervous control and coordination. The two constitute neuroendocrine system.
Coordination in Animals
Animals have the ability of locomotion. This ability probably developed as they have to search for
food. Since they move from one place to another, the animals have to continuously encounter
changes in their environment. In order to maintain a steady state within the body, all animals
should be able to perceive these changes and adapt to them.
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NCERT Basics : Class 10
With increasing complexity in their structure, the number and types of cells in the animal body
increased. Thus, it became necessary to have some coordination mechanism. Two systems have
been developed for better control and coordination of the various activities of the organisms.
These systems are the Nervous System and the Endocrine System.
Nervous System
The nervous system in vertebrates is highly evolved. It is the control system for all our actions,
thinking and behaviour.
It is concerned with receiving stimuli from the external or
Unlike body cells
internal environment of the body, interpreting these stimuli
which reproduce by
and producing the appropriate response to these stimuli. To
cell division, neurons
achieve this, highly specialized cells are required which can
are incapable of cell
receive the message and conduct them to the chief centres of
division because they
nervous system where they are to be interpreted and then
lack centrioles.
returned to the relevant part of the body. Neurons or nerve
cells are the structural and functional unit of nervous system.
Each neuron has following two parts:
(i) Cyton or cell body : Contains a central nucleus and cytoplasm with characteristic deeply
stained particles called Nissl's granules [i.e. clumps of ribosomes].
(ii) Cell processes : These are of two types
(a) Dendrites: These may be one to many, generally short and branched cytoplasmic
processes. Dendrites are afferent processes because they receive impulse from
receptor or other neuron and bring it to cyton.
(b) Axon: It is a single generally long efferent process which conducts impulse away

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from cyton to other neuron.
The longest cell in the body is neuron because axons can be more than one metre long.
Axon has uniform thickness, but it has terminal thin branches called telodendria.
Terminal end buttons or synaptic knobs occur at the end of telodendria.

Nucleus
Schwan cell

Node of Ranvier Axon Cell

body

Myelin sheath Dendron

Dendrites

Axon Terminals
Structure of Neuron
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 Biology
Electrochemical Mechanism of Transfer of Nerve Impulse
Any two neurons in the nervous system do not join to one
Neurotransmitter is a
another completely, there is always a very small gap between chemical secreted by
the two neurons. This gap is called synapse. The nerve impulse axon terminal for
transmission of
is carried over this small gap between a pair of neurons by impulse to the next
neuron, gland or
means of a chemical substance called neurotransmitter organ.
substance. When a stimulus acts on the receptor a chemical
reaction is set off which produces an electrical impulse in it.
This impulse travels from the dendrite of sensory neurons to its cell body and then along its
axon.
Neuro Post synaptic
Pre synaptic knob Chemo
transmitter Enzyme membrane
receptor site Impulse is a self-
Axon
propagated electrical
Dendrite current that travels
from one end to
another of a neuron
for the passage of a
message.
Synaptic
Vesicle
Synaptic
Mitochondria Neurotransmitter Cleft
molecule
Synapse

At the end of axon of sensory neuron, the electrical impulse releases tiny amount of a chemical
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substance in the synapse. This chemical substance crosses the gap and starts similar electrical
impulse on the dendrite of next neuron. This process continues till the electrical impulse reach
the relay neurons in brain and spinal cord. These relay neurons connect in a similar way from
the brain and spinal cord to the effector muscles and glands via motor neuron.

Why synapse acts as a one-way valve?

Explanation
Synapses act like one-way valves. This is because the chemical substance is present at only one
side of the gap i.e. neurotransmitters are released by axon endings only and received by
dendrites of other neurons. In this way synapses ensure that nerve impulse travels only in one
direction.

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NCERT Basics : Class 10
Neuromuscular Junction
A neuromuscular junction is a place in the body where the axons of motor nerves meet the
muscle, thus transmitting message from the brain or spinal cord which causes the muscle to
contract and relax.

Myelin sheath
The neurotransmitter
Axon
Vesicle containing is inactivated by an
Neurotransmitter enzyme present in the
post synaptic membrane
Muscle Receptor as well as in synaptic
cleft. Thus, continued
stimulation of dendrite
is avoided.

Neurotransmitter Junction

How does a muscle cell move?

Explanation
Muscle cells move by changing their shape so that they shorten. Muscle cells have special
proteins that change both their shape and their arrangement in the cell in response to nervous
electrical impulses. When this happens, new arrangements of these proteins give the muscle
cells a shorter form.

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Reflex Action
A reflex action is a quick involuntary action in response to an external or internal stimulus,
generally without involvement of the brain.
E.g. A tap on the knee results in a spontaneous withdrawal i.e. a knee-jerk. Similarly, when we
touch a hot object, we spontaneously withdraw our hand.
Reflex action are of two types:
(1) Unconditioned reflex – which are inborn and inherited. e.g. sneezing and coughing
(2) Conditioned reflex – which are learned reflexes. e.g. cycling and salivation on smelling
one's favourite food.
Significance of Reflex Action
Act as an alarm which indicate about some unnatural incidents that are going to happen.
Quick and sudden reflex protect us from dangers and injuries.
Reflex Arc
A reflex arc is the shortest route that can be taken by an impulse from receptor to an effector.
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 Biology
Spinal cord
(CNS) Message to
Brain
Sensory
neuron
Motor
Receptors = Heat/Pain Neuron Relay neuron
Receptors in skin
Effector = Muscle in arm

Reflex Arc

The basic components of reflex arc are a

Response
receptor, a sensory neuron, a centre, a motor Effector
Lifting of
neuron and an effector. Components of reflex hand Muscle of arm
Spinal Cord
arc are -
Heating detectors in
(1) Receptor: The dendrite of sensory the skin of hand
Stimulus:
neuron receives stimulus and initiates a Receptor
Heat
nerve impulse. A typical reflex action has the following pathway
(2) Sensory neuron: The nerve impulse
passes from the dendrites to the axon terminal branches of the sensory neuron in the
spinal cord.
(3) Centre: It is the region in the spinal cord or brain where the incoming sensory impulse
generates an outgoing motor impulse. Relay neurons are found in the brain and spinal
cord and allow sensory and motor neurons to communicate.
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(4) Motor neuron: It transmits the impulse generated by the sensory neuron in the centre
to the effector organ of the body that will respond, such as a muscle or gland.
(5) Effector: It is the organ of the body that responds to motor nerve impulse.

What is the role of the brain in reflex action?

Explanation
The reflexes which involve only the spinal cord are called spinal reflexes. The spinal reflexes
are produced in the spinal cord, but the message of reflex action taken also goes on to reach
the brain where the thinking process occurs. Some reflex arcs involve the brain, rather than
the spinal cord only. They are called cerebral reflexes. Closing of eyes when exposed to flash
of light and salivation at the sight of tempting food are the examples of cerebral reflexes.

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NCERT Basics : Class 10

What reflexes are shown by our eyes to the changes in light intensity?
Explanation
As the person enters a dark room from a brightly lit one, the pupil dilates to allow more light to
enter the eye. On the contrary, when the person is exposed to light on leaving a dark room, the
pupil constricts and the eyelids close partially to allow less light to enter into the eye.
Note:- The difference between a reflex action and walking.
Reflex action:
1. Reflex action is the immediate and involuntary action.
2. It is regulated by the spinal cord.
3. It occurs in a fraction of seconds.
Walking:
1. Walking is a voluntary action which is under our control.
2. It is controlled by brain.
3. It takes longer time.

1. Name the part of neuron which receives and conducts

Animal perform three

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the impulse respectively. type of actions. These are
2. Name the various components of reflex arc. reflex action, involuntary
action (without will) and
3. We suddenly withdraw our hand when a pin pricks. voluntary actions (with
Name the type of response involved in this action. will).

The Vertebrate Nervous System Consists of Two Parts :

(1) Central Nervous System
(2) Peripheral Nervous System
Human Nervous System

Central Nervous Peripheral Nervous

System System

Brain Spinal Somatic Autonomic

Cord nervous system nervous system

Cranial Spinal Sympathetic Parasympathetic

Nerves Nerves Nervous system Nervous system
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 Biology
Central Nervous System Brain
The central nervous system consists of two parts -
(i) upper large brain situated in the head Spinal cord
(ii) the lower long and narrow spinal cord situated in the neck and
trunk. It is continuation of brain downwards.
(i) Brain
It is the part of the central nervous system that is present in the Central Nervous System
head. The bony box that houses the brain within the skull is
called the cranium. It has three main regions the fore brain, the mid brain and the hind
brain. The three regions have different parts that have specific functions.
Cerebrum

Cranium skull

Fore-Brain
Mid brain

Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland Pons
Medulla Spinal cord
Hind brain
Cerebellum
Human brain
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Fore Brain
It is made up of cerebrum, hypothalamus and many other parts.
(a) Cerebrum
It is the largest and main thinking part of the brain and is made up of two hemispheres
called the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebrum has
sensory areas, association areas and motor areas.
Sensory areas receive the messages. There are different Olfactory lobes are a

areas for hearing, smell, sight and so on in cerebrum. part of fore brain.
They are related
There are separate areas of association where this
with smell sensation.
sensory information is interpreted by putting it together
with information from the other receptors as well as with
information that is already stored in the brain.
The motor areas are responsible of the action of the voluntary muscles. The Cerebrum is
also responsible for intelligence, memory, consciousness and will power.
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NCERT Basics : Class 10
(b) Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus is an important region of the brain. It receives the taste and smell impulses,
coordinates message from the autonomous nervous system, controls the heart rate, blood
pressure, body temperature. It also forms an axis with the pituitary which is the main link
between the nervous and the endocrine systems. It also has centres that control emotions,
hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleep, body temperature and sweating. It secretes neurohormones
which regulate the secretion of anterior lobe of pituitary.
Mid Brain
It is a small portion of the brain that serves as a relay centre for sensory information from the eyes
and ears to the cerebrum. It also controls the reflex movements of the ears and eyes muscles. It
provides a passage for the different neurons going in and coming out of the cerebrum.
Hind Brain
It consists of cerebellum, pons varolii and medulla oblongata.
(a) Cerebellum
The cerebellum is second largest part of brain. It has very convoluted surface in order to
provide the additional space for many more neurons. It is responsible for maintaining the
balance while walking, swimming, riding, etc. It is also responsible for precision and the
fine control of the voluntary movements. For example, we can do actions like eating while
talking or listening. The action of eating, while talking is done automatically. This is
controlled by the cerebellum. Alcohol effects the cerebellum.
(b) Pons
Pons literally means bridge. It is hidden as it is well protected because of its importance. It

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has the breathing centre. It consists of fibre tracts that interconnect different regions of the
brain.
(c) Medulla oblongata
Medulla oblongata is the posterior most part of the brain which lies below the cerebellum.
It controls activities such as sneezing, coughing, swallowing, salivation and vomiting. It
contains centre which control respiration and cardiovascular reflexes and gastric
secretion. It also controls rate of heart beat and expansion and contraction of blood vessels
to regulate blood pressure.
(ii) Spinal cord
It is a collection of nervous tissue running along the back
Spinal cord begins in
bone. It is protected by the vertebral column.
continuation with
The functions of the spinal cord are:
medulla oblongata and
Coordinating spinal reflexes.
extends downwards.
It conducts sensory and motor impulse to and from the brain via
sensory and motor nerve fibers respectively.
[114]
 Biology

How is the nervous tissue protected from any damage?

Explanation
External injuries are overcome by the central nervous system through protective shields. The
spinal cord is encased in the vertebral column, and it is also surrounded by a fluid known as
cerebrospinal fluid. The same fluid is also present in the cranium around the brain. In addition,
the brain and spinal cord are guarded by layers of tissue described as meninges, namely
duramater, arachnoid and piamater from outside to inside.
Peripheral Nervous System
All the nerves arising from brain and spinal cord are included in peripheral nervous system. It is
divided into a somatic neural system and autonomic neural system.
Somatic nervous system consists of two sets of nerves:
(i) Cranial nerves
Nerves arising from the brain are called cranial nerves. Nerves may be sensory, motor or
mixed. 12 pairs of cranial nerves are found in humans.
(ii) Spinal Nerves
Nerves arising from spinal cord are called spinal nerves. The nerves controlling
Each spinal nerve is of mixed type. In humans 31 pairs of involuntary actions of
smooth muscles and
spinal nerves are found. certain glands while
sleeping or awake
constitute the autonomic
1
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nervous system.

1. Dendrites and axon respectively.

2. Receptors, sensory neuron, centre, motor neuron and effector.
3. Reflex action.

We have learned in a previous class the pituitary gland is called master gland because it produces
hormones that control other glands. Many glands like thyroid gland secrete their hormones when
they receive orders from the pituitary gland through its hormones.
Endocrine System
A group of endocrine glands which produce various hormones form the endocrine system. In
addition to the nervous system, the endocrine system also helps in coordinating the activities of
our body.

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NCERT Basics : Class 10
Endocrine glands – The duct less glands which pour their secretions directly into the blood are
called endocrine glands.
Hormones – they are non-nutrient chemicals which act as inter cellular messengers and are
produced in trace amount.
They are secretions of the endocrine glands and one of the important substances that control the
body’s chemistry. Also known as "Chemical messengers."
 The term hormone was introduced by Bayliss and Starling.
Physical and chemical properties of hormones
(i) These are secreted by endocrine glands.
(ii) Hormones are secreted only when required.
(iii) Their secretion is regulated by feedback mechanisms.
(iv) These are generally released in the blood stream.
(v) The molecules of most of the hormones are small.
(vi) The secretion of hormones is always in very small quantity.
(vii) Hormones are destroyed after use i.e. hormones cannot be stored in the body. Thyroxine
is an exception.

Hormones have their

1. Which part of the brain maintains posture and effect at sites
different from the
equilibrium of the body? sites where they are
2. How is the spinal cord protected in human body? made. They act on

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specific areas called
3. Name the part of the fore brain which forms a link target organs.
between nervous system and endocrine system?
Transfer of information in multicellular organisms
Electrical impulses are an excellent means for transfer of information rapidly. But there are some
limitations to the use of electrical impulses. They will reach only those cells that are connected by
nervous tissue. Once an electrical impulse is generated in a cell and transmitted, the cell will take
some time to reset its mechanisms before it can generate and transmit a new impulse. So that
multicellular organisms use another means of communication between cells namely, chemical
communication. This will be slower and it can be done steadily and persistently because it can
potentially reach all cells of the body.
In chemical communication, stimulated cells release a chemical compound (hormone) which
diffuse all around the original cells. If other cells around have the means to detect this compound
using special molecules on their surfaces, then they would be able to recognize information and
even transmit it.
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 Biology
Difference between Nervous and Hormonal Coordination
Nervous Coordination Hormonal Coordination
It is sent as an electrical impulse along axons and as It is sent as a chemical messenger via blood
a chemical across synapse. stream.
Information travels rapidly in milli seconds. Information travels slowly.
Information is directed to specific receptors–one or a Information is spread throughout the body by
few nerve fibres, gland cells or other neurons. blood from which the target cells or organs pick
it up.
It gets response immediately. It gets response usually slowly.
Its effects are short-lived. Its effects are generally more prolonged.
Chemical coordination in animals :
In animals, chemical coordination is achieved through the agency of hormones which function as
chemical messengers or informational molecules. Hormones are secreted in very small amounts
by specialized tissues in the body called endocrine glands. These glands are ductless and pour
their secretions directly into blood. Blood transports them to the target tissues/organs. Hormones
coordinate the activities of living organisms and also their growth. For example, the pancreas
secretes two hormones-insulin and glucagon.

1. Cerebellum.
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2. Overlying meninges and vertebral column.

3. Hypothalamus
Endocrine Glands
The various endocrine glands in humans are hypothalamus,
pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, pancreas, The branch of biology
which deals with study
adrenal glands, ovary (in female) and testis (in males). of endocrine system and
 Pituitary gland is known as 'Master gland' of the body. It its physiology is known
as “endocrinology”.
is because of the fact that the pituitary gland controls the “Thomas Addison” is
known as Father of
functioning of most of the endocrine glands. Endocrinology.
 Hypothalamus plays an important role in the release of
many hormones. For example, when the level of growth hormone is low, the hypothalamus
releases growth hormone releasing factor which stimulates the pituitary gland to release
growth hormone.
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NCERT Basics : Class 10
 The gonads i.e. testes and ovary are both endocrine and non-endocrine in function. Their
non endocrine function is to produce male and female reproductive cells i.e. sperm and ova
respectively.
Endocrine Gland Hormone Function Deficiency
may cause
Pituitary Growth Regulates growth and development of Dwarfism
Hormone body
ADH Regulates the concentration of urine Diabetes
insipidus
Thyroid Gland (Largest Thyroxine Controls carbohydrate, protein and fat Goitre
endocrine gland) metabolism. It regulates BMR [Basal
metabolic rate]
Thyrocalcitonin Regulates blood calcium levels

Adrenal gland Adrenaline Prepares the body to deal with –

emergency situations
Pancreas Insulin Decrease blood sugar levels Diabetes
mellitus
Glucagon Increase blood sugar levels
Testes Testosterone Causes development of sexual organs and –
secondary sexual characteristics in males
Ovary Oestrogen Causes development of sexual organs and –
secondary sexual characteristics in
females
Progesterone Maintains pregnancy –

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Pineal gland Pineal gland
Pituitary Pituitary gland and
gland Hypothalamus
Thyroid and Thyroid and
Parathyroid glands Parathyroid glands
Thymus Thymus

Pancreas Pancreas

Adrenal glands
Adrenal glands
Ovary

Placenta
Testes (During pregnancy)

Endocrine glands in human beings.

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 Biology

How does our body respond to emergency situation like fight?

Explanation
In case of flight reaction to an emergency situation, adrenal glands release adrenaline into blood.
(i) The heart begins to beat faster resulting in supply of more oxygen to the muscles.
(ii) The blood to the digestive system and skin is reduced due to the contraction of smooth
muscles around small arteries in these organs. This diverts the blood to our skeletal
muscles.
(iii) The breathing rate increases because of the contraction of the diaphragm and the rib
muscles.
(iv) All these responses together enable the body to be ready to deal with the situation.

1. Name the gland which secretes growth hormone.

2. Name the hormone that helps in regulating the level of sugar in our blood. Name the
gland that secretes it.
3. Why are some patients of diabetes treated by giving injections of insulin?
Feedback Mechanism
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Feedback mechanism is a regulatory mechanism in which presence of certain levels of substance

promotes or inhibits its further formation. Negative Pancreas High blood
feedback glucose
Hormone regulation is mostly done by feedback
Direct Feedback
mechanism. A good example of negative feedback is
the hormone insulin. Insulin is a hormone produced Decreased blood Increased
glucose Insulin release
by the pancreas. Insulin is released when the
amount of glucose in the blood goes up. It stimulates
the target cells to take glucose out of the blood Increased
which is utilized in cell respiration or is stored as Cellular uptake
of glucose
glycogen. When cells take up glucose from the blood
Feedback mechanism
this makes the glucose level normal. With a fall in
blood glucose level insulin secretion decreases. This checks the further fall in blood glucose level.
So, negative feedback works to keep the blood glucose level normal.
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NCERT Basics : Class 10
Note: Iodine is important for the thyroid gland to make thyroxine hormone. Thyroxine
regulates carbohydrates, proteins and fat metabolism in the body so as to provide the best
balance for growth. If iodine is deficient in the diet, thyroxine cannot be produced and the
thyroid gland at the neck swells, a condition called goitre. Use of iodized table-salt can provide
the required amount of iodine in the diet.
Coordination In Plants
Plants have neither a nervous system nor muscles. But they
Light, gravity, water,
give response to stimuli. The higher plants are fixed to the
touch and chemicals
substratum by means of roots. They cannot move from one are the environment
place to another. They, therefore, show movement of their triggers or stimuli
parts only. which change the
direction that plant
The plants coordinate their behaviour against environmental
part grow in.
changes by using hormones. These hormones affect the
growth of a plant, which may result in movement of shoot and
root of plant.

Explain why the responses shown by plants are slow in comparison to animals.
Explanation
Plants do not have nervous systems like the animals have which is responsible for the quick
response to stimuli. Instead, they use only hormones for producing reaction to external
stimuli, which are responsible for the slow response to stimuli.

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3

1. Pituitary gland.
2. Hormone – Insulin, Gland – Pancreas
3. The insulin hormone controls the metabolism of sugar. When pancreas does not
produce and secrete sufficient amount of insulin into blood, then the sugar level in the
blood rises. Therefore, the patient excretes sugar (glucose) in urine, feels excessive
thirst and also urinates excessively. So, people having severe diabetes are treated by
giving injections of insulin.
Movement in Plants
Plants show two different types of movement. The plants may either respond to various stimuli
very slowly by growing e.g. when a seed germinates the root goes down and the stem comes up
into the air or they can show rapid movements like leaves of sensitive plant move very quickly in
response to touch by folding and drooping without growing.

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 Biology
Classification of plant movements
These are of two types -
Plant movement

Dependent on growth / Independent on growth/

Tropic / Nastic /
Directional movement Non directional movement

Both tropic and nastic movement can be either due to differential growth or due to change in
turgidity.
Movements due to differential growth are irreversible while movement due to change in
turgidity are reversible.
Tropic Movement
Tropic movement is the directional movement of the part of a plant caused by its growth. The
growth of a plant part in response to the stimulus can be towards the stimulus (positive
tropism) or away from the stimulus (negative tropism).
Types of tropic movements
(1) Phototropism
(2) Geotropism
(3) Chemotropism
(4) Hydrotropism
(5) Thigmotropism
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(1) Phototropism: The movement of a part of the plant in response to light is called
phototropism. If the plant part moves towards light is called positive phototropism and
if the plant part moves away from light, then it is called negative phototropism.

Aim: To demonstrate the response of plant to the direction of light.

Method
(i) Take a plant in a conical flask with water.
(ii) Take a cardboard box which is open from one side.
(iii) Keep the flask in the box in such a manner that the open side of box faces light coming
from the window and then observe it.

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NCERT Basics : Class 10
(iv) Now turn the flask so that the shoots are away from light and the roots towards light. Leave
it undisturbed in this condition for a few days. Again, observe carefully to find the
difference in the movement.

Positive phototropism
in stem
Light

Negative phototropism in roots

Response of the plant to the direction of light

Observation
(i) In the first case, the shoots bend towards light and the roots bend away from light.
(ii) In the second case when the flask was turned it was found that the shoots grow again
by bending towards light and roots grow by bending away from light.
Conclusion
The shoots show positive phototropism while the roots show negative phototropism.

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8

Plant A is kept in light which is coming from right direction and plant B is kept in light
which is coming from left direction. What will happen if we inter change the positions
of these two plants?
Explanation
Plant B moves towards the right direction and plant A moves towards the left direction after
interchanging the position because shoot gives positive response towards the light.
(2) Geotropism: The movement of a part of the plant in response to gravity is called
geotropism. Roots of a plant move downwards in the direction of gravity it is called
positive geotropism and stem of a plant moves upwards against the direction of gravity
it is called negative geotropism.
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 Biology
Negatively
geotropic
Stem Geotropism is also
known as gravitropism
i.e. movement of part of
plant in response to

Roots gravity.

Positively
geotropic
Plant showing geotropism

(3) Chemotropism: The movement of a part of plant in response to a chemical stimulus is

called chemotropism. e.g. Growth of pollen tube towards the ovule during the process of
fertilization in a flower.
(4) Hydrotropism: The movement of a part of plant in response to water is called
hydrotropism. Roots of seedling show positive hydrotropism.

Aim: To demonstrate that roots show hydrotropism.

Method: Place germinating seeds in moist saw dust contained in a sieve.
Observation:
(i) The radicles pass down and come out of the sieve pores
under the influence of gravity.
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(ii) After some growth, radicles move back and enter the
saw dust again.
Conclusion:
(i) This shows that roots show both hydrotropic response and geotropic response.
(ii) The hydrotropic response of root is stronger than geotropic response
(5) Thigmotropism: The movement of a part of plant in response to contact or support is
called thigmotropism. e.g. Pea plants climb up other plants or fences by mean of tendrils. Tendrils
are sensitive to touch. When tendrils come in contact with any support, the part of the tendril in
contact with the object does not grow as rapidly as the part of tendril away from the object. This
causes the tendril to circle around the object and thus cling to it.
 Tendril is a thread, like structure which can be formed from modified shoots or leaves. It
is used by climbing plants for support and attachment generally by twining around
whatever it touches.

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NCERT Basics : Class 10
Movement Stimulus Example
Phototropism Light Bending of shoot towards light.

Geotropism Earth's gravity Bending of roots towards ground.

Chemotropism Chemicals Growth of pollen tube towards ovule.
Hydrotropism Water Movement of roots towards ground water.
Thigmotropism Contact Movement of tendril towards support.

Stem tendrils Leaf tendrils

Thigmotropism
Nastic movement
Movement which is neither towards nor away from the stimuli is called nastic movement. It is

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growth independent movement.
Seismonastic / Thigmonastic movements
Such movements occur in response to touch (shock). These
movements are very quick and are best seen in ‘touch-me-not’
A number of flowers
plant (Mimosa pudica), also called ‘Chhui-mui’ or ‘Lajwanti’ or close up when light
fades in the evening and
‘sensitive plant’. re-open the next day
If we touch the leaves of the chhui-mui plant with our finger, the when light appears. It is
an example of nastic
stimulus is transmitted to its base and then to other parts movement. The stimulus
is light in this case.
through the xylem sap, probably in the form of a chemical. Due
to which all its leaves immediately fold up and drop. After some
time, the leaves regain their original status. Here, no growth is involved. Instead, plant cells change
shape by changing the amount of water in them (turgor changes), resulting in folding up and
drooping of leaves.

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 Biology

Response to touch in Mimosa plant

Difference between tropic and nastic movement
Tropic movements Nastic movements
Direction of movement is in the Movement is non-directional.
direction of the stimulus or
against it.
Growth takes place. Growth does not take place.
Movements are slow. Movements are fast.
E.g. Growth movement of shoot E.g. The folding up and drooping of leaves in the sensitive
towards light. plants.
Chemical Coordination in Plants
It takes place by the plant hormones or phytohormones. They help to coordinate growth,
development and response to the environment. They are synthesized in minute quantities in one
part of the plant body and simply diffuse to another part, where they influence specific
physiological processes.
Types of phytohormones or growth regulators
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Growth promoter Growth inhibitor

1. Auxins 1. Abscisic acid
2. Gibberellins 2. Ethylene
3. Cytokinins
Growth promoters
(1) Auxins: Auxin was the first plant hormone discovered by Went. It promotes cell
elongation, apical dominance and helps in root initiation in cutting or in callus
differentiation.
 In vascular plants, specially in taller ones if apical bud is removed it causes fast growth of
lateral buds. The influence of apical bud in suppressing the growth of lateral buds is termed
as apical dominance.
Role of auxin in phototropism
When growing plants detect light, a hormone called auxin, synthesized at shoot tip, helps the cells
to grow longer.
When light is coming from one side of the plant, auxin diffuses towards the shady side of the shoot.
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NCERT Basics : Class 10
This concentration of auxin stimulates the cells to grow longer on the side of the shoot which is
away from light. Thus, the plant appears to bend towards light.
Light
Auxin

Auxin
Light

Auxin spreads Auxin collects

equally down both on the shady side
sides of the plant
The role of auxin in phototropism
The effect of auxin on the growth of root is exactly opposite to that on a stem. In high
concentration, auxin inhibits root elongation and instead, enhances adventitious root formation.

A plant is grown in the open ground with the sunlight coming from above, then the stem
of plant grows straight up. Why?
Explanation
When the sunlight comes from above then the auxin hormone presents in the tip of stem spreads

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uniformly down the stem. Due to the equal presence of auxin both the sides of stem grow equally
and thus it grows straight up.
(2) Gibberellins (G.A.): It is found in various plant parts such as root, stem, leaves, fruits and
immature seeds. It stimulates stem elongation or helps in growth of the stem. It helps in
breaking dormancy in seeds and buds. It promotes growth in fruits and increases size and
number of fruits.

4
Seed dormancy is the
1. How do auxins promote the growth of a tendril around a mechanism to prevent
support? germination during
2. Name the plant hormone unsuitable ecological

(i) Which break dormancy in seeds. condition.

(ii) Which promotes apical dominance in plants?

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 Biology
3. A potted plant is made to lie horizontally on the ground. Which part of the plant will show-
(i) Positive geotropism
(ii) Negative geotropism
(3) Cytokinins (CK)
Cytokinins promote cell division, and they are present in greater concentration in areas of
rapid cell division such as in fruits and seeds. It promotes opening of stomata.
Cytokinins suppress apical dominance (promotes lateral branches in the presence of apical
bud). Help in secondary growth (growth in thickness).
It helps in breaking the dormancy of seeds and buds.
Growth inhibitors
(1) Abscisic acid (ABA)
It is called stress hormone which inhibits the growth. It promotes the closing of stomata
under water stress condition thus effects wilting of leaves.
It causes dormancy of seeds and promotes falling of leaves.
(2) Ethylene
It is a gaseous hormone which promotes fruit growth and ripening. It prevents elongation
of stem and roots in longitudinal direction. It promotes yellowing and senescence of leaves.
Note: The effect of daylength (photoperiod) on the developmental process of a plant (like
germination of seeds and flowering) is called photoperiodism. Photoperiod is longer in
summer season which is required for flowering in wheat plants while shorter in autumn
season which is required for flowering in tobacco plant.

4
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1. The movement of tendril around the support is caused by the hormone auxin. Less auxin
occurs on the side of contact as compared to the free side. Auxin promotes growth on the
free side. As a result of growth on the free side, the tendril coils around the support.
2. (i) Gibberellin (ii) Auxin
3. (i) Root system (ii) Shoot system

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NCERT Basics : Class 10

Biology Diagrams made Easy

Nucleus
Dendrite

Axon Nerve ending

Cell body
Structure of neuron

Message to brain

Spinal cord (CNS)

Sensory neuron

Receptors = Heat/pain
Receptors in skin
Motor Relay neuron
neuron

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Effector = Muscle in arm

Re lex arc

[128]
 Biology

Chapter At a Glance

Nervous System

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

Brain Spinal cord Somatic Autonomic

nervous system nervous system

Fore Mid Hind

Cranial nerves Spinal nerves
Brain Brain Brain
12 pairs 31 pairs
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Hypothalamus Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Pons
Medulla oblongata

Endocrine System

Pituitary Thyroid Adrenal

Glands Gonads Pancreas
Gland Gland

Thyroxine Testes
Glucagon,
Hormone Adrenaline
Growth Insulin
hormone, Calcitonin Testosterone
ADH Hormone Hormone
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Ovaries

i. Estrogen
ii. Progesterone

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NCERT Basics : Class 10

Plant Movements

Tropic/directional Nastic/non-directional

Types of Tropic movement Types of nastic movement

Phototropism (Light) Seismonastic/Thigmonastic movement

Geotropism (Earth’s gravity)

Chemotropism (Chemical)

Hydrotropism (Water)

Thigmotropism
(Contact to touch)

Plant hormones or Phyto hormones

Types of plant hormones/growth hormones

Growth promoters Growth inhibitors

Auxin Gibberellins Cytokinin ABA

Ethylene
(Abscisic Acid)

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[130]
 Biology
SOME BASIC TERMS
1. Neuron : Highly specialized cells which can detect, receive and transmit different kinds of
stimuli.

2. Stimuli : A stimulus causes an action or response, in an organism. It can be external

(temperature, light, etc. ) or internal (hunger, thirst, pain, etc.).

3. Receptor : The sensory receptors enable us to be aware of the environment around us. It
responds to the stimuli.

4. Electrical impulse : It is also known as the nerve impulse. It is the passing of electrical
current from one end of the neuron to the other end, which actually carries the
information.

5. Synapse : It is the junction place where two neurons communicate.

6. Synaptic cleft : The space between two neurons at a synapse, where the nerve impulse is
transmitted through certain chemical structures.

7. Reflex action : It is body’s immediate, involuntary response to an external stimulus to

protect itself from the immediate harm. The brain is not involved directly as there is no
thinking involved.
8. Reflex arc : The pathway taken by the reflex action is referred to as reflex arc. It normally
involves the receptors, sensory neuron, relay neuron and motor neuron, finally reaching
the effector organs.
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9. Sensory neuron : These are a type of neuron that carries the nerve impulse from the sense
organs to the CNS.

10. Motor neuron : Neurons that take away nerve impulse from the CNS to the effector organs
like muscle or glands.
11. Relay neuron : Relay neurons are found in the brain and spinal cord and allow sensory
and motor neurons to communicate.
12. Feedback mechanism : Mechanism by which the release and functioning of hormones are
regulated.

[131]
 6 How do Organisms Reproduce?

"Creation of new
organisms from the
existing organism of the
same species is known as
reproduction."

Introduction
Reproduction is one of the important process by which every living organism makes a copy
like itself. It is the means of multiplication and perpetuation of the species.
In reproduction, lot of energy goes waste to produce new individual, but it is essential for the
survival of a species or for the continuity of life on the earth because the older individuals of
each species undergo senescence and die.
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 In previous classes, we learnt that the chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell have
information for inheritance of features from parents to the next generation in the form of
DNA molecules.
Reproduction at its basic level (cellular reproduction) is involved in making similar or
dissimilar body designs through the genetic material (DNA) present in the chromosomes of its
nucleus. DNA is the source of information for making proteins. Any change in the information
leads to production of different proteins, which ultimately lead to altered body designs.
Reproduction is not an essential life process, means it is not necessary to reproduce in order to survive,
one can survive without undergoing reproduction also, yet it is a unique property of living beings.
Importance of variation: Basic event in reproduction is production of DNA copies in a
reproducing cell. The process is called DNA replication. Cells use chemical reactions to build
copies of their DNA. When the cell divides into two, each new cell gets a copy of each DNA or
chromosome along with the whole cellular apparatus.
Complete accuracy in DNA copying leads to two exactly identical cells but any error in
duplication can lead to dissimilar cells or variations.
[1]
NCERT Basics : Class 10
Variations are differences in structure, physiology and other traits found in individuals of species.
If there were a population of bacteria living in temperate regions and if the water temperature were
to be increased by global warming, most of these bacteria would die but the few variants resistant
to heat would survive and grow further. Variation is, thus useful for the survival of species over time.

Why is simply copying DNA in a dividing cell not enough to maintain continuity of life?
Explanation
Simply copying DNA in a dividing cell is not enough to maintain
DNA is the blueprint
continuity of life because an organized cellular structure (with of life. It stores all the
genetic material) is required to maintain life processes. So, DNA information about the
body design, building
copying must be accompanied by the creation of an additional and running of the
cellular apparatus otherwise simply copying DNA is not enough cellular machinery and
functioning of the
to maintain continuity of life.
individuals.

 Some variations in new cell might be so drastic that the new DNA copy cannot work with
the cellular apparatus it inherits. These newborn cells will simply die.
Significance of reproduction
For maintenance of continuity of a species: Since every organism dies after a certain age
so by reproduction new individuals are born which replace them.
For adding variation for evolution: By reproduction new

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variations are added as you can see the members of a family Normally DNA
having variation in colour, shape, size, intelligence, body produces working
copies in the form of
capacity etc, some are better suitable than other which are RNAs. RNA build
selected by nature and others die and are removed. proteins, enzymes and
other bio-chemicals for
For maintenance of population size: By reproduction new
formation of living
members are added which maintains the population size. matter.

Why is variation beneficial to the species but not necessary for the individual?
Explanation
Variation is beneficial for the species as variations make species more adapted to survive with the
changing conditions. A particular variation in an individual may not be suitable for any given
condition but when condition changes such variation may save it from being dead and leads to
formation of a new population with suitable character. It is not necessary for the individual.
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 Biology
Types of reproduction: There are two types of reproduction in living organisms –
1. Asexual reproduction
2. Sexual reproduction
1. Asexual reproduction: Production of offsprings by a single parent without the formation
and fusion of gametes is called asexual reproduction. It is a primitive type of reproduction
in which offsprings are produced by a cell or any vegetative organ of an organism.
In this type of reproduction, offsprings are genetically identical to their parents.
2. Sexual reproduction: It is a type of reproduction in which two different sex cells
(gametes) take part.
The gametes often come from two different individuals called male and female, so they
bring some variations in the next generations.
All sexually reproducing organisms have two sets of chromosomes called homologous
chromosomes. In such set one set of chromosomes come from each parent. The number of
chromosomes is reduced to one set by a kind of cell division called meiosis in which four cells
are produced each with only one set of chromosomes, which later develops into gametes.
Thus, when two such sex cells (gametes) fuse they restore the number of chromosomes of
that species.

 Following way we see that the number of chromosomes remain same 46 generation after
generation.
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Male Female
46 chromosomes 46 chromosomes

Gamete produced by
meiosis has one set of
chromosomes

23 23

46
Sexual reproduction involves following steps -
a. Formation of gametes (by meiotic cell division)
b. Fusion of gametes (Formation of zygote)
c. Development of zygote to new individual
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NCERT Basics : Class 10

How are number of chromosomes maintained in sexually reproducing organisms?

Explanation
Two gametes take part in sexual reproduction which, on fusion give rise to a zygote. If each
gamete is having a full set of chromosomes their number will double each time. But during
gamete formation, a different kind of cell division takes place in which number of
chromosomes in gametes is reduced to half of original number. So when such gamete fuses the
number of chromosomes restores to the full set.
Modes of asexual reproduction: These are fission, budding, regeneration, fragmentation,
spore formation and vegetative propagation.

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(1) Fission: It is a kind of asexual reproduction in which unicellular organisms create two or
more new individuals. It can be of two types.
(a) Binary fission: One cell split into two equal halves, e.g., many bacteria and protozoa like
Amoeba, Paramecium and Leishmania. In Amoeba fission can take place in any plane.
[4]
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In Leishmania (which cause kala-azar), which have a whip-like structure at one end of the cell. In
such organisms, binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in relation to these structures. i.e.
longitudinal binary fission.

(b) Multiple fission: One cell divides in repeated fashion into many daughter cells
simultaneously. e.g., Plasmodium (Malarial parasite) and Amoeba in unfavourable
conditions.
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Why is it said that Amoeba never dies a natural death?

Explanation
Amoeba never dies a natural death because every time they reproduce by asexual means the
parent cell is divided into daughter cells and thus, they never get old to die.
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NCERT Basics : Class 10
(2) Budding: Process in which an outgrowth (bud) is formed on the body of parent organism
which then detaches when fully mature and becomes a new independent organism. e.g.,
Yeast and Hydra.
Nucleus Vacuole Bud Parent Yeast Daughter Yeast

Budding in Yeast
Hydra uses regenerative cells for reproduction in the process of budding. In Hydra, a bud
develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at one specific site. These buds
develop into tiny individuals and when fully mature, detach from the parent body and
become new independent individuals.

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What are tentacles?
Explanation
Tentacles are the extension of the body layer of Hydra. It encircles the opening of mouth. It
helps in capturing the prey.
(3) Regeneration: The process of getting back a full organism from the body parts of the
parent individual is called regeneration. Regeneration is carried out by specialised cells.
These cells proliferate and make large number of cells. These changes in organised
sequence is called as development.
Hydra and Planaria can be cut into any number of pieces and each piece grows the missing
parts and form a complete organism.
Regeneration is the ability of an organism to replace its lost body part. This ability to
regenerate is due to presence of stem cells. Higher animals have limited power of
regeneration (tail in wall lizard, arm in star fish). Regeneration is not same as reproduction.
Most organisms would not normally depend on being cutup to be able to reproduce.
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 Biology

(4) Fragmentation: In this process an organism breaks

up into two or more fragments and each fragment
develops into an adult organism. e.g. Spirogyra.
Spirogyra, simply breaks up into smaller pieces upon
maturation which grow into new individuals.

Spirogyra
6
Fragmentation in Spirogyra

How is reproduction to be achieved from a single cell type, if the organism itself consists
of many cell types?
Explanation
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There must be a single cell type in the organisms that is capable of growing, proliferating and
making other cell types under the right circumstances.
(5) Spore formation: It takes place in fungi (multi-cellular organisms). The thread-like
structures that develop on the bread are the hyphae of the bread mould (Rhizopus).
The tiny blob-on-a-stick structures(sporangia) are involved in reproduction. Sporangia
contains cells or spores that develops into new Rhizopus individuals.
The spores are covered by thick walls that protect them until they come into contact with
another moist surface and can begin to grow.
Spores are light weight, so they are easily carried away by air and water current to new
locations and have a tough covering over them which protect them from harsh conditions
of environment like dryness and high temperature.
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NCERT Basics : Class 10

1. How does binary fission differ from multiple fission?

2. Can you think of a reason why more complex organisms do not reproduce by means of simple
reproductive methods like fragmentation?
3. Write two advantages of reproduction by spore formation.
(6) Vegetative propagation: This is an asexual method of reproduction in plants where
vegetative parts like root, stem and leaves give rise to new plants in appropriate conditions.
(a) Natural vegetative propagation: Plants reproduce without the help of human beings.
By leaves: Leaves of some plants produce adventitious buds with adventitious roots on their
margin, which get detached and develop into new plants e.g. Bryophyllum, Kalanchoe.

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By stem: Underground modified stems possess buds that produce aerial shoots under
favourable conditions when planted in soil. e.g. Potato, Ginger, Onion.

By roots: Modified tuberous roots when planted in soil, the buds present on the roots
grow into leafy shoots above ground. E.g. sweet potato, Dahlia.
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 Biology

Natural vegetative propagation by roots in sweet potato

(b) Artificial vegetative propagation: These methods are man-made and developed by plant
growers to prepare plants with desirable characters. These are of four types:
Cutting: In this method, a small part of plant (stem, root or leaf) is cut and buried partly in
the moist soil then cutting develops roots and grows into a new plant. Stem cuttings are most
commonly used for artificial vegetative propagation. e.g. Rose, Sugarcane, Potato, Cactus.

Grafting: Two dicotyledonous plants of closely related varieties are joined together so that they
live as one plant. The plant of which roots remain in the soil is called as stock. Cutting part of a
plant that is grafted on the other rooted plant is called scion. e.g. Mango, Apple, Lemon.
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Grafting is not possible in monocot plants. Cambium activity is essential for the union of
stock and scion.

Grafting
Layering: This is the most common method of propagating herbaceous plants. In this method
the lower branch of the parent plant is bent and buried in the moist soil with the growing tip
of the branch remains above the soil surface. The portion of the branch which is in contact
with the soil develops adventitious roots and this rooted branch is called layer.
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NCERT Basics : Class 10
Layer is then detached from the parent plant and grows into a new plant. e.g. Citrus, Grapevine,
Jasmine and Hibiscus.

Branches

Main plant Adventitious

roots

Vegetative propagation by layering

Tissue culture or Micropropagation: Cells or tissue are isolated from the growing tip of plant called
explant. The explant develops into undifferentiated mass of cells called callus in the proper culture
medium. The callus is transferred to another medium containing hormones for growth and
differentiation, that forms plantlet. The plantlets are transplanted into pot or soil to form mature plant.
This technique is known as micropropagation. Using tissue culture, many plants can be grown from
one parent in disease-free conditions. This technique is commonly used for ornamental plants.
e.g. Orchids, Chrysanthemum.
Cotton plug

Culture tube Tissue culture is also

Callus Plantlet called micro-
New Plant propagation because a
Explant
large number of plants
Nutrient are formed from a small
medium tissue.

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Artificial vegetative propagation by tissue culture
Advantages of vegetative propagation
(i) It is a rapid, cheap and easy method of reproduction for the multiplication of plants.
(ii) Disease free plants can be produced.
(iii) Superior quality fruits or flowers can be produced by grafting.
(iv) Genetically identical plants are produced.
(v) Plants raised by vegetative propagation can bear flowers and fruits earlier than those produce
from seeds.
(vi) Propagation is also possible for plants that have lost the capacity to produce seeds. e.g.
banana, rose and jasmine.
Advantages of asexual reproduction
(i) It is only method of reproduction in most unicellular organisms.
(ii) The parental properties are preserved.
(iii) It is rapid method as it does not require any sexual maturation, production of gametes,
transfer of gamete and their fusion.
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1. In binary fission, one nucleus divides only once and results into the formation of two daughter
nuclei but in multiple fission, the nucleus undergo repeated division resulting in many nuclei. So, in
binary fission only two daughter cells are produced but in multiple fission many cells are produced.
2. The reason is that many multi-cellular organisms are not simply a random collection of cells.
Specialised cells are organised as tissues and tissues are organised into organs, which then
have to be placed at definite positions in the body. In such a carefully organised situation, cell-
by-cell division would be impractical. Multi-cellular organisms, therefore, need to use more
complex ways of reproduction.
3. (i) Spores are protected by hard covering which can tolerate harsh environmental conditions.
(ii) Being light weight, they can be carried away by air and water currents to new locations
where on germination give rise to new individuals.

Why is vegetative propagation favoured for growing some kinds of plants?

Explanation
There are several reasons for which vegetative propagation is favoured –
(i) Either they do not produce seeds or their seeds are not viable.
(ii) Their qualities are good and we want to preserve those qualities.
(iii) Only male or female plant is available.
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(iv) Fast growth

Differences between asexual and sexual reproduction
Features Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
Number of parents One Two
involved
Resemblance with parents Organisms produced Organisms do not resemble exactly with
resemble exactly with the the parent but resemble in certain
parent. features with both the parents.
Type of cell divisions Amitotic/mitotic Mitotic and meiotic both are present.
Time duration for Takes less time Takes more time
multiplication
Variations Variations are very less. Variations are present.
Adaptability Organisms produced have less Organisms produced have more
adaptability. adaptability.
Fission in Amoeba, budding in Higher plants and Animals
Examples
Yeast,

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NCERT Basics : Class 10
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants:

Structure of flower: Sexual reproduction takes place within specialized reproductive organs,
called flowers in angiosperms (flowering plants).
Flower is a modified condensed reproductive shoot on which all the floral appendages are

inserted. A typical flower has four whorls arranged on thalamus.

1. Calyx
Non-essential organs or accessory organs
2. Corolla
3. Androecium
Essential organs or reproductive organs
4. Gynoecium

1. Calyx: It is the outermost whorl consisting of sepals. Sepals are green and leaf like structure.
Calyx protects the flower bud before it opens.

2. Corolla: It is the second whorl, inner to calyx, consisting of petals. Petals are generally large,

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coloured and showy. Corolla attracts insects for pollination.
3. Androecium: It is the third whorl, inner to corolla, consisting of male reproductive parts

called stamens. Each stamen has two parts, filament and anther. Anther is bilobed structure
present at the tip of filament. Each anther produces pollen grains that are yellowish in colour.
Each pollen grain produces two male gametes/germ cells.

4. Gynoecium: It is the fourth and innermost whorl consisting of carpels. Carpel is present in
the centre of flower. Each carpel has three parts that is Ovary, Style and Stigma.
Ovary is a swollen basal part of carpel that contains one or several ovules.

Each ovule contains an embryo sac that bears an egg (female gamete). Style is the middle-
elongated part of the carpel and has sticky part called stigma above it which receives
pollen grains.
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The flower may be unisexual (papaya, watermelon, date palm, Stigma
mulberry, gourd) when it contains either stamens or pistil or bisexual Style

(Hibiscus, mustard) when it contains both stamens and pistil. If both

sepals and petals are coloured and cannot be distinguished from each Ovule Ovary
other, then their whorl is known as perianth. e.g. Tulip and Lily. Calyx
and corolla are non-essential parts of the flower because they are not
Gynoecium
directly involved in reproduction.
Pollination:

Pollinator

Pollen
Pollen Pollen

Stigma
Pollen
grains
Ovary
Ovule

Pollination
Process in which pollen grains are transferred from the ripe anther to the stigma. It is of two types:
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(i) Self-pollination: It is the transfer of pollen grains from an anther to the stigma of the
same plant. If it is in the same flower, it is called autogamy (e.g. Pea) and if it is between

flowers of the same plant then it is called geitonogamy (e.g. Maize).

Pollen arrives on the Pollen arrives on the stigma of the

stigma of the same flower another flower on the same plant
Autogamy Geitonogamy

(ii) Cross pollination: It is the transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of different
plants of the same species, it is also called xenogamy. (e.g. Mango).
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NCERT Basics : Class 10
Pollen
grains
Stamen Stigma
Style

Ovary

Xenogamy
Agencies of pollination: Transfer of pollen from one flower to another is achieved by
agents like wind, water or animals.
Water (Hydrophily)
Abiotic agencies
Wind (Anemophily)
Agencies
of pollination
Insect (Entomophily)
Biotic agencies Birds (Ornithophily)

Bats (Chiropterophily)

What is the significance of bright colours of flowers?

Explanation

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The bright colour of flowers is meant to attract insects which help in pollination.
Fertilization in Plants: Fertilization is the process of fusion of the male and female gametes
to form a diploid zygote which takes place in the embryo sac present in the ovule.
After pollination, pollen grains germinate on the stigma by producing pollen tube. It then
penetrates the stigma and passes through the style. The nucleus in the pollen tube divides into
two male gametes/germ cells. Pollen tube enters the ovule through a narrow pore called
micropyle. It releases two male gametes in embryo sac.
One male gamete fuses with egg cell and second male gamete fuses with the two polar nuclei.

Syngamy
One male gamete + Egg cell ⎯⎯⎯⎯ → Zygote
Triple Fusion
Second male gamete + Two polar nuclei ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ → Triploid nucleus
( Primary Endosperm Nucleus)
Syngamy + Triple fusion = Double fertilization.
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 Biology

Ovule
Pollen grain
Anther
Stigma

Embryo Sac Male germ-cell

Pollen Grain Pollen tube

Pollen grain
Stigma
Pollination

Pollen tube Ovary

Fusion of two polar
nuclei and male Female
gamete leads to the
germ-cell
formation of triploid
nucleus
Fertilization leads to 
Ovary Ovule Male gamete
the formation of Endosperm Germination of pollen on stigma
diploid zygote
Fruit Seed Zygote

Embryo
Sexual reproduction in plants
A fully developed typical angiospermic embryo sac consists of seven cells and eight nucleus
stage. 3 antipodal cells, 2 synergids, central cell containing 2 polar nuclei (which fuse to form
diploid secondary nucleus) and 1 egg cell.
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1. Why cannot fertilization take place in flowers if pollination does not occur?
2. Where is the zygote located in the flower after fertilization?
Differences between pollination and fertilization
Pollination Fertilization
Transfer of pollen grains from anther to Fusion of male and female gametes.
stigma.
It does not ensure formation of zygote. It ensures formation of zygote and further
development.
It does not initiate fruit formation. After fertilization ovary develops into fruits.
There are many agents of pollination. Fertilization is always same in all plants.

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NCERT Basics : Class 10

1. Pollination is essential for bringing the male gametes in order to fuse with the female
gamete. In the absence of pollination, there will be no male gamete to perform
fertilization.
2. Zygote is the fertilized egg which occur in the embryo sac present inside the ovule located
in the ovary part of the carpel.
Post fertilization changes in the flower
The petals and stamen wither off, however the calyx may be present in some cases. Style and
stigma degenerate. Ovary develops into fruit and ovule grows into seed. The seed contains the
future plant or embryo which develops into a seedling under appropriate conditions. This
process is called as germination.
Antipodal cells and synergids degenerate.
Triploid nucleus Endosperm May be consumed
by embryo
Ovule Fertilized egg/zygote Embryo
Integuments Seed coat Seed
Funiculus Stalk of the seed
True fruits are those which are formed from ovary of a flower e.g. Guava, grapes. While if any
other part of flower like thalamus or other modifies into fruit, it is called false fruit e.g. apple,
pineapple.
Seed: A typical seed is formed from the ovule of a flower. It includes two basic parts an embryo

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and a seed coat. Embryo is the fertilized egg formed by repeated division of zygote. Seed
contains one cotyledon or seed leaf in monocots and two cotyledons in dicot s. In angiosperms
usually there is store of nutrients for the embryo called endosperm. The seed coat develops
from the integuments, originally surrounding the ovule. The seed coat is either bitegmic or
unitegmic. Bitegmic seeds have two integuments outer testa and inner tegmen while
unitegmic seed have only one integument.

Some plants, like

wheat and marigold,
produce seeds only once
in a year and die out,
while others continue to
produce seeds for many
years such as mango,
apple, etc.

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 Biology
Seed remains inactive for sometimes, this resting period is called dormancy. Dormancy
protects seed from all unfavourable conditions. On germination first the radicle comes out
which later develops into root and then plumule which later develops into shoot.
Human Reproductive System: Human beings become reproductively active with some signs,
these signs are visible from a certain age called the age of puberty.
Puberty: The age at which the gametes and sex hormones are produced and the boy and girl
become sexually mature is called puberty.
Generally female pubertal age is 10-12 years, male pubertal age is 13-14 years.
Secondary sexual characters
Sexual characteristics are physical or behavioural traits of an organism which are indicative
of its biological sex. These can include sex organ (primary sexual character) used for
reproduction and secondary sexual characteristics which distinguish the sexes of a species,
but which are not directly part of the reproductive system. The reproductive organs in humans
are testes and ovaries which produce the gametes, sperm in male and ova in female.
Secondary Sexual Characters in Male
(i) Widening of shoulders
(ii) Deepening of voice
(iii) Appearance of beard and moustaches
(iv) Growth of sex organs (Testes and penis)
Secondary Sexual Characters in Female
(i) Widening of pelvis and hips
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(ii) High pitch voice

(iii) Initiation of menstrual cycle
(iv) Growth of mammary glands (breasts)
(v) Maturation of secondary sex organs like fallopian tubes, uterus
Human male reproductive system
Male reproductive system

Primary sex organs Secondary sex organs

Epididymis
Testes
Vas deferens
Seminal vesicle
Prostate gland
’
Penis
[17]
NCERT Basics : Class 10
Seminal vesicle

Ureter
Bladder
Primary sex organs
Prostate gland
produce gametes while
secondary sex organs
Penis
Vas deferens are concerned with the
Urethra conduction of gametes.
Scrotum

Testis
Human male reproductive system
The male reproductive system consists of portions which produce the germ cells and sex
hormones and other portions that deliver the germ-cells to the site of fertilisation.
(1) Scrotum: The scrotum is a pouch of skin that encloses the testes. These arise from the lower
abdominal wall and act as a thermoregulator, maintaining the testes at a temperature 2°C lower
than that of the body which is required for normal development and maturation of sperms.
(2) Testes: They are the primary sex organs. A pair of testes are located outside the abdominal
cavity in scrotum. They produce the germ cells or sperms. They also secrete male sex
hormone testosterone into the blood that brings about development of secondary sexual
characters in boys at time of puberty.
(3) Spermatic ducts: The sperms formed are delivered
through the vas deferens which unites with a tube, urethra,
coming from the urinary bladder. The urethra thus forms a Male gametes are called
sperms in animals and
common passage for both the sperms and urine. Hence
pollen in plants while in
urethra is also known as urinogenital tract. all the organisms
female gametes are

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(4) Sex glands: Along the path of the vas deferens, glands like
called ova.
the prostate gland and the seminal vesicle add their
secretions and mucus so that the sperms are now in a fluid
that is collectively called seminal fluid or semen which makes their transport easier and this
fluid also provides nutrition.
(5) Penis: It is the male genital muscular organ carrying the duct (urethra) for the transfer of
sperm during copulation into the female body.

Head Tail

Middle piece
Sperm
The sperms are tiny bodies that consist of mainly genetic material and a long tail that helps
them to move towards the female germ-cell.
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 Biology
Human Female Reproductive System

Female reproductive system

Primary sex organs Secondary sex organs

Fallopian tubes
Ovaries
Uterus
Vagina
Mammary glands

Oviduct

Uterus Ovary
Cervix
Vagina

Human Female Reproductive System

(1) Ovaries: The ovaries are the primary sex organs of the female that lie in the lower part of

the abdomen. The ovaries like the testes have both exocrine function that is production of

ova and endocrine role that is secretion of female sex hormone, estrogen and
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progesterone. When a girl child is born, the ovaries already contain thousands of

immature eggs. On reaching puberty, some of these starts maturing. One egg is produced

every month by one of the ovaries.

(2) Fallopian tube (oviducts): A fallopian tube is a long muscular tube. It conveys the egg

from the ovary to the uterus and also provides the appropriate environment for its

fertilization. Oviducts are the sites of fertilization of male and female gametes.

(3) Uterus: The uterus is a large, highly elastic sac specialized for the development of the

embryo. The two oviducts unite to open into uterus. The uterus opens into the vagina

through the cervix.

(4) Vagina: It is a large, elastic, muscular tube. It is adapted for receiving the semen during

copulation, allowing menstrual flow and serving as birth canal during parturition.
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NCERT Basics : Class 10
Embryo development and nourishment: The sperms enter through the vaginal passage
during sexual intercourse. They travel upwards and reach the oviduct where they may
encounter the egg. The fertilised egg (zygote) starts dividing and form a ball of cells or embryo.
The embryo gets attached to the lining endometrium of uterus, this is known as implantation
where the embryo continues to grow and develop organs to become foetus. The mother's body
is designed to undertake the development of the child. Hence the uterus prepares itself every
month to receive and nurture growing embryo. The lining thickens and is richly supplied with
blood to nourish the growing embryo.
The embryo gets nutrition from the mother's blood with the help of a special tissue called
placenta. Placenta is a fully formed reddish brown disc embedded in the uterine wall, that serves
to bring the foetal and maternal blood close enough to permit the exchange of materials between
the two. It contains villi. On the mother's side are blood spaces, which surround the villi. This
provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the mother to the embryo.
The developing embryo will also generate waste substances which can be removed by
transferring them into the mother's blood through the placenta.
The development of the child inside the mother's body takes approximately nine months that is
280 days known as gestation period. The child is born as a result of forceful muscular contractions
in the uterus, called labour pain.

Placenta

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Umbilical cord

Foetus Cervix
Vagina

Foetus inside mother's womb

What happens when the egg is not fertilised?
If the egg is not fertilised, it lives for about one day. Since the ovary releases one egg every
month, the uterus also prepares itself every month to receive a fertilised egg. Thus, its lining
becomes thick and spongy. This would be required for nourishing the embryo if fertilisation
had taken place. If fertilization does not occur, the released egg, and the thickened lining of
the uterus along with its blood vessels are shed off. This causes bleeding in women which is
called menstruation. It usually lasts for about two to eight days.
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 Biology
Advantages of sexual reproduction
(i) More genetic variations within a species. Genetic variations can lead to evolutionary
advancement.
(ii) More variations assist with survival. It increases the chance that at least some offsprings
of a parent survive.
Note: The type of fertilization which occurs inside the body of female is called internal
fertilization and fertilization which occurs outside the body of female is called external
fertilization. External fertilization takes place in many invertebrates, fish and amphibians and
internal fertilization takes place in all reptiles, birds and mammals.
Hermaphrodite: The animals having both male and female reproductive organs are called
hermaphrodite animals. e.g. Earthworms.
Reproductive Health
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)
There are many infectious diseases which are spread by sexual contact, called Sexually
Transmitted Diseases (STDs) e.g. AIDS, Hepatitis, genital warts etc.
STDs occur mostly in the individuals who are involved in sexual activities with many partners.
Methods of prevention of STDs:
(i) The people should be educated about various STDs.
(ii) Avoid multiple sexual partners.
(iii) No sex without proper precaution.
(iv) Finding sources of infection and treating them.
Name of STDs Causative Organism Symptoms
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AIDS HIV Destroy the immune system of body.

(Acquired Immuno-deficiency (Human Immuno-deficiency Persistent cough and fever.
Syndrome) Virus) Body attacked by other diseases like
pneumonia, T.B. and certain cancers.
Syphilis Treponema pallidum Causes sores and lesions in the genital
(a bacterium) tract. Burning sensation at urination.
Gonorrhoea Neisseria gonorrhoeae Infects mucous membranes of the
(a bacterium) urinogenital tract.
Genital discharge, painful urination.
Trichomoniasis Trichomonas vaginalis Vaginal irritation, itching and
(a protozoan) discharge.
Genital warts Human papilloma virus Vaginal discharge, itching, bleeding,
burning.

[21]
NCERT Basics : Class 10
Methods of Contraception: The prevention of pregnancy in women is called contraception.
1. Planned control of population:
(i) By educating people about the advantages of small family.
(ii) Raising the age of marriage can help in reducing population growth.
(iii) By family planning.
2. Natural method
Intercourse is safe for a week before and week after menstruation.
3. Mechanical methods
(i) It includes use of condoms which are the rubber or plastic sheets put on the penis before
coital activity.
(ii) Use of diaphragms or cervical caps fitted in vagina of female to check the entry of sperms
into the uterus and also helps in avoiding conception.
(iii) Use of IUCD i.e., Intra Uterine Contraceptive Devices like copper T and loops fitted in the
uterus, help to prevent fertilization and implantation of embryo. They can cause side
effects due to irritation or infection of uterus.

Uterus

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Copper-T

Copper-T
Copper -T

4. Chemical methods
(i) It consists of using some chemicals which are spermicidal. They may be in form of tablets,
jellies, paste and creams introduced in the vagina before coital activity.
(ii) Another chemical method is the use of oral contraceptive (OC) pills which inhibit the
secretion of FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone) and LH (Leutinising Hormone) from the
anterior lobe of pituitary gland and thus inhibiting ovulation from the ovary. These
contraceptives change the hormonal balance so that egg cell is not released (inhibit
ovulation) and hence prevent fertilization.
[22]
 Biology
5. Surgical methods
(i) Tubectomy involves cutting of fallopian tubes in females and Vasectomy involves
cutting of vas deferens of each side in males. If the vas deferens in the male is blocked,
sperm transfer will be prevented. If the fallopian tube in the female is blocked, the egg
will not be able to reach the uterus. In both cases fertilisation will not take place.

Fallopian
Fallopian
tube
tube
Ovary
Ovary
Vas deferens

Tubectomy in Females
Tubectomy in Females Vasectomy in males
(ii) Surgical removal of ovaries is known as ovariectomy and removal of testes is known
as castration.
(iii) Another surgical method is MTP i.e. Medical Termination of Pregnancy or abortion.
(iv) Other method is tubal ligation in which fallopian tubes are blocked by an instrument
called laproscope.
Note:
• In tubal ligation, the fallopian tubes are blocked but eggs continue to be produced because
the ovaries are intact. Eggs fail to pass into the uterus and sperms fail to reach the eggs
Publishing$\PNCF\2024-25\Print Module\SET-2\NCERT\Biology\10th\06. How do Organisms Reproduce

for fertilization.
• Amniocentesis is a prenatal diagnostic technique to determine the genetic disorders in the
foetus. Amniocentesis is being misused to kill the normal female foetuses as it can help to
detect the sex of foetus also. Determination of sex by amniocentesis has been banned.

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NCERT Basics : Class 10

Biology Diagrams made Easy

Binary fission in Amoeba

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Binary Fission in Leishmania

Multiple Fission in Plasmodium

[24]
 Biology

Buddin in Hydra

Buds

Leaf of Bryophyllum with buds in the margin

Spores
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Spore formation in Rhizopus

[25]
NCERT Basics : Class 10

Pollen grain (germinating)

Pollen tube

Zygote formation

Ovum

(a) (b)
Germination of pollen in stigma

Seminal vesicle

Ureter Bladder

Prostate gland

Penis
Vas deferens Urethra

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Scrotum

Testis
Human male reproductive system

Oviduct

Ovary
Uterus

Vagina
Human Female Reproductive System

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 Biology

Chapter At a Glance
Binary fission
e.g. – Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium
(i) Fission
Multiple fission
e.g. Plasmodium - (Malarial parasite)

(ii) Budding e.g. Hydra, Yeast

(iii) Regeneration e.g. Hydra, Planaria

Asexual
(iv) Fragmentation e.g. Spirogyra
reproduction
Tissue culture (Orchids)
(v) Spore formation e.g. Rhizopus Cutting (Rose)
Artificial
Grafting (Mango)
(vi) Vegetative propagation Layering (Jasmine)

Stem (Grasses)
Natural Leaf (Bryophyllum)
Root (Sweet potato)

Male reproductive system

Primary sex organs Secondary sex organs

Testes Epididymis
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Vas deferens
Seminal vesicle
Prostate gland
’
Penis

Female Reproductive System

Primary sex organs Secondary sex organs

Fallopian tubes
Ovaries
Uterus
Vagina

Mammary glands

[27]
NCERT Basics : Class 10
SOME BASIC TERMS
1. DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid
2. Scion: Plant part that is grafted on the other rooted plant in grafting.
3. Stock: Plant part which root remain in the soil in grafting.
4. Explant: Cell or tissue which is isolated from the growing tip.
5. Micropropagation: Tissue culture
6. Calyx: Group of sepals
7. Corolla: Group of petals
8. Hydrophily: Pollination by water
9. Anemophily: Pollination by wind
10. Entomophily: Pollination by insects
11. Ornithophily: Pollination by birds
12. Chiropterophily: Pollination by bats
13. Syngamy: Fusion of egg cell and one male gamete in plants
14. Castration: Surgical removal of testes
15. Amniocentesis: Diagnostic technique to determine the genetic disorder in foetus.

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[28]
 7 Heredity

"Heredity is the passing of

characters from parents to
offsprings or one
generation to next".

Introduction
If we see the offspring of any organism, it looks like its parent only, like a pup produced from bitch,
kitten produced from a cat and bunny from a rabbit, similarly all plants also produce their own kind.
Asexually reproducing organisms look very much similar to their parents like all plants in a
sugarcane field look very much similar to each other.

 In asexually reproducing organisms, variations are very

little (brought only because of small changes created in Genetics is a branch of
DNA at the time of their replication). biology which deals
with the study of
Sexually reproducing organisms show great variation as
Publishing$\PNCF\2024-25\Print Module\SET-2\NCERT\Biology\10th\07. Heredity

heredity and variations.

compared to asexually reproducing organisms, because of
involvement of two parents. So, their characters are varying
between two parents.
Accumulation of variations during reproduction: Small variations are produced in each
generation. These small variations accumulate generation after generation. These variations may
enable or disable the organisms to cope with changes in the environment. Advantageous
variations are selected by environmental factor.
e.g., Bacteria that tolerate low temperature can survive in a cold wave. Such heritable variations
lead to the evolution and formation of new species.
The offsprings are slightly different from each other. Some differences are unique and other are
inherited from their respective parents.
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NCERT Basics : Class 10

Sexually reproducing
organisms show greater
variations which may
lead to increased
survival of individual.
So greater diversity will
be generated by sexual
reproduction.

The above figure represents the situation if a single individual reproduces, as happens in
asexual reproduction. If one bacterium divides, and then the resultant two bacteria divide
again, the four individual bacteria generated would be very similar. There would be only very
minor differences between them, generated due to small inaccuracies in DNA copying.
However, if sexual reproduction is involved, even greater diversity will be generated,

Why do bacteria look alike?

Explanation
Because they reproduce by asexual mode of reproduction which has less chances of variations.
Terminology used
Alternative forms of a gene which are located on same position (loci) on the homologous
chromosome are called alleles.
Publishing$\PNCF\2024-25\Print Module\SET-2\NCERT\Biology\10th\07. Heredity

Alleles Alleles

The differences in
Non-Alleles the traits or characters
among the individuals
Alleles
of a species are called
variations. e.g. Plant
height - tall and dwarf.
Homologous Homologous
Chromosome Chromosome
Chromosome is a thread like structure in the nucleus of a cell. It is formed of DNA which carries the genes.
Unit of heredity which transfers characters from parents to their offsprings during
reproduction is called genes.
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 Biology
The genetic constitution of an organism or the description of genes present in an
organism e.g., TT, Tt, tt is called genotype.
External and morphological appearance of an organism for a particular character is
called phenotype. e.g., Tall, Dwarf.

In homozygous condition, two factors of a character are same (TT).

In hybrid/heterozygous condition, two factors of a character are different (Tt).

B B B b b B b b
Homozygous Homozygous
Bb Bb
BB bb
Heterozygous
Homozygous and Heterozygous conditions
Dominant factor is one which able to express its effect in the presence of its contrasting
factor in heterozygous state.
Recessive factor or allele is one which is unable to express its effect in the presence o f
its contrasting factor in heterozygous state. Its effect can be seen in pure or homozygous
state only.
Gregor Johann Mendel (1822–1884):
Publishing$\PNCF\2024-25\Print Module\SET-2\NCERT\Biology\10th\07. Heredity

Mendel was educated in a monastery and went on to study science and mathematics at
the University of Vienna. Mendel was an Austrian monk and scientist who first worked
on heredity experiments and gave theory in 1866 but people of that time couldn’t
understand him and rejected his theory. Many others had studied the inheritance of
traits in peas and other organisms earlier, but Mendel blended his knowledge of science
and mathematics and was the first one to keep count of individuals exhibiting a
particular trait in each generation. This helped him to arrive at the laws of inheritance.
Later in 1900 three different scientists from 3 different places also found the same
result. They were Hugo de Vries, Tschermak and Correns. They rediscovered the theory
of heredity proposed by Mendel. So, Mendel is called “Father of genetics”.
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NCERT Basics : Class 10

Gregor Johann Mendel

Mendelian experiments
In 1856-57, he started his historical experiments of heredity
on pea (Pisum sativum) plant.

Mendel said that each

character is controlled
by a pair of factor which
is now known as gene.

Advantages of Pisum sativum

Pisum sativum is a unique plant selected by Mendel for his experiments which had following
importance:
Property Advantages of properties
a. Short life cycle Results of experiments were obtained in less time.
b. Could be grown throughout year More experiments can be done in a year.
Choice of cross or self- Mendel could conduct experiment as per his
c.
fertilization desire. Publishing$\PNCF\2024-25\Print Module\SET-2\NCERT\Biology\10th\07. Heredity

d. 7 pairs of allelic characters Large number of choices for experiments.

e. Large number of offsprings Good number of data for statistical analysis.

Before starting his experiments, he obtained the pure breed. A pure breed is the one in which
a plant is crossed with same allelic type and results in all of its offspring of same kind. Tall
plant only results in tall plant for any number of generations and so does other characters too.

1. How many pairs of allelic characters did Mendel study in pea plant?
2. State any two properties due to which Mendel selected pea plant.
[42]
 Biology
Pairs of allelic characters found in garden pea plant:
Properties Dominant Recessive
1. Height Tall Dwarf
2. Colour of seed Yellow Green
3. Colour of pod Green Yellow
4. Colour of flower Violet White
5. Shape of seed Round Wrinkled
6. Shape of pod Inflated Constricted
7. Position of flower Axial Terminal

1. Seven
2. It has short life cycle and could be grown throughout the year.
Monohybrid Cross
It is a cross in which only one character is studied at a time.
In his first monohybrid cross, Mendel crossed a pure breed tall plant (TT) and a pure breed dwarf
plant (tt).
And he found that in F1 generation only tall plant were born out of these seeds, no intermediate
character or mixing or blending was observed by him. Mendel termed tallness as dominant and
dwarfness as a recessive character.
He repeated the same experiment taking other characters too and always found same results.
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[43]
NCERT Basics : Class 10
Mendel’s postulates
To explain the experiment, he said that each character is controlled by a pair of factors. During
gamete formation, the paired factors got segregated and moved to different gametes. When these
gametes fused together, they used to restore paired state again.
In heterozygous conditions out of the two alleles only one allele is able to express its effect and it
is called dominant allele and other which does not show its effect in heterozygous condition is
called recessive allele.
When F1 plants are grown and allowed to self-pollinate he got many seeds and when they were
grown, he found that the ratio of tall plants and dwarf plants was 3:1 respectively.
The dwarfness which was not visible in F1 generation reappeared in F2 generation.

Cross fertilisation

F1

Self fertilisation

F2

3 : 1 Ratio
Monohybrid Cross
Dihybrid cross
It is a cross in which 2 characters are simultaneously studied.
In Mendel’s first dihybrid cross, he crossed a pure breed plant with yellow and round (YYRR) Publishing$\PNCF\2024-25\Print Module\SET-2\NCERT\Biology\10th\07. Heredity

seeds with another pure breed plant having green and wrinkled (yyrr) seeds.
F1 generation had plants with yellow and round seeds.
It means yellow and round seed characters are dominant over green and wrinkled seeds.
He allowed these plants produced in F1 generation to self-pollinate and he expected same 3 :
1 in F2 generation.
But to his surprise the ratio was all new 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 in which beside 2 parental varieties, 2 new
varieties were also produced. So, the ratio was 9 yellow and round; 3 yellow and wrinkled; 3 green
and round; 1 green and wrinkled.
This could be explained only when beside the parental combination of factors (YR) and (yr) two
new combinations of factors are also produced as follows (Yr) and (yR).
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 Biology
Publishing$\PNCF\2024-25\Print Module\SET-2\NCERT\Biology\10th\07. Heredity

Phenotypic ratio: 9 round and yellow: 3 round and green: 3 wrinkled and yellow: 1 wrinkled
and green.
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NCERT Basics : Class 10
The occurrence of four types of plants in the F2 generation of dihybrid cross shows that during
gamete formation in F2 generation, the two factors of a character are independently assorted
and get randomly rearranged in the offspring. So, four types of gametes are formed as RY, rY,
Ry, ry from each parent. When they are randomly fused, they resulted following combinations.
So, this is how the 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 ratio could be understood.
Mendel’s laws of inheritance
Human beings were always interested to know more about the law of inheritance. On the basis
of Mendel’s work, 3 basic laws of inheritance were proposed.
(i) Law of Dominance
(ii) Law of Segregation
(iii) Law of Independent Assortment
Law of dominance: In crossing between organisms, pure for contrasting characters of a pair,
only one character of the pair appears in the F1 generation. This character is termed dominant
while the one which does not express itself in F1 generation is termed as recessive.
Pure Tall Pure Dwarf
TT tt

Heterozygous T t Tall

Dominant Recessive

How a character is expressed? Publishing$\PNCF\2024-25\Print Module\SET-2\NCERT\Biology\10th\07. Heredity

Explanation
A function is controlled by formation of a specific enzyme, this enzyme then leads to a specific
chemical reaction to express its character.
If we consider the hybrid condition obtained by Mendel in F1 generation, it has both “T” and
“t”, yet it shows tallness not dwarfness. There are two possible reasons for it as follows –
(a) Allele t may not be able to make its enzyme, so its character is not expressed.
(b) Its enzymes are not in enough quantity to show its expression in presence of enzyme of “T”.
Law of segregation: Different alleles or genes of a character remain together in an individual
and segregate randomly at the time of gamete formation. This is also known as the Law of
purity of gametes.
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 Biology
Law of independent assortment: This law states that when individuals differing in two or
more than two pairs of contrasting characters are crossed, the inheritance of any one pair is
not affected by the presence of the other.
e.g., The inheritance of seed shape character is not related to the seed colour character. Rather,
the two characters inherit independently of each other.

 The rules for inheritance of traits in human beings are related to the fact that both the
father and the mother contribute practically equal amounts of genetic material to the
child. This means that each trait can be influenced by both paternal and maternal DNA.
Thus, for each trait there will be two versions in each child.

1. What is law of dominance?

2. How do Mendel’s experiments show that traits are inherited independently?

The genotype of green stemmed tomato plants is denoted as GG and that of purple
stemmed tomato plants as gg. When these two are crossed:
(i) What colour of stem would you expect in their F1 progeny?
Publishing$\PNCF\2024-25\Print Module\SET-2\NCERT\Biology\10th\07. Heredity

(ii) Give the percentage of purple stemmed plants when F1 plants are self-pollinated.
Explanation
(i) All progenies are green stemmed in heterozygous (Gg).
(ii) The percent of purple stemmed plants (gg) in F2 generation is 25%.

1. In crossing between organisms pure for contrasting characters of a pair, only one
character of the pair appears in the F1 generation. This character is termed dominant
while the one which does not express itself in F1 generation is termed recessive.
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NCERT Basics : Class 10
2. In dihybrid cross when a plant with round and yellow seeds were crossed with a plant

with wrinkled and green seeded plant, in F2 generation he obtained four combinations
instead of two parental varieties, this is possible only when the factor of each character is
free to move with any other factor of other character. This is called law of independent

assortment.
Sex Determination:
It is the phenomena of determination of sex of an offspring.
Factors responsible for sex determination

(i) Environmental: In some animals the temperature at which the fertilised eggs are kept
decides the gender whether the animals developing in the eggs will be male or female.
e.g. in turtle. In other animals, such as snails, individuals can change sex, indicating that

sex is not genetically determined.

(ii) Genetic: In some animals, like humans, gender of individual is determined by a pair of
chromosomes called sex chromosome XX → Human Female and XY → Human Male.

Sex determination in humans: Most human chromosomes have a maternal and a paternal
copy, and we have 22 such pairs. But one pair, called the sex chromosomes, is odd in not always
being a perfect pair. Women have a perfect pair of sex chromosomes, both called X. But men

have a mismatched pair in which one is a normal-sized X while the other is a short one called
Y. So women are XX, while men are XY.
During gamete formation the male produce two types of gametes i.e. one having X
Publishing$\PNCF\2024-25\Print Module\SET-2\NCERT\Biology\10th\07. Heredity
chromosome and other having Y chromosome while both gametes produced by females are

alike i.e. each having X chromosome.

When X chromosome of male fuses to X chromosome of female, girl child is born.
When Y chromosome of male fuses to X chromosome of female, boy child is born.

Two important things to be noticed here are -

(a) Birth of male and female child has equal %, because X and Y chromosomes are produced
in equal number and it all depends on either sperm with X or Y chromosome fuses with

egg containing X chromosome.

(b) Birth of male and female child depends on Y or X chromosomes of male.
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 Biology

 Female always produce X chromosomes, so have no significant role in sex determination

of offspring.

Male Female
44 + XY 44 + XX

22 + X 22 + Y 22 + X 22 + X
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44 + XX 44 + XX 44 + XY 44 + XY
Children Children

Note: The lowest part of the ear, called the earlobe, is closely attached to the side of the head
in some of us, and not in others. Free and attached earlobes are two variants found in human
populations.

Attached ear lobe Free ear lobe

[49]
NCERT Basics : Class 10

Chapter At a Glance

M ’

Law of Dominance Law of Segregation Law of Independent Assortment

M ’ E

Monohybrid Cross Dihybrid Cross

Phenotypic ratio → 3 : 1 Phenotypic ratio → 9 : 3 : 3 : 1
Genotypic ratio → 1 : 2 : 1 Genotypic ratio →
1:2:1:2:4:2:1:2:1

SOME BASIC TERMS

1. Heredity: Passing of characters from parents to offsprings.
2. Genetics: Branch of biology which deals with the study of heredity and variations.
3. Allele: Alternative forms of a gene which have located on same position on the
homologous chromosomes.
4. Genotype: Genetic constitution of an organism.
5. Phenotype: Morphological appearance of an organism.
6. Gene: Unit of heredity which transfers characters from parents to offsprings.
Publishing$\PNCF\2024-25\Print Module\SET-2\NCERT\Biology\10th\07. Heredity
7. Homozygous: Two factors of the character are same.
8. Heterozygous: Two factors of the character are different.
9. Monohybrid cross: Cross in which only one character is studied at a time.
10. Dihybrid cross: Cross in which two characters are simultaneously studied.

[50]
 8 Our Environment

"Everything which
surrounds and influences
the organism directly or
indirectly is included in
the environment."

Introduction
The environment is the sum total of all living and non-living
Ecology is the study
factors that surround and influence an organism. It has two of inter relationships of
organisms between the
components biotic and abiotic. biotic and abiotic
Both these biotic and abiotic components influence the components of their
environment. The
organism and, in turn, get influenced. This interdependent ‘Ecology’ term was coined
by Ernst Haeckel (1866).
interaction among organisms as well as with the abiotic
components maintains a balance in nature.
The study of environment includes the study of its various components, and their protection,
Publishing$\PNCF\2024-25\Print Module\SET-2\NCERT\Biology\10th\08. Our Environment

preservation and management.

Ecosystem
All the interacting organisms in an area together with the non-living constituents of the
environment form an ecosystem. Ecosystem term was given by Arthur Tansley.
It is a self-sustained unit of living things (plants, animals and
decomposers) and their non-living environment (soil, air On the basis of size,
and water). ecosystem may be
classified as (1) Small
It is the structural and functional unit of biosphere. It is an open ecosystem (flowerpot,
water in a dish). (2)
system with respect to energy and depend on sunlight which is Large ecosystem
the ultimate source of energy to biosphere. It may be small and (forest, desert, ocean).

also very large.

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NCERT Basics : Class 10
Types of ecosystem:
In the biosphere, ecosystem may be classified on the basis of their nature, duration and size.
On the basis of nature, ecosystem may be classified as –
1. Natural ecosystem
2. Artificial ecosystem
1. Natural ecosystem: These ecosystems operate in the nature by themselves without any
human interference. Common examples of natural ecosystem are a pond, a lake, a
meadow, a desert, a grassland, a forest and an ocean, etc.
2. Artificial ecosystem: These are maintained by man and hence are also termed man-made
or man-engineered ecosystem. In this ecosystem, man maintains or disturbs the natural
balance by the addition of energy and planned manipulations. Common examples of
artificial ecosystem are croplands, orchards, gardens, aquarium, etc.
Components of ecosystem
The various components of an ecosystem may be grouped On the basis of
duration, ecosystem
into two main types.
may be classified as: (1)
(A) Abiotic (non-living) components Temporary ecosystem
(short lived ecosystem,
These include the non-living physico-chemical factors rainfed pond). (2)
of the environment. Permanent ecosystem (a
lake, a forest, a desert).
Abiotic factors include –
1. Inorganic substance
2. Physical environment
3. Climatic factors

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1. Inorganic substance: Inorganic substances, (carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, calcium,
phosphorus, etc.) and their compounds (water, carbon dioxide, etc.) constitute the main
abiotic component.
2. Physical environment: These include air, water and soil.
3. Climatic factors: These include light, temperature, humidity, wind, rainfall, water, etc.
and also edaphic factors (soil, substrate, topography, minerals, pH, etc.).
(B) Biotic (living) components
The biotic community of an ecosystem includes 3 types of organisms.
1. Producers: Those organisms which can prepare their own food from simple inorganic
substances like carbon dioxide and water by using sunlight in the presence of chlorophyll.
e.g., green plants and certain blue green algae.
[60]
 Biology

“All the flesh of a carnivore is grass.” Justify the statement.

Explanation

Carnivores depend upon herbivores for their food and herbivores eat plants to obtain energy.

Herbivores build up their tissues with the help of chemical energy obtained from plants and

carnivores build up their tissues with the help of chemical energy obtained from herbivores

(by eating them). This justifies the statement, “All the flesh of a carnivore is grass”.

2. Consumers: Those organisms which consume food or eat food prepared by producers are

called consumers. The consumer depends on producers for food, directly or indirectly. All

the animals are consumers.

 Consumers:

(a) Herbivores: Those animals which eat only plants are called herbivores. e.g., Buffalo,

goat, sheep, horse, deer, camel, grasshopper, etc.

Since herbivores obtain their food directly from plants or producers therefore

herbivores are primary consumers.

Publishing$\PNCF\2024-25\Print Module\SET-2\NCERT\Biology\10th\08. Our Environment

(b) Carnivores: Those animals which eat only other animals as food are called carnivores

or those animals which eat the meat or flesh of other animals are called carnivores.

e.g., Lion, tiger, frog, vulture, kingfisher, etc.

The small carnivores which feed on herbivores (primary consumers) are called

secondary consumers. The large carnivores or top carnivores which feed upon the

small carnivores or secondary consumers are called tertiary consumers. e.g., lion,

tiger, hawk, etc.

(c) Omnivores: Those animals which eat both plants and animals are called omnivores

or those animals which eat plant food as well as the meat or flesh of other animals.

e.g., Man, dog, crow, sparrow, bear and ant, etc.

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NCERT Basics : Class 10
3. Decomposers: The micro-organisms which break down the complex organic compounds
present in dead organisms like dead plants and animals and their products like faeces, urine
into simpler substances are called decomposers. e.g., bacteria and fungi.

Why are decomposers known as cleaners of the environment?

Explanation
Decomposers act upon dead remains and convert organic substances into simple inorganic
substances. They help in replenishing the soil. If there are no decomposers, then all the dead
bodies would pile up on this earth.
Importance of decomposers
1. They decompose the dead bodies of animals and plants thus acts as cleansing agents of
the environment.
2. They help in recycling the material in biosphere thus, play a vital role in biogeochemical
or nutrient cycles.
3. They maintain the fertility of soil.

 If there were no decomposers, the earth would have been a heap of dead organisms.

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1

1. Why is it necessary to conserve our environment?

2. What is the role of decomposers in the ecosystem?
Food Chain
It is a sequence of organisms through which energy is transferred in the form of food by the
process of one organism consuming the other.
(i) Grass → Deer → Lion
(Producer) (Herbivore) (Carnivore)
(ii) Grass → Insects → Frog → Birds
(Producer) (Herbivore) (Carnivore) (Top carnivores)
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 Biology

In a food chain, there

is unidirectional flow of
energy from sun to
producers and
subsequently to series
of different types of
consumers.

• As the food chain goes on, the energy transferred to the next organism decreases.

1. It is necessary to conserve our environment to maintain ecological balance.

2. Decomposers are essential components of ecosystem. They decompose dead remains of
plants and animals and their waste organic products into simpler, inorganic substances. The
latter are released into the environment for their reuse as raw materials by the producers.
Thus, it maintains balance in nature and plays important role in ecosystem.

3
Publishing$\PNCF\2024-25\Print Module\SET-2\NCERT\Biology\10th\08. Our Environment

In comparing the two ecosystems 'A' and 'B' it is observed that 'A' has only first and second
order consumers, while 'B' has third, fourth and fifth order consumers. Which of the two
would be more stable?
Explanation
'A' will be more stable because it has lesser number of trophic levels.
Trophic levels:
Each step or level of the food chain forms a trophic level. The distinct sequential steps in the
food chain where transfer of energy occurs are referred to as trophic levels. e.g., green plants
(producers) form the first trophic level, the producer level; the plant eaters (herbivores),
also called primary consumers, belong to second trophic level, the primary consumer level;
and the flesh eaters (carnivores), also called secondary consumers, represent the third
trophic level and so on.
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NCERT Basics : Class 10
Plants ⎯⎯→ Men (Two trophic levels)
Plants ⎯⎯→ Goat ⎯⎯→ Men (Three trophic levels)
Plants ⎯⎯→ Mice ⎯⎯→ Snakes ⎯⎯→ Peacocks (Four trophic levels)
Plants ⎯⎯→ Insects ⎯⎯→ Frogs ⎯⎯→ Snakes ⎯⎯→ Eagles (Five trophic levels)
Plants ⎯⎯→ Grasshoppers ⎯⎯→ Frogs ⎯⎯→ Snakes ⎯⎯→ Hawks (Five trophic levels)
Characteristics of food chain
1. A food chain involves a nutritive interaction between the living organisms (biotic
components) of an ecosystem. In a food chain, there occurs repeated eating, i.e., each
group eats the other group and subsequently is taken by some other group organisms.
2. A food chain is always straight and proceeds in a progressive straight line.
3. Usually, there are 3 or 4 trophic levels in the food chain. In few chains, there may be
maximum of 5 trophic levels.
4. Some organisms are omnivores. These occupy different trophic positions in different food chains.
5. At each transfer, generally 80-90% of energy is lost as heat in accordance with second law
of thermodynamics.
Types of food chains: There are two types of food chains.
(a) Grazing food chains
Grazing Food Chains
Type of Primary Secondary Tertiary
Producers Herbivores
Ecosystem Carnivores carnivores carnivores
1. Grassland Grass Insects Frogs, Snakes, Predatory
ecosystem (Grasshopper, Snakes, Foxes Predatory birds,
Rats, mice, etc. birds, Wolves Lions etc.
Rabbits etc.) etc.
2. Pond Phyto- Zooplanktons Small fish Large fish Predatory

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ecosystem planktons birds

(b) Detritus food chain

Detritus food chain
Detritus Detritivores Small carnivores Large carnivores
Mangrove fallen Insect’s larvae, Minnows, small game Large fish, fish-eating
leaves and dead certain crustaceans, fish, etc. birds
bodies of animals molluscs and fish.
• Detritivores are heterotrophs that obtain nutrients by consuming detritus (decomposing
plant and animal waste as well as faeces) e.g., invertebrates like earthworm, insects such
as mites, beetles, butterflies. They should be distinguished from other decomposers like
bacteria and fungi which are unable to ingest discrete lumps of matter, but instead use
saprotrophic feeding, in which they absorb nutrients through extracellular digestion.
• Kites and vultures feed on dead organisms and therefore, they act as scavengers.
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 Biology
• There are generally a greater number of individuals at the lower trophic levels of an
ecosystem, the greatest number is of the producers.
Significance of food chains: The significance of food chains can be seen with the help of
following functions –
(i) It is a means of transfer of energy from one trophic level to another.
(ii) It provides information about the living components of an ecosystem.
(iii) A natural method of population control due to different nutritional habits.
(iv) It enables recycling of resources via decomposition.
Food web:
The inter-connected food chains operating in an ecosystem which establish a network of
relationships between various species is called a food web or the network of a large number
of food chains existing in an ecosystem is called a food web.
Unlike food chains, food webs are never straight.
Food webs help in checking the over population of species of organisms (both animals and
plants).
The length and complexity of food chains vary greatly. Each organism eat s two or more other
kinds of organisms which in turn are eaten by several other organisms. So instead of a straight-
line food chain, the relationship can be shown as a series of branching lines called a food web .
A food web provides alternative pathways of food availability.
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Owl
Fox

Bird

Mouse Grasshopper
Rabbit

Grass Grain
Carrot
Food Web consisting of many food chains

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NCERT Basics : Class 10

1. How harmful chemicals enter into the food chain? Explain.

2. What will happen if we kill all the organisms in one trophic level?
Differences between food chain and food web
Food Chain Food Web

1. The sequence of eating and being eaten among It is a system of interconnected food chains. The
the living organisms to transfer food energy is network of food chains develops a relationship
called food chain. between various organisms.
2. It is having 4-5 populations (trophic levels) of It is having numerous populations of different
different species. species.
3. It is a part of food web. It contains many food chains.
4. Food chains do not help in increasing Food web helps in increasing the population of
population of endangered species. endangered species.

1. Humans use several types of pesticides and chemicals to

protect their crops from diseases and pests. Chemicals In an ecosystem,
generally the producers
are either washed down into the soil or into the water are maximum in number.
As we move along the

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bodies during heavy rains. From the soil, these are chain, the number of
absorbed by the plants along with water and minerals individuals at each
trophic level decreases.
and from the water bodies these are taken up by aquatic
plants and animals. In this way, these harmful chemicals
enter the food chain. Since these chemicals are non-degradable, they get accumulated
progressively at each trophic level.
2. If we kill all the organisms in one trophic level then transfer of energy as well as matter to
next higher level will stop. It will lead to over population at one particular level causing
competition amongst the individuals. Next trophic level will not get food to eat and entire
food chain gets disturbed. This would seriously disturb the food chain and can cause the
collapse of an ecosystem even.
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 Biology
Transfer of energy in ecosystem
Ten Percent law: It was put forth by Lindeman (1942). It is also termed as second law of
thermodynamics or law of entropy. According to this law, transfer of energy from one trophic
level to other trophic level is never 100 percent. It is so because most of energy gets los t as
heat in the environment during each transfer. On an average, about 10% of energy is actually
available to the next trophic level.

The number of trophic levels in a food chain is limited. Why?

Explanation
It is because only 10% of energy is passed on to next higher trophic level in a food chain. As a
result of this, there is a progressive decline in the energy level and the amount of energy
available is not enough to sustain more than few trophic levels in a food chain.
Each organism needs energy to carry on vital activities and for building up and repairing the
body tissues.
The ultimate source of entire energy, used by living organisms, is the Sun.
In a community, each food chain, in fact, represents stepwise transfer of food (energy).
Of the total solar radiations falling on the earth, only about 1% are captured by green plants
in a terrestrial ecosystem and converted into food energy by photosynthesis. This energy is
stored as chemical energy of food.
When green plants are eaten by herbivores (primary
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consumers), a great energy is lost as heat to the

environment in accordance with the second law of
thermodynamics. On an average, 10% of the food (energy)
is turned into body of herbivores. In the same way, 10% of
total energy available to the herbivores is made available
for the next level of consumers. In other words, on an
average, 10% of the amount of organic matter that is
present at each step reaches the next consumer level.
Since so little energy is available for the next level of consumers, food chains generally consist
of only three or four steps. The loss of energy at each step is so great that very little usable
energy remains after four trophic levels.
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NCERT Basics : Class 10
The flow of energy is unidirectional because the energy that is captured by the autotrophs does

not revert back to the solar input and the energy which passes to the herbivores does not come

back to autotrophs. Also, as it moves through the various trophic level it is no longer available to

previous level. The energy available at each trophic level gets diminished progressively due to

loss of energy at each level.

Several pesticides and other chemicals are used to protect our crops from diseases and pests.

These chemicals are either washed down into the soil or into the water bodies. From the soil, these

are absorbed by the plants along with water and minerals, and from the water bodies these are

taken up by aquatic plants and animals. This is one of the ways in which they enter the food chain.

These chemicals are not degradable, these get accumulated progressively at each trophic level. As

human beings occupy the top level in any food chain, the maximum concentration of these

chemicals get accumulated in our bodies. This phenomenon is known as biological magnification.

The food grains such as wheat and rice, vegetables and fruits, and even meat, contain varying

amounts of pesticide residues. They cannot always be removed by washing or other means.

The phenomenon that involves progressive increase in concentration of harmful non -

biodegradable chemical at different trophic levels in a food chain is called biomagnification.

Study carefully the given food chain. Publishing$\PNCF\2024-25\Print Module\SET-2\NCERT\Biology\10th\08. Our Environment

Wheat → rat → snake → hawk.

To which of the two consumers, snake or hawk, will more energy (percent) be available

and why?

Explanation

More energy will be available for the snake. Snake is a secondary consumer while hawk is a

tertiary consumer. According to second law of thermodynamics, larger amount of energy is lost

to the environment at each trophic level. Snake is at third trophic level and hawk is at fourth

trophic level. Therefore, more energy (present) will be available to the snake at third trophic level.
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 Biology

 Diagram showing flow of energy in an ecosystem –

Biodegradable waste can

also be used in biogas
plants to generate biogas
and manure. Biogas is a
cheap source of fuel and
manure, a cheap fertilizer.

How do our activities affect the environment?

There are two major environmental problems –
(a) Solid waste and their disposal
(b) Depletion of ozone layer.
Solid waste and their disposal: Solid waste generally comes from residences, cattle sheds,
industries, agricultural fields and many other places. It includes peelings of fruits and
vegetables, other kitchen waste, ash, paper, cow dung, human excreta, glass, plastics, leather
and rubber articles, brick, sand, worn out clothes and metal objects, etc. When accumulated,
these heaps of solid waste make the surroundings dirty and pollute the soil.
Types of solid wastes
(1) Biodegradable wastes: They are those waste materials which can be broken down into
simpler, non-poisonous substances by the action of microorganisms. e.g. cattle dung,
waste vegetables, fruits and compost etc.
(2) Non-biodegradable wastes: The waste materials which
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cannot be broken down into simpler substances easily in The use of a lot of clay
nature. These substances may be inert and simply persist for making millions of
kulhads daily led to the
in the environment for a long time or may harm the loss of fertile top soil
various members of the ecosystem. e.g., Aluminium cans, from fields. So, the
practice of using kulhads
DDT, Plastics and Radioactive wastes. has been discontinued.

Why are some substances biodegradables?

Explanation
Lot of waste is produced by man or naturally. Some of waste substances are acted upon by the
microorganisms and broken down into simpler substances. Such substances are called
biodegradable. e.g., vegetable and fruit peels.
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NCERT Basics : Class 10
Differences between biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste
Biodegradable waste Non-biodegradable waste
1. They can be broken down into simpler They can't be broken down into simpler and
substances by the activity of biological harmless products because the biological
catalysts called enzymes (present in catalysts called enzymes can't act upon them.
surrounding bacteria or other saprophytes). They can be acted upon only by some physical
Physical processes like heat and temperature processes like heat and pressure.
help in the functioning of enzymes.
2. They can enter in the biogeochemical cycles. They cannot enter in the biogeochemical
cycles.
3. They become pollutants only when they They always act as pollutants whether present
accumulate in large quantities and not in small or large quantity.
degraded at the right time.
4. All the biodegradable wastes should be treated They can't be treated properly before
properly before discharging them into water or discharging them into water or soil. Instead,
soil. they can be either recycled or reused.
5. They do not persist in the environment for a They persist in the environment for a long
long time. time.
6. For example, Urine and faecal matter, Sewage, For example, Heavy metals like Mercury, Lead,
Paper, Vegetable and fruit peels, Agricultural Arsenic, Radioactive wastes like Uranium,
residues, Wood and Cloth etc. Plutonium, Insecticides and Pesticides like
DDT and BHC etc.

Publishing$\PNCF\2024-25\Print Module\SET-2\NCERT\Biology\10th\08. Our Environment

1. Which two of the following are biodegradable?
Tomato leaves, Aluminium wire, synthetic fibre, wool.
2. What are the advantages of disposable paper cups in trains over disposable plastic cups?
3. Give any two ways in which biodegradable substances would affect the environment.
4. Give any two ways in which non-biodegradable substances would affect the environment.
Modes of waste disposal: Some prominent methods of waste disposal are –
1. Landfills: In urban areas, the majority of the solid waste is buried in low lying areas to level the
uneven surface of land. This method of waste disposal is commonly called landfills.
2. Recycling of wastes: Number of solid wastes (paper, plastics, metal etc.) can be recycled
by sending them to respective recycling units. For instance, paper is sent for recycling into
special paper mills; broken plastic (e.g., plastic bags, buckets, bowls, dishes, mugs, discs ,
etc.) are sent to plastic processing factories.
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 Biology
3. Preparation of compost: Household waste such as peels of fruits and vegetables, left-
over food, fallen dead leaves of kitchen garden plants and potted plants etc. can be
converted into compost and used as manure.
4. Incineration: It is the process of burning of substance at high temperature (usually more
than 1000°C) and ultimately converting them into ashes. This ash can be disposed off by
landfills. In cities, municipal committees/corporations generally do large scale disposal of
waste by incineration.

1. Tomato leaves and wool.

2. Disposable paper cups in trains are much better that disposable plastic cups because disposable
paper cups are biodegradable while disposable plastic cups are non-biodegradable. They do
not degrade/decompose in the environment and pollute the environment.
3. Two ways in which biodegradable substances would affect the environment –
(i) Decomposition of biodegradable substances may produce foul smell.
(ii) Heaps of biodegradable substances act as breeding ground of many microorganisms.
4. Two ways in which non-biodegradable substances would affect the environment –
(i) Non-biodegradable substances do not decompose so they pollute the environment.
(ii) They can enter in the food chain and affect the health of living organisms.
Ozone layer depletion:
Ozone layer is a layer of the earth's atmosphere where ozone is concentrated. The ozone layer is
very important for the existence of life on earth because it absorbs most of the harmful ultraviolet
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radiation coming from the sun and prevents them from reaching the earth. It shields the surface
of the earth from ultraviolet (UV) radiations from the Sun.
• Ozone (O3) is a molecule formed by three atoms of oxygen. It is formed in atmosphere by the
action of ultraviolet radiation on oxygen gas.
• The high energy ultraviolet radiations (UV radiations) coming from the sun splits oxygen gas
into free oxygen atoms.
Ultraviolet
O2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→
radiations from sun
O + O( oxygen atom)

• The free oxygen atoms are highly reactive. One oxygen atom reacts with an oxygen molecule
to form an ozone molecule.
O + O2 ⎯⎯
→ O3
(Ozone)

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NCERT Basics : Class 10

 Ozone is a deadly poison.

The amount of ozone in the atmosphere began to drop sharply in the 1980s. The thinning of ozone
layer is commonly called ozone depletion. Ozone is being depleted by air pollutants.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are air pollutants that are mainly responsible for the depletion of
ozone layer in the stratosphere. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are used as refrigerants and
in fire extinguishers. Besides, methane (CH4) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) also cause destruction
of ozone. In 1987, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) succeeded in forging an
agreement to freeze CFC production at 1986 levels. It is now mandatory for all the manufacturing
companies to make CFC-free refrigerators throughout the world.

Ozone layer

Ozone hole was first

discovered over
Antarctica in 1985.
Amount of atmospheric
ozone is measured by
Dobson spectrometer
and is expressed in
Dobson units.

Ozone layer
Effect of ozone depletion: Due to ozone depletion living organisms expose to ultraviolet
radiations which may cause following effects –
(i) Ultraviolet radiation is highly damaging to organisms. It causes skin cancer in human beings.
(ii) These cause damage to eyes and also cause increased incidence of cataract disease in eyes. Publishing$\PNCF\2024-25\Print Module\SET-2\NCERT\Biology\10th\08. Our Environment

(iii) These cause damage to immune system by lowering the body's resistance to diseases.

1. How can we reduce volume of waste?

2. Why plastic bags and containers should not be disposed off by burning? Give reason.
3. How can you help in reducing the problem of waste disposal?
4. Which compounds are responsible for the depletion of ozone layer?
5. Why is depletion of the ozone layer a cause of concern to us? What two steps can be taken to
limit the damage to the ozone layer?
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 Biology

Among the ozone depleting substances (ODS) chlorofluorocarbons are the most
harmful. Give the reason.
Explanation
Chlorofluorocarbons produce 'active chlorine' (Cl and ClO radicals) in the presence of UV
radiations. These radicals, through chain reactions, destroy the ozone by converting it into
oxygen. This is the reason why chlorofluorocarbons are the most harmful ODS.

1. Volume of waste can be reduced by burning of bulk of waste (e.g., household waste, hospital
waste, etc.) at high temperature (usually more than 1000°C). This process is called
incineration. The waste is converted into CO2, water vapours and only ash is left behind.
2. It is so because plastic, when burnt, gives off noxious fumes which pollute the air.
3. Improvement in lifestyle, changes in attitude to use more biodegradable things.
4. Use of synthetic chemicals i.e., chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are mainly responsible for the
depletion of ozone layer.
5. (a) Ozone layer in the stratosphere protects the living organisms including man from UV
radiations of the sun by absorbing most of them.
(b) It's depletion cause skin cancer in humans.
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(c) It can cause cataract and damage to the immune system.

Steps to be taken to limit the damage to the ozone layer –
(a) Reduce the use of chlorofluorocarbon in refrigerators, air conditioners, etc.
(b) Avoid using CFCs in aerosols, sprays, etc.
(c) Complete freeze on large scale CFC production.

 The annual Antarctic ozone hole reached an average area of 23.2 million square
kilometres between 7 October 2022 to 13 October 2022. This depleted area of the ozone
layer over the south pole was slightly smaller than last year and generally continued
overall shrinking trend of recent years.
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NCERT Basics : Class 10

Biology Diagrams made Easy

Tertiary
consumers

Secondary
consumers

Primary consumers

Producers

Trophic levels

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 Biology

Chapter At a Glance
Our Environment

Ecosystem

Types Component Representation

Natural
Food chain Food web
Artificial
Grazing
Biotic Abiotic food chains
Detritus
Air, water,
Producer temperature, food chains
humidity,
Consumer Light, wind
and precipitation
Decomposer

Environmental problems

Solid waste and Depletion of

their disposal ozone layer
Biodegradable
wastes

Non-biodegradable
wastes
Modes of waste disposal
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Landfills
Recycling of wastes
Preparation of compost

Incineration

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NCERT Basics : Class 10
SOME BASIC TERMS
1. Ecology: Study of interrelationship of organisms between the biotic and abiotic
components of their environment.
2. Producer: Organisms which make their own food.
3. Herbivore: Animals which eat plants only.
4. Carnivore: Animals which eat other animals only.
5. Omnivore: Animals which eat both plants and animals.
6. Decomposer: Microorganisms which break down the complex organic compounds.
7. Incineration: Processing of burning of substances at high temperature.
8. Dobson spectrometer: Instruments to measure atmospheric ozone.
9. CFC: Chlorofluorocarbon.
10. Ozone Depletion: Thinning of ozone layer

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