1 Chemical Reactions and

Equations

1. Introduction
Change is the law of nature.
There are so many situations of daily life, where we can
observe various changes.
Like,
(i) Conversion of water into vapours from a cup of hot
tea.
Eggs, flour, sugar and baking
(ii) Corrosion of iron articles (rusting) if exposed to powder are mixed and
humid atmosphere. baked to yield a cake. This is
(iii) Cooking of food. a chemical change.

(iv) Digestion of food in our body.

(v) Breaking of any article like glass.
(vi) Combustion of fuel in our vehicle.
Scientist classify these changes as
(1) Physical changes (2) Chemical changes
(1) Physical changes
A change in which physical properties of a substance changes but the chemical
composition do not change.
For example, Freezing, melting, boiling, condensation, etc.

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Characteristic features of physical changes
(1) The identity of the substance is maintained.
(2) The change is generally temporary.
(3) Heat change may or may not take place.
(4) Only the physical state or some of the physical properties of the substances are changed.
(2) Chemical changes
A change in which one or more substances change into new substances with a different
chemical composition.
For example, burning of a candle, rusting of iron, combustion of fuel, etc.
Characteristic features of chemical changes
(1) The identity of original substance is completely lost.
(2) The change is generally permanent.
(3) The change is generally accompanied by energy change.
(4) The change cannot be reversed generally.

1. From the given examples, identify the chemical changes.

(a) Fermentation of grapes.
(b) Burning of a candle.
(c) Evaporation of alcohol.
(d) Freezing of water.
(e) Turning brown of a freshly cut apple in the air.
(f) Growth of a plant.
(g) Dissolution of sugar in water.
(h) Fading of coloured clothes in the sun.

 In earlier standards, we have seen how compounds are formed by chemical combination
of element.
 We have also learnt that the driving force behind formation of a chemical bond is to
attain an electronic configuration with a complete octet.
 The atoms attain a complete octet by giving, taking or sharing of electrons with each
other.
2. Chemical reaction and its characteristics
The process in which a substance or substances undergo a chemical change to produce new
substances, with entirely new properties are known as chemical reaction.

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 Chemistry

Aim
To study the reaction between magnesium and oxygen to
form magnesium oxide.
Caution
Perform this activity in the presence of a teacher. It would
be better to wear eye protection (as used by welders).
Magnesium burns in air
Materials Required to give a bright white flame
Burner, tong, magnesium ribbon, sand paper, watch glass.
Method
(i) Clean a magnesium ribbon about 2 cm long, by rubbing it with sand paper.
(ii) Hold it with a pair of tongs. Burn it using a spirit lamp or burner and collect the ash so
formed in a watch glass. Burn the magnesium ribbon keeping it as far as possible from
your eyes.
Tong
Magnesium
ribbon

Watch-glass
Burner
Magnesium
oxide

Burning of a magnesium ribbon in air and collection

of magnesium oxide in a watch glass.
Now answer
What do you observe?
Magnesium metal has
Observation a shining surface but due
It is observed that magnesium ribbon burns with a dazzling to attack of moist air, it is
coated with a white layer
white light and changes into a white powder. This powder is of magnesium oxide. To
magnesium oxide. use it for any chemical
reaction, it is first
Conclusion rubbed with a sand
Magnesium burns in air to combine with oxygen to form paper.
magnesium oxide.
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 
2MgO(s)
Magnesium Oxygen Magnesium oxide
(from air) (White powder)

Reactants Product

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Aim
To study the reaction between lead nitrate solution and
potassium iodide solution.
Materials required A precipitate is an
Test tube, lead nitrate solution, potassium iodide solution. insoluble solid that
forms out of a liquid
Method solution. i.e. does not
(i) Take lead nitrate solution in a test tube. dissolve in the
solution.
(ii) Add potassium iodide solution to this.
Observation
It is observed that a yellow solid (precipitate) is formed.
Conclusion
Lead nitrate solution reacts with potassium iodide solution to form a yellow precipitate of
lead iodide.
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) ⎯→ PbI2(s)() + 2KNO3(aq)
Lead nitrate Potassium iodide Lead (II) iodide Potassium nitrate
(Colourless) (Colourless) (Yellow ppt.) (Colourless)

Aim
To study the reaction between zinc and sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid.
Materials required
Conical flask or test tube, zinc granules, dilute hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid.
Method
(i) Take a few zinc granules in a conical flask or a test tube.
(ii) Add dilute hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid to this.

 Handle the acid with care because acid is corrosive in nature.

Now answer
Touch the conical flask or test tube. Is there any change in the temperature?
Observation and discussion
Bubbles of hydrogen gas are found to rise briskly from the surface of zinc pieces. The gas
evolved can be tested by bringing a lighted candle. It is found to burn with a popping sound.
Further, the flask is found to be hot.

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Conclusion
Zinc reacts with dilute sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid with the evolution of hydrogen
gas and heat (i.e., reaction is exothermic).

Formation of hydrogen gas by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on zinc.

Zn(s) + dil. H2 SO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)(↑) + Heat
Zinc Sulphuric acid Zinc sulphate Hydrogen (gas)
With the help of above activities, we have seen that whenever a chemical reaction has taken
place, some changes are observed. These observable changes are called the characteristics
of a chemical reaction.
Characteristics of chemical reactions
(i) Change in state: The physical state of the substances normally changes.
For example,
Formation of solid MgO from solid Mg and gaseous O2.
2Mg(s) + O2(g) ⎯⎯

→ 2MgO(s)
Magnesium Oxygen Magnesium oxide
(from air) (White powder)
(ii) Change in colour: In some of the chemical reactions, change in colour can be observed.
For example,
(a) Formation of reddish-brown rust on grey iron nails.
(b) Formation of yellow ppt. of lead iodide from colourless solution of Pb(NO3)2 and KI.
(iii) Evolution of a gas: In some cases, a gas may be evolved.
For example,
Evolution of H2 gas, in the reaction between Zn and dil HCl.
Zn + 2HCl ⎯→ ZnCl2 + H2(g)
(iv) Change in temperature: Most of the reactions are accompanied by temperature
change i.e. increase or decrease in temperature.

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For example,
(a) In the reaction between Zn and H2SO4, flask was found to be warm. Thus, rise in
temperature has taken place (Exothermic).
(b) If a reaction between barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)2) and ammonium chloride, (NH4Cl) is
carried out in a test tube, it is observed that the bottom of the test tube becomes cooler
(Endothermic).
Some clues that a chemical reaction has occurred

Colour change Solid forms

Bubble forms Heat or flame occurs

Change in Change in
temperature state

Characteristics
of chemical
reactions

Evolution Change in
of gas colour

1. Chemical changes are a, b, e, f and h.

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 Chemistry

 Here is some important chemical formulae which you have learnt in your previous
class that can help you in writing a chemical equation.
Name of the Compound Formula
1. Calcium hydroxide (Lime water) (Slaked lime) Ca(OH)2
2. Calcium carbonate (Marble, lime stone) CaCO3
3. Calcium oxide (Quick lime) CaO
4. Iron (II) oxide FeO
5. Iron (III) oxide Fe2O3
6. Magnesium oxide MgO
7. Lead nitrate Pb(NO3)2
8. Lead iodide PbI2
9. Potassium iodide KI
10. Ammonium chloride NH4Cl
11. Ammoniun hydroxide NH4OH
12. Potassium chlorate KClO3
13. Lead oxide PbO
14. Aluminium oxide Al2O3
15. Silver chloride AgCl
16. Cuprous oxide Cu2O
17. Cupric oxide CuO
18. Silver nitrate AgNO3
19. Barium chloride BaCl2
20. Barium sulphate BaSO4
3. Writing a chemical equation
Whenever a chemical reaction takes place, a number of steps are involved. Thus, description
of chemical reaction in sentence form becomes long. So, some short-hand representation of
chemical reaction is followed.
It can be done in two ways:
(a) Word equation
Chemical equation which represents a chemical reaction briefly in words is called word
equation.
For example, the word equation can be written as:
Magnesium + Oxygen ⎯→ Magnesium oxide

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(b) Chemical equation
A chemical equation is a short-hand method that describes a chemical reaction in terms
of symbols and formulae of different reactants and products.
For example, the chemical equation can be written as
Mg + O2 → MgO
Rules for writing a chemical equation
(i) The symbols and formulae of the reactants are always written on the L.H.S. (left hand
side) of arrow and a plus (+) sign is put between them.
(ii) The symbols and formulae of the products are always written on the R.H.S. (right hand
side) of arrow and a plus (+) sign is put between them.
(iii) An arrow (⎯→) sign is put between the reactants and the products, pointing from
reactants towards products.
For example,
Na + H2O → NaOH + H2
A chemical equation expressed in symbols and formulae, such that the number of atoms
of different elements towards the side of the reactants is not equal to the number of
atoms of different elements towards the side of the products, is called skeletal equation
or unbalanced equation.
To make this equation meaningful, this equation is balanced according to law of
conservation of mass, then it is called balanced chemical equation.

1. Write chemical equations for the following word equations.

(a) Potassium chlorate ⎯→ Potassium chloride + Oxygen
(b) Methane + Oxygen ⎯→ Carbon dioxide + Water
(c) Nitrogen + Hydrogen ⎯→ Ammonia
(d) Calcium carbonate ⎯→ Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide
(e) Graphite + Oxygen ⎯→ Carbon dioxide
(f) Quicklime + Water ⎯→ Calcium hydroxide
How to balance an unbalanced chemical equation
According to the law of conservation of mass, the total
mass of products must be equal to the total mass of the
reactants (as mass can neither be created nor destroyed).
This is possible only if the number of atoms of each element
is equal on the two sides of the equation.
Balancing of a chemical equation means making the number of atoms of each element equal
on both sides of the equation.
(i) To understand this, let us consider the following word equation for
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Zinc + Sulphuric acid ⎯→ Zinc sulphate + Hydrogen
Chemical equation for the above word equation will be,
Zn + H2 SO4 ⎯→ ZnSO4 + H2
Let us examine the number of atoms of different elements on both the sides of the arrow.
Element Number of Number of atoms in
atoms in L.H.S. R.H.S.
Zn 1 1
H 2 2
S 1 1
O 4 4
As the number of atoms of each element is same on both sides of the arrow, the equation can
be said a balanced chemical equation.
(ii) Now consider another chemical equation.
Fe + O2 + H2 O ⎯→ Fe2 O3 . H2 O
On counting number of different atoms on both the sides of the arrow, we will find that, this
equation is not balanced.
Element Number of Number of
atoms in L.H.S. atoms in R.H.S.
Fe 1 2
O 3 4
H 2 2

Let us learn about balancing a chemical equation step by step.

Step-I : Write the word equation for the given chemical reaction.
Step-II : Convert the formed word equation in the
chemical equation (Skeletal chemical
The method of
equation). balancing the
Step-III : Formula of each reactant and product has to be equation by using
enclosed in boxes, so that during balancing, smallest natural
number coefficients
formula of substances cannot be changed. is called as hit and
Step-IV : Listing of number of reactants and products is trial method.
done.
Step-V : Balancing should be started with compound
which have biggest formula.
Step-VI : Then, balancing of different elements is done one by one.
Step-VII : Finally, the equation is checked.
(iii) Let us balance some of the chemical reactions by following the above steps.

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Magnesium metal reacts with hydrochloric acid to form magnesium chloride and
hydrogen.
Reactants Products

Equal
Law of conservation of mass

Step-I : Word equation

Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid ⎯→ Magnesium chloride + Hydrogen
Step-II : Chemical equation,
Mg + HCl ⎯→ MgCl2 + H2
Step-III : Enclose all formulae into boxes.
Mg + HCl ⎯→ MgCl2 + H2

Step-IV : Count the number of atoms for all elements.

Element Number of Number of
atoms in L.H.S. atoms in R.H.S.
Mg 1 1
Cl 1 2
H 1 2
We can see that number of Mg is same on both sides but Cl and H atoms differs on both sides.
Step-V : As the number of atoms is deficient at reactant
side, let’s begin from here. At reactant side HCl In a balanced
is the bigger formula, so we will start with it. chemical equation,
an integer precedes
Step-VI : Put coefficient 2 before HCl to make chlorine
the formula of each
equal to reactant side. substance. This
Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2 number is known as
Here, we can see that H, automatically gets stoichiometric
coefficient.
balanced.
Step-VII : Now, check the number of atoms of different
elements on both sides of the equation. These are equal. This means that the
equation is balanced.
Balancing of equations
Steam is passed over red hot iron to form Iron (II, III) oxide and hydrogen in presence of air.
Step-I : Iron + Steam ⎯→ Iron (II, III) Oxide + Hydrogen
Step-II : Fe + H2 O ⎯→ Fe3 O4 + H2
Step-III : Fe + H 2 O ⎯→ Fe 3 O 4 + H2

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Element Number of atoms Number of
in L.H.S. atoms in R.H.S.
Fe 1 3
H 2 2
O 1 4
Step-IV : Formula selected is Fe3O4 to start balancing oxygen,
(i) To balance O-atoms, multiply H2 O in LHS by 4.
Fe + 4 H2 O ⎯→ Fe 3 O 4 + H2

(ii) Now balance Fe atoms.

3 Fe + 4 H2O ⎯→ Fe 3 O 4 + H2

(iii) Balance H atoms.

3 Fe + 4 H2O ⎯→ Fe 3 O 4 + 4 H2

Note: Mixture of ferrous oxide (FeO) and ferric oxide (Fe2O3) is also known as magnetic
oxide of iron.
Step-V : On checking the number of all elements, we found that equation is balanced now.
3Fe + 4H2O ⎯⎯→ Fe3O4 + 4H2

The reaction between methane and oxygen.

1. (a) 2KClO3 → 2KCl + 3O2

(b) CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2 O
(c) N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
(d) CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
(e) C + O2 → CO2
(f) CaO + H2 O → Ca(OH)2

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Write the balanced equation for the reaction involving the combustion of methane in
presence of oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water.
Explanation
Step-I : Methane + Oxygen ⎯→ Carbon dioxide + Water
Step-II : CH4 + O2 ⎯→ CO2 + H2 O
Step-III : CH 4 + O2 ⎯→ CO 2 + H2O

Step-IV :
Element Number of atoms Number of atoms
in L.H.S. in R.H.S.
C 1 1
H 4 2
O 2 3

Step-V : Balancing different elements

(i) C is already balanced.
(ii) For H, place 2 before H2 O in R.H.S.
CH 4 + O2 ⎯→ CO 2 + 2 H2O

(iii) For O, as after (ii) number of oxygen atoms becomes 4 in R.H.S.

therefore, place 2 before O2 in L.H.S.
CH 4 + 2 O2 ⎯→ CO 2 + 2 H2O

Step-VI : Check the correctness of the balanced equation

Element Number of atoms Number of atoms
in L.H.S. in R.H.S.
C 1 1
H 4 4
O 4 4
Hence, the equation is balanced.
Making chemical equations more informative
On examining a balanced chemical equation, we observe that it does not give any
information about the physical state of the reactant and product.

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Let’s make balanced chemical equation more informative by following instructions.
(1) Writing symbols for the physical state of reactants and the products,
(s) for solid state
() for liquid state
(g) for gaseous state
(aq) for aqueous solution i.e. solution prepared in water.
(2) Sometimes a gas evolved in a reaction is shown by the symbol () i.e. by an arrow pointing
upwards.
Similarly, the precipitate if formed during the reaction is indicated by the symbol ( ) i.e. by
an arrow pointing downwards.
The abbreviation ‘ppt’ is also used to represent the precipitate if formed.
(3) The conditions of temperature, pressure and the presence of catalyst, if any, may be
represented by writing these conditions above and / or below the arrow (⎯→) between the
reactants and the products.
Few examples,
340 atm
CO(g) + 2H2 (g) → CH3 OH (g)
Sunlight
6CO2 (g) + 6H2 O(g) ⎯⎯⎯→ C6 H12 O6 (aq) + 6O2 (g)
Chlorophyll

2Na(s) + 2H2 O(g) ⎯→ 2NaOH(aq) + H2 (g) or H2 

Ca(OH)2 (aq) + CO2 (g) ⎯→ CaCO3() (or ppt) + H2 O(g)
C(s) + O2 (g) ⎯→ CO2 (g) + heat
N2(g) + O2 (g) + heat ⎯→ 2NO(g)

Write the balanced chemical equations for the following reactions

(a) Phosphorus burns in oxygen to form phosphorus pentaoxide.
(b) Marble (calcium carbonate) dissolves in hydrochloric acid to give calcium chloride,
water and carbon dioxide.
(c) Ethyne (C2 H2 ) gas burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water along with
evolution of heat.
(d) Liquid hydrogen peroxide decomposes to form water and oxygen gas.

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Why is it necessary to balance the chemical equation?

Explanation
In order to make law of conservation of mass applicable on the given chemical equation, it
is necessary to make number of atoms of all elements equal in L.H.S. and R.H.S. Thus,
balancing of equation is required.
4. Types of chemical reactions
Accordingly, the reactions are classified in different types.
Chemical Reactions

Combination Decomposition Displacement Double Oxidation and

Reaction Reaction Reaction Displacement Reduction
Reaction Reaction

(i) Combination Reaction

The reactions in which two or more substances combine to form a single new substance
are called combination reaction.

Aim When quick lime

(CaO) was added to
To study combination reaction between calcium oxide, i.e.,
water, formation of
quick lime and water. slaked lime [Ca(OH)2]
Materials required has taken place, with the
evolution of a large
Beaker, water, calcium oxide or quick lime
amount of heat. i.e. its an
Method exothermic reaction.
(i) Take a small amount of calcium oxide or quick lime in a
beaker.
(ii) Slowly add water to this.
(iii) Touch the beaker.
Beaker

Water

Calcium oxide

Formation of slaked lime by the reaction of calcium oxide with water.

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Now answer
Do you feel any change in temperature?
Observation and discussion
A vigorous reaction is found to occur and the beaker is found to become very hot.
Conclusion
Calcium oxide combines with water to form calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) and this
reaction is highly exothermic.
CaO(s) + H2 O() ⎯→ Ca(OH)2 (aq) + Heat
Calcium oxide Water Calcium hydroxide
(Quick lime) (Slaked lime)

Which solution is used for white washing of walls and which compound gives a shiny
finish to the walls?
Explanation
A solution of slaked lime produced by the reaction above is used for white washing of walls.
Calcium hydroxide reacts slowly with the carbon dioxide in the air to form a thin layer of
calcium carbonate on the walls. Calcium carbonate is formed after two to three days of white
washing and gives a shiny finish to the walls.
Ca(OH)2 (aq) + CO2 (g) ⎯→ CaCO3(s) + H2 O(g)
Some more examples of combination reactions
(i) Burning of Coal
C(s) + O2 (g) ⎯→ CO2 (g)
Carbon Oxygen Carbon dioxide
(ii) Formation of Water
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) ⎯→ 2H2 O()
Hydrogen Oxygen Water
(iii) Burning of Magnesium in air
2Mg(s) + O2 (g) ⎯→ 2MgO(s)
Magnesium Oxygen Magnesium oxide
(iv) Formation of Iron sulphide
Fe(s) + S(s) ⎯→ FeS(s)
Iron Sulphur Iron sulphide
(v) Formation of Ammonium chloride
NH3(g)+ HCl(g) ⎯→ NH4 Cl(s)
Ammonia Hydrogen Ammonium
Chloride Chloride

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(vi) Formation of Calcium Carbonate
CaO(s) + CO2 (g) ⎯→ CaCO3 (s)
Calcium oxide Carbon Calcium
(Quick lime) dioxide carbonate
(vii) Reaction of carbon monoxide with oxygen
2CO(g) + O2 (g) ⎯→ 2CO2 (g)
This is also an exothermic reaction.
(viii) 2NO(g) + O2 (g) ⎯→ 2NO2 (g)

How the process of respiration is said exothermic?

Explanation
C6 H12 O6 (aq) + 6O2 (g) ⎯→ 6CO2 (g) + 6H2 O() + energy
Glucose Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water
Since energy is liberated, we can say that respiration is an exothermic reaction.
(ii) Decomposition Reaction
The reaction in which a single compound breaks up into two or more simpler substances is
known as decomposition reaction. The decomposition reaction generally takes place when
energy in some form such as heat, electricity or light is supplied to the reactants.
Types of decomposition reaction
(a) Thermal decomposition: The reaction in which a single compound breaks up into two
or more simpler substances by the action of heat is called thermal decomposition
reaction.
Following activity shows thermal decomposition reaction:

Aim A biochemical reaction

To study the decomposition of ferrous sulphate on is the transformation
heating. of one molecule to a
different molecule
Materials required
inside a cell. For
Burner, boiling tube, tong, ferrous sulphate crystals example, Respiration,
Method digestion, etc.
(i) Take about 2g ferrous sulphate crystals in a dry
boiling tube.
(ii) Note the colour of ferrous sulphate crystals.
(iii) Heat the boiling tube over the flame of a burner or spirit lamp.
(iv) Observe the colour of the crystals after heating.

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 Always remember not to point the mouth of boiling tube at your neighbours or yourself.
Correct way of holding the boiling tube is given below.

Wafting gas gently

towards nose

Do not point the

mouth of boiling Boiling tube
tube at your Ferrous sulphate
neighbours or crystals
yourself
Burner

Correct way of heating the boiling tube containing crystals

of ferrous sulphate and of smelling the odour.
Observation
It is observed that green coloured ferrous sulphate crystals (FeSO4.7H2O) on heating first
change colour by losing water to form FeSO4 which on further heating decomposes to leave
behind a reddish-brown residue along with evolution of sulphur dioxide and sulphur
trioxide gases.
Conclusion
The reddish-brown residue is of ferric oxide. Hence, the following decomposition reaction
takes place:
Heat
FeSO4 . 7H2 O(s) → FeSO4 (s) + 7H2 O(ℓ)
Ferrous sulphate Anhydrous
crystals ferrous sulphate
(Green) (White)
Heat
2FeSO4 (s) → Fe2 O3 (s) + SO2 (g) + SO3 (g)
Anhydrous ferrous Ferric oxide Sulphur Sulphur
Sulphate (White) (Reddish Brown) dioxide trioxide
SO2 is a colourless gas which smells like burnt matches and turns moist blue litmus paper
red. It also turns acidified potassium dichromate solution from orange to green. It is
collected by downward displacement of water and is a pungent smelling gas.

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NCERT Basics : Class 10
Test
tube
holder

Boiling tube
Lead nitrate

Burner

Heating of lead nitrate and emission of nitrogen dioxide

Aim
To study the thermal decomposition of lead nitrate.
Materials required
Burner, test tube holder/tong, boiling tube, lead nitrate powder
Method
(i) Take about 2 g lead nitrate powder in a boiling tube.
(ii) Hold the boiling tube with a pair of tongs and heat it over the flame.
Observation
Brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are found to evolve and a yellow residue is left in the
test tube.
Conclusion
Solid lead nitrate decomposes on heating to give out brown fumes of NO2 and a yellow
residue of lead (II) oxide.
2Pb(NO3)2(s) ⎯⎯→ Heat
2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
Lead nitrate Lead (II) oxide Nitrogen dioxide Oxygen
(white) (Yellow) (Brown fumes)
In the above two activities, it is seen that chemical reaction has taken place on absorption of
heat. These type of decomposition reactions are called thermal decomposition reactions.
Some more examples of thermal decomposition reactions.
(i) Decomposition of limestone on heating
CaCO3 ⎯⎯→
Heat
CaO + CO2(g)
Limestone Quick lime Carbon dioxide
(Calcium carbonate) (Calcium oxide)
(ii) Decomposition of zinc carbonate on heating
ZnCO3 ⎯⎯→
Heat
ZnO + CO2()
Zinc carbonate Zinc oxide Carbon dioxide

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(b) Electric Decomposition: The reaction in which a single compound breaks up into two
or more simpler substances by the action of electricity is called electric decomposition
reaction.
Following activity shows electric decomposition reaction:

Aim
To study electrolytic decomposition, i.e., electrolysis of water.
Materials required
Plastic mug, rubber stoppers, carbon electrodes, battery, water, dilute sulphuric acid, test
tubes, candle.
Method
(i) Take a plastic mug. Drill two holes at its base and fit rubber stoppers in these holes.
Insert carbon electrodes in these rubber stoppers.
(ii) Connect these electrodes to a 6-volt battery.
(iii) Fill the mug with water such that the electrodes are immersed. Add a few drops of
dilute sulphuric acid to the water.
(iv) Take two test tubes filled with water and invert them over the two carbon electrodes.
(v) Switch on the current and leave the apparatus undisturbed for some time.
(vi) It will be observed that formation of bubbles takes place at both the electrodes. These
bubbles displace water in the test tubes.
(vii) Once the test tubes are partially filled with the respective gases, remove them
carefully.
(viii) Test these gases one by one by bringing burning candle close to the mouth of the test
tubes.
Plastic mug
Oxygen Hydrogen
Test tube
Water
Graphite rod Water

Rubber stopper
Anode Cathode
6V
Switch
Battery
Electrolysis of water

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NCERT Basics : Class 10
Now answer
(i) Is the volume of the gas collected the same in both the test tubes?
(ii) What happens in each test tube on bringing close to the burning candle?
(iii) Which gas is present in each test tube?
Observation and discussion
It is observed that the volume of gas collected over the cathode is double than that collected
over the anode. The gas with double volume burns with a popping sound whereas the other
gas supports burning (combustion). Thus, the gas with double the volume is hydrogen
whereas the gas in the other tube is oxygen.
Conclusion
Acidified water undergoes electrolysis producing H2 and O2 gases in the ratio of 2 : 1 by
volume
Electrolysis
2H2 O(ℓ) → 2H2 (g) + O2(g)
Water Hydrogen Oxygen
(Burns with a popping sound) (Supporter of combustion)
These kind of reactions in which electric current is passed through the compound in liquid
(or molten) or aqueous solution are called electrolytic decomposition reactions or simply
electrolysis.
Some more examples of electrolysis.
(i) Electrolysis of molten sodium chloride.

2NaCl Electric
⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2Na + Cl2()
Current→

Sodium chloride (molten) Sodium metal Chlorine

(ii) Electrolytic decomposition of molten alumina.

2Al2O3 Electric
⎯⎯⎯⎯ 4Al + 3O2()
Current→

Alumina (molten) Aluminium Oxygen

(c) Photo decomposition: The reaction in which a single compound breaks up into two or
more simpler substances by the action of light is called photo decomposition reaction.
Note: Photolysis of AgBr is used in black and white photography.
Following activity shows photo decomposition reaction.
[20] 
 Chemistry

Aim
To study photo-decomposition of silver chloride.
Materials required
China dish, silver chloride Sunlight
Method
(i) Take about 2 g of silver chloride in a china dish. China dish
Silver chloride
Note its colour.
(ii) Place this china dish in sunlight for some time. Photochemical decomposition of
(iii) Observe the colour of the silver chloride after silver chloride to grey silver
metal
some time.
Observation
It is observed that white crystals of silver chloride turn grey in the sunlight.
Conclusion
Silver chloride decomposes into grey silver and chlorine in the presence of light.
Sunlight
2AgCl(s) → 2Ag(s) + Cl2 (g)
Silver chloride Silver Chlorine
(white) (grey) (Greenish yellow)
These types of decomposition reactions which take place on absorption of light are called
photo decomposition reactions or simply photolysis.
Some more examples of photolysis
(i) Photolysis of silver bromide
Sunlight
2AgBr(s) ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 2Ag(s) + Br2(g)
(Yellow) (Grey) (Reddish brown)
(ii) Photolytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.
Light
2H2O2 ⎯⎯⎯ → 2H2O + O2()
Hydrogen peroxide Water Oxygen
Here, we can see that all decomposition reactions need energy in one or other form.
Reactions which need energy (or energy is absorbed) are called endothermic reactions.
Note: Hydrogen peroxide is kept in amber coloured bottles so as to cut off light.

[21]
NCERT Basics : Class 10

Decomposition
reactions

Absorption of Absorption of
electricity light

Absorption
of heat Photolytic
Electrical
decomposition
decomposition
Thermal reaction
reaction
decomposition
reaction

If 2 g of barium hydroxide is added to 1 g of ammonium chloride, in a test tube, it was

observed that bottom of test tube becomes cold. Give an explanation.
Explanation
When barium hydroxide is added to ammonium chloride, an endothermic reaction takes
place. Since heat is absorbed, so the bottom of the test tube becomes cold.
∆
Ba(OH)2 + 2NH4 Cl → BaCl2 + 2NH4 OH
(iii) Displacement reactions
A reaction in which a more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its
compounds is called displacement reaction. The elements involved may be metals or
non-metals.
Relative reactivity of metals
Different metals possess different reactivities. The arrangement of metals in a vertical
column in order of their decreasing reactivity from top to bottom is called reactivity series
or activity series of metals.

[22] 
 Chemistry

 Here is a tip to memorise the activity series of some metals which can help you to perform
displacement reaction.

Element Symbol Trick

Potassium K Please Most reactive
Sodium Na Stop

DECREASING REACTIVITY
Calcium Ca Calling
Magnesium Mg Me
Aluminium Al A
Zinc Zn Zebra
Iron Fe Instead
Tin Sn Try
Lead Pb Learning
Hydrogen H How
Copper Cu Copper
Mercury Hg Merc
Silver Ag Saves
Least reactive
Gold Au Gold

Activity series of some metals

Aim
To study displacement of copper from copper sulphate solution by iron.
Materials required
Test tubes, iron nails, sand paper, copper sulphate solution, test tube stand.
Method
(i) Take three iron nails and clean them by rubbing with sandpaper.
(ii) Take two test tube marked as (A) and (B). In each test tube, take about 10 mL copper
sulphate solution.
(iii) Tie two iron nails with a thread and immerse them carefully in the copper sulphate
solution in test tube B for about 20 minutes. Keep one iron nail aside for comparison.
(iv) After 20 minutes, take out the iron nails from copper sulphate solution.
(v) Compare the intensity of the blue colour of copper sulphate solutions in test tubes (A) and
(B).
(vi) Also compare the colour of the iron nails dipped in copper sulphate solution with the
one kept aside.

[23]
NCERT Basics : Class 10

Stand
Test Iron nail Iron nail
tube taken out
Thread from CuSO4
solution
Copper sulphate
solution
Iron nail

Iron nail dipped in

Copper sulphate
solution

Copper sulphate
Test tube
solution
(test tube A) Test tube
stand
Reaction mixture
(test tube B)

Iron nails and copper sulphate solutions compared before and after the experiment.
Observation
It is observed that iron nail becomes brownish in colour and the blue colour of copper
sulphate solution fades and changes to light green colour.
Conclusion
Iron displaces copper from copper sulphate solution forming Iron (II) Sulphate in the
solution, which has a light green colour. Hence, blue colour of copper sulphate solution
fades. The displaced copper is deposited on the iron nail, giving it a brownish colour.
Fe(s) + CuSO4 (aq) ⎯→ FeSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)
Iron Copper sulphate Ferrous sulphate Copper
(Blue solution) (Light green solution) (Brown)
Relative reactivity of some non-metals
Among halogens, fluorine is most reactive, and iodine is least reactive.
F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2

[24] 
 Chemistry
Some more examples of displacement reactions.
(i) Zn(s) + CuSO4 (aq) ⎯→ ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)
Zinc Copper sulphate Zinc sulphate Copper
(Bluish-Silver) (Blue) (Colourless) (Reddish Brown)
(ii) Cu(s) + 2AgNO3 (aq) ⎯→ Cu(NO3 )2 (aq) + 2Ag(s)
Copper Silver nitrate Copper nitrate Silver
(Dark blue)
(iv) Double displacement reactions
Those reactions in which two different atoms or groups of atoms are exchanged are
called double displacement reactions or double decomposition reactions or metathesis
reactions.

10

Aim
To study double decomposition reaction between barium chloride solution and sodium
sulphate solution.
Materials required
Test tube, sodium sulphate solution, barium chloride solution
Method
(i) Take about 3 mL of sodium sulphate solution in a test tube.
(ii) In another test tube, take about 3 mL of Barium Chloride solution.
(iii) Mix the two solutions.
Observation
It is observed that a white solid insoluble in water is formed. This white insoluble solid is
called precipitate.

Test Tube
containing solution
of sodium sulphate

Test Tube
containing solution
of barium chloride

Formation of barium sulphate and sodium chloride.

[25]
NCERT Basics : Class 10
Conclusion
Barium chloride solution reacts with sodium sulphate solution to form a white precipitate
of barium sulphate along with sodium chloride in the solution.
BaCl2 (aq) + Na2 SO4 (aq) ⎯→ BaSO4 (S) + 2NaCl(aq)
Barium chloride Sodium Barium sulphate Sodium chloride
solution sulphate solution (White ppt.) solution
The above reaction is a double displacement reaction as well as precipitation reaction.
In the above reaction, an insoluble compound i.e. BaSO4 is formed because of double
displacement reaction. This type of double displacement reaction where precipitate
formation takes places, is called precipitation reaction.
(v) Oxidation and reduction reactions
The reaction which involves addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen from a
substance is called oxidation reaction.
The reaction which involves addition of hydrogen or removal of oxygen from a
substance is called reduction reaction.

China dish
containing Wire gauze
copper powder
Tripod stand
Burner

11

Aim
To study oxidation of copper to copper (II)
Oxidation
oxide. A e– Compound A A
e–
Materials required Reducing loses electrons Oxidize
China dish, copper powder, burner, tripod agent d
stand, wire gauze Reduction
Method Compound B
e–
B gains electrons B
Heat a China dish containing about 1g e–
Oxidising Reduce
copper powder. agent d
Observation Oxidation and reduction in term
It is observed that the brown copper of electronic concept.
powder gets coated with black copper (II) oxide.
[26] 
 Chemistry
Conclusion
Copper (brown in colour) on heating combines with oxygen to form black copper (II) oxide.
2Cu(s) + O2 (g) → 2CuO(s)
Copper Oxygen Copper (II) oxide
(Brown) (Black)
Here, we can say that copper is being oxidised, as it is gaining oxygen.
In the above activity, if hydrogen gas is passed over the product (CuO) then black coating on
the surface becomes brown because reverse reaction takes place.
∆
CuO(s) + H2 (g) → Cu(s) + H2 O()
Here, we can say that copper oxide is being reduced, as it
is loosing oxygen and hydrogen is being oxidised, as it is
Substance which
gaining oxygen. gives oxygen or gains
OR hydrogen is called an
One reactant (H2) gets oxidised and other (CuO) gets oxidising agent
whereas substance
reduced during this reaction.
which gives hydrogen
or gains oxygen is
called a reducing
agent.

 Here is a tip to learn electronic concept of oxidation and reduction.

Oxidation Is Loss of e– Reduction Is Gain of e–

O I L R I G
Such reactions where both oxidation and reduction reactions take place are called oxidation-
reduction reactions or redox reactions.
Some other examples of redox reactions are:

(i)

Oxidation
(ii) MnO2 : Oxidizing agent
Heat HCl : Reducing agent
MnO2 + 4HCl MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O

Reduction

[27]
NCERT Basics : Class 10
Oxidation
(iii) Fe2O3 : Oxidizing agent
Heat Al : Reducing agent
Fe2O3 + 2Al 2Fe + Al2O3
Ferric Aluminium Iron Aluminium
oxide oxide

Reduction
Oxidation
H2S : Reducing agent
H2S + Cl2 2HCl + S Cl2 : Oxidizing agent
Hydrogen Chlorine Hydrogen Sulphur
(iv) sulphide chloride

Reduction
Memory map
Oxidation & Combination
reduction reaction
reaction
Chemical
reactions
Chemical
reactions
Double
displacement Displacement
reaction reaction
Decomposition
reaction

5. Corrosion
The chemical or electrochemical reaction between a material, usually a metal, and its
environment that produces a deterioration of the material and its properties is called
corrosion.
The corrosion causes damage to building, ships and many other articles especially made of
iron. During corrosion, metal gets changed into its oxide, sulphide, carbonate etc.
Most common example of corrosion is rusting of iron.
Rust
Iron corrodes readily when exposed to moisture and gets covered with a brown flaky
substance called rust. It is called as rusting of iron.
Rust is hydrated Iron (III) oxide [Fe2O3.2H2O]
Some more examples of corrosion
(i) Copper reacts with moist carbon dioxide in the air and slowly loses its shiny brown
surface and acquires a green coating of basic copper carbonate.
(ii) Silver articles become black after sometime when exposed to air.

[28] 
 Chemistry
Rancidity
The oxidation of oils or fats in food, resulting into a bad taste and bad smell is called
rancidity. It is caused due to prolonged exposure of food in air. Oxygen present in air
oxivpdise fats / oils present in food and form volatile substances, which have bad odour.
Prevention of rancidity
(i) Rancidity can be prevented by adding antioxidants to foods containing fats and oils.
Antioxidants are reducing agents which when added to food, the food do not get oxidised
easily and hence do not turn rancid easily.
Common antioxidants are:
(a) BHA (Butylated Hydroxy Anisole)
(b) BHT (Butylated Hydroxy Toluene)
Vitamin-E (tocopherol) and vitamin-C (ascorbic acid) are the two naturally occuring
antioxidants.
(ii) Rancidity can be prevented by packaging fat and oil containing foods in the presence of
nitrogen gas.
(iii) It can be retarded by keeping food in refrigerator.
(iv) It can also be retarded by storing food in airtight containers.
(v) It can be retarded by storing foods away from light.

(a) P4 + 5O2 → 2P2O5

(b) CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
(c) 2C2H2 + 5O2 → 4CO2 + 2H2O + heat
(d) 2H2O2 → 2H2O + O2
Basic terminology
1. Tongs - Clips to hold test-tube or any other substance.
2. Decomposition - To break down.
3. Slaked lime - Lime water Ca(OH)2
4. Antioxidant - Prevents oxidation.
5. Precipitate - An insoluble substance which settles at the bottom of test tube in solid form.
6. Briskly - In an active, quick, or energetic way
7. Evolution - The giving off of a gaseous product

[29]
NCERT Basics : Class 10
8. Coefficients - Constant quantity placed before and multiplying the variable in a reaction
9. Vigorous - Strong and full of energy
10. Liberated - Release (gas, energy, etc.) as a result of chemical reaction
11. Wafting - To pass gently through the air
12. Residue - A substance that remains after a process or reaction
13. Pungent - Having a sharply strong taste or smell
14. Fumes - An amount of gas or vapour that smells strongly or is dangerous to inhale
15. Electrodes - A conductor through which electricity enters or leaves an object
16. Invert - Put upside down or in the opposite position
17. Extraction - A way to separate a desired substance
18. Molten - Liquefied by heat
19. Acquires - To obtain
20. Retarded - Delay or hold back in terms of progress

[30] 
 Chemistry
Memory Map

CHANGE

Chemical change
[New substance is formed]
Eg. Baking, Burning

Chemical reaction Physical change

(Process of [No new substance is
chemical change) formed]
Eg. Melting, Boiling

Characteristics Chemical equation

1. Change in state (Shorthand represent
2. Change in temperature - tation of chemical
3. Evolution of gas reaction)
4. Change in colour

Balanced Equation
Skeletal equation Number of different
Number of different elements elements are equal in
are not equal in both product & both product & reactant
reactant side side

[31]
NCERT Basics : Class 10

Types of chemical reactions

Combination Displacement Redox

Two or more substances More reactive element displaces Oxidation: addition of
combine to form a new less reactive element from its oxygen or removal of
substance. solution. hydrogen.
(i) H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl Cu+2AgNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + 2Ag Reduction: addition of
(ii) C + O2 → CO2 hydrogen or removal
Fe + ZnSO4 → No reaction
(iii) CaO + CO2 → CaCO3 of oxygen.
Oxidation

CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O

Reduction

Decomposition Double
Single compound breaks up Displacement
into two or more substances. Exchange of ions
(i) CaCO3 CaO + CO2 from two different
(ii) 2H2O 2H2 + O2 compounds in their
(iii) 2AgBr 2Ag + Br2 solution.
BaCl2 + Na2SO4
→ BaSO4 + 2NaCl
Application of oxidation
1. Corrosion → Deterioration of metals due to presence of moisture, air and salts.
2. Rancidity → Deterioration of oils in food. Occurs smell in food items.

[32] 
 2 Acids, Bases and Salts

"Sour fruits
contain various
amounts of citric
acid."

 We have studied matter on the basis of composition, state,

solubility, types of mixture, types of compound.
 Now in this chapter we will categorise some compounds on
the basis of their nature as acids, bases and salts.
1. Introduction
The chemicals which we come across are usually categorised as
acids, bases and salts.
Earlier this classification was based on different taste of Svante Arrhenius
(1859 – 1927)
chemicals.
Acids were first recognized as substances that taste sour. Vinegar tastes sour because it is a
dilute solution of acetic acid. Citric acid is responsible for the sour taste of a lemon.
Bases, sometimes called alkalis, are characterised by their bitter taste and they are soapy to
feel. Most hand soaps and commercial preparation for unclogging drains are highly basic.
Substances having taste similar to that of common salt are called salts. However, some
substances have very unpleasant taste and even may be poisonous. Usually salts are
prepared by chemical reaction between acids and bases.

[1]
NCERT Basics : Class 10
Now, the question arises – how to test that the given substance is an acid or a base without
tasting it? In this chapter, we shall discuss the common characteristics of acids and bases
and their chemical nature. We shall also discuss how salts are produced and important
applications of some of these salts.
2. Acids
The term "acid" is derived from the latin word "acidus" meaning sour in taste.
According to Arrhenius theory, "An acid is a substance which when dissolved in water,
ionizes and releases hydrogen ions [H+(aq)] in solution".
Example,
(i) HCl(aq) ⎯⎯→ H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
Hydrochloric acid Hydrogen ion Chloride ion
OR
HCl(g) + H2O() ⎯⎯→ H3O+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
(ii) H2SO4(aq) ⎯⎯→ 2H+(aq) + SO42–(aq)
Sulphuric acid Hydrogen ion Sulphate ion
3. Bases
According to Arrhenius theory "Those substances which
give hydroxide or hydroxyl ion (OH–) in their aqueous Bases which
solution are called bases". completely dissolve
in water are called
For example,
alkalis, example
(i) NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH–(aq) NaOH, KOH, etc. "All
Sodium hydroxide Sodium ion Hydroxyl ion alkalis are bases but
all bases are not
(ii) KOH(aq) → K+(aq) + OH–(aq) alkalis".
Potassium hydroxide Potassium ion Hydroxyl ion

 In earlier classes, we have studied about some common indicators like – litmus paper.
 As we know, acid turn blue litmus paper red and base turns red litmus paper blue.
4. Chemical properties of acids and bases
1. Action of indicators
Indicators: It is a chemical which indicates the nature of solution by changing its
colour/odour.
Natural indicators: Some plants are natural indicators. For example, onion extract.
Litmus is obtained from a plant called lichens.
Litmus paper is made by soaking paper in litmus solution. It turns red in acid and blue in
alkali.

[2]
 Chemistry
Turmeric (haldi) is commonly used as a spice in kitchen. It is yellow in colour and stains
a white cloth yellow. If the yellow stain is rubbed with soap solution, the colour of the
stain changes to brownish red. Why does this happen?
The soap solution always contains a small amount of chemical called sodium hydroxide.
It is the sodium hydroxide which changes the colour of turmeric stain from yellow to
brownish red. Now, if we rub stain with lemon, it again changes to yellow colour. The
lemon contains another substance called citric acid, which neutralises the effect of
sodium hydroxide.
Olfactory indicators: Indicators giving different odour in acidic and basic medium are
called olfactory indicators.
Examples: Onion extract, vanilla and clove oil.

What causes indicators to show different colours in acids and bases?

Explanation
Indicators undergo some structural changes in the presence of acids or bases which causes
them to show different colours.
Note: Litmus is the most commonly used indicator in the lab.

Aim
To test acids and bases in the laboratory using acid-base indicators that changes colour.
Materials required
Watch glass, test tube, hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, nitric acid, acetic acid, sodium
hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, ammonium
hydroxide, red and blue litmus solution, phenolphthalein solution, methyl orange solution.
Method
(i) Collect the following samples from the science laboratory-hydrochloric acid (HCl),
sulphuric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3), acetic acid (CH3COOH), sodium hydroxide
(NaOH), calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2], potassium hydroxide (KOH), magnesium
hydroxide [Mg(OH)2], and ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH).
(ii) Put a drop of each of the above solutions on a watch-glass and test with a drop of the
following indicators.
Red litmus solution, Blue litmus solution, Phenolphthalein solution, Methyl orange
solution.

[3]
NCERT Basics : Class 10
Observation
The changes observed are as follows:
Red Blue Methyl
Phenolphthalein
Sample solution litmus litmus orange
solution
solution solution solution
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) No effect Red Colourless Red
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) No effect Red Colourless Red
Nitric acid (HNO3) No effect Red Colourless Red
Acetic acid (CH3COOH) No effect Red Colourless Red
Sodium hydroxide(NaOH) Blue No effect Pink Yellow
Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) Blue No effect Pink Yellow
Potassium hydroxide (KOH) Blue No effect Pink Yellow
Magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) Blue No effect Pink Yellow
Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) Blue No effect Pink Yellow

Conclusion
Acids turn blue litmus red but have no effect on red litmus.
Bases turn red litmus blue but have no effect on blue litmus.
Phenolphthalein is colourless in acidic medium and turns pink in basic medium.
Methyl orange is yellow in basic medium and red in acidic medium.

 Colour of indicator in acidic/basic medium.

Neutral medium Acidic medium Basic medium
Indicator
(pH = 7) (pH < 7) (pH > 7)
Red litmus paper
No change No change Red to Blue
(Red)
Blue litmus paper
No change Blue to red No change
(Blue)
Phenolphthalein
No change No change Pink
(Colourless)
Turmeric paper
No change No change Reddish brown
(Yellow)
Methyl orange
No change Red Yellow
(Orange)
China rose Dark pink
No change Green
(Light pink colour) (Magenta)

[4]
 Chemistry

Aim
To test acids and bases using olfactory indicators.
Materials required
Aqua regia is a
Plastic bag, chopped onion, strips of clean cloth, dilute mixture of conc. HCl
and conc. HNO3 in
HCl solution, dilute NaOH solution, test tube, vanilla
3 : 1 ratio. It can
essence, clove oil. dissolve noble metals
like Ag, Au and Pt.
Method
(i) Take some finely chopped onion in a plastic bag
along with some strip of clean cloth. Tie up the bag
tightly and leave overnight in the fridge. The cloth strips can now be used to test for
acids and bases.
(ii) Take two of these cloth strips and check their odour.
(iii) Keep them on a clean surface and put a few drops of dilute HCl solution on one strip
and a few drops of dilute NaOH solution on the other.
(iv) Rinse both cloth strips with water and again check their odour.
(v) Note your observations.
(vi) Now take some dilute vanilla essence and clove oil and check their odour.
(vii) Take some dilute HCl solution in one test tube and dilute NaOH solution in another.
Add a few drops of dilute vanilla essence to both test tubes and shake well. Check the
odour once again and record change in odour, if any.
(viii) Similarly, test the change in the odour of clove oil with dilute HCl and dilute NaOH
solutions and record your observation.
Observation
Onion, vanilla essence and clove oil loses their smell in bases but does not change their smell
in acids.
Conclusion
A substance whose smell varies when it is mixed with an acidic or basic solution, can be used
as an acid base indicator (called olfactory indicator).
(2) Reaction of metals with acids and bases
(i) Dilute acids like dilute HCl and dilute H2SO4 react with certain active metals to evolve
hydrogen gas.
Metal + Dilute acid ⎯→ Metal salt + Hydrogen

[5]
NCERT Basics : Class 10
Lets discuss the following activity to understand the reaction between acid and metal.

Aim
To study the reaction of acids with metals.
Materials required
Metals which can
Test tube, dilute H2SO4, zinc granules, soap solution, test
displace hydrogen
tube stand, cork, delivery tube, candle. from dilute acid are
known as active
Method
metals. For example:
(i) Take about 5 mL of dil. H2SO4 in a test tube and add a Na, K, Zn, Fe, Ca, Mg,
few pieces of zinc granules to it. etc.

(ii) What do you observe on the surface of zinc granules?

(iii) Pass the gas being evolved through the soap solution.

Delivery tube
Stand
Burning of H2 gas
with a pop sound
Test tube Candle
H2gas
Dilute sulphuric
acid bubbles
Zinc granules Soap bubble
filled with H2

Soap
solution

Reaction of zinc granules with dilute sulphuric acid and testing H2 gas by burning.
Now answer
(i) Why are bubbles formed in the soap solution?
(ii) Take a burning candle near a gas filled bubble. What do you observe when burning
candle is brought near the gas bubbles?
Observation and discussion
(i) Bubbles are formed in the soap solution indicating that some gas is evolved during the
reaction between the metal and the acid.
(ii) The gas burns with a popping sound showing that the gas evolved is hydrogen.
Reaction involved : Zn(s) + dil H2SO4 → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
[6]
 Chemistry
Conclusion
The active metal like zinc displaces hydrogen from dilute acids and the remaining part of the
acid combines with the metal to form the corresponding salts.
More examples, (i) 2Na(s) + 2HCl(dil) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2(g)
(ii) Fe(s) + H2SO4(dil) → FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)
(ii) Metals like zinc, tin and aluminium react with strong alkalies like NaOH (caustic soda)
and KOH (caustic potash) to evolve hydrogen gas.
Consider the following activity.

Aim
To study the reaction of a base with metal.
Materials required
Test tube, granulated zinc, NaOH solution, burner.
Method
(i) Place a few pieces of granulated zinc metal in a test tube.
(ii) Add 2 mL of NaOH (sodium hydroxide) solution and warm the contents of the test tube.
(iii) Repeat the rest of the steps as in previous activity and record your observation.
Observation
It is observed that metals like zinc react with strong base like NaOH, KOH, etc. to liberate
hydrogen gas and form the corresponding salt.
For example,
Zn(s) + 2NaOH(aq) ⎯→ Na2ZnO2(aq) + H2(g)
Zinc Sodium hydroxide Sodium zincate Hydrogen
Conclusion
Some metals react with bases to liberate hydrogen gas.
Some more examples,
(i) 2Al(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 2H2O() ⎯→ 2NaAlO2(aq) + 3H2(g)
Sodium meta aluminate
(ii) Sn(s) + 2NaOH(aq) ⎯→ Na2SnO2(aq) + H2(g)

Sodium stannite
Note: Non-metals do not react with dilute acids as they do not displace hydrogen from
acids.

[7]
NCERT Basics : Class 10
(3) Reaction of acid with metal carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates
All metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates react with acids to give a corresponding
salt, carbon dioxide and water.
Metal carbonate/Metal hydrogen carbonate + Acid ⎯→ Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water
Let’s discuss the following activity

Aim
To study reaction of metal carbonates and metal hydrogen
carbonates with acids.
Materials required Egg-shell also contain
Test tubes, sodium carbonate, sodium hydrogen calcium carbonate as
carbonate, dilute HCl solution, lime water. the main constituent.
Method Hence they react with
(i) Take two test tubes. Label them as A and B. the acids.

(ii) Take about 0.5 g of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) in test

tube A and about 0.5 g of sodium hydrogen carbonate
(NaHCO3) in test tube B.
(iii) Add about 2 mL dilute HCl to both the test tubes.
(iv) Pass the gas produced in each case through lime water (calcium hydroxide solution)
Observation
It is observed that carbon dioxide gas is evolved in each case which turns lime water milky.
Na2CO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) ⎯→ 2NaCl(aq) + H2O() + CO2(g)
NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) ⎯→ NaCl(aq) + H2O() + CO2(g)
Ca(OH)2 + CO2(g) ⎯→ CaCO3(s) + H2O()
Lime Carbon Calcium carbonate
water dioxide (White ppt.)
On passing excess CO2, the solution becomes clear due to conversion of insoluble CaCO3 into
soluble calcium hydrogen carbonate.
CaCO3(s) + H2O() + CO2(g) ⎯→ Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
Calcium hydrogen carbonate
(Soluble in water)
Conclusion
All metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates react with acids to give a corresponding salt,
carbon dioxide and water.
One more example,
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(dil) ⎯→ CaCl2(aq) + H2O() + CO2(g)

[8]
 Chemistry
(4) Reaction of acid and base with each other
Whenever a solution of acid is treated with a solution of base, salt and water are formed
as the products. This reaction is known as neutralisation reaction. In general, a
neutralisation reaction can be written as :
Acid + Base ⎯→ Salt + Water
The reaction is called neutralisation because the salt which is formed is generally neutral
towards litmus. Thus, neutralisation may be defined as: "The reaction between acid and
base present in aqueous solution to form salt and water."

Aim
To study the reaction between acids and bases, i.e. neutralisation reaction.
Materials required
Test tube, dilute NaOH solution, phenolphthalein solution, dilute HCl solution.
Method
(i) Take about 2 mL of dilute NaOH solution in a test tube and add two drops of
phenolphthalein solution.
(ii) Note the colour of the solution.
(iii) Add dilute HCl solution to the above solution drop by drop.
(iv) Note the change in colour of the reaction mixture.
(v) Now add a few drops of NaOH solution to the above mixture.
Now answer
(i) What is the colour of the NaOH solution on adding phenolphthalein?
(ii) What change in colour takes place on adding dilute HCl?
(iii) Does the pink colour of phenolphthalein reappear on adding NaOH?
(iv) Why do you think this has happened?
Observation and discussion
On adding phenolphthalein to NaOH solution, the colour becomes pink. On adding dilute HCl
solution dropwise, finally the pink colour disappears and the solution again become
colourless. On adding NaOH, pink colour reappears because the medium becomes basic
again.
Conclusion
Acid and base react together to form salt and water.
Acid + Base → Salt + Water
The reaction is called neutralization reaction.

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NCERT Basics : Class 10
Some more examples,
(i) HNO3(aq) + KOH(aq) → KNO3(aq) + H2O()
(ii) HCl(aq) + NH4OH(aq) → NH4Cl(aq) + H2O()
(5) Reaction of metallic oxides with acids
A metal oxide reacts with dilute acids to form salt and water.
Metal oxide + Acid → Salt + Water
This can be explained with the help of following activity.

Aim
To study the reaction of metal oxides with acids.
Materials required
Beaker, copper oxide, dilute hydrochloric acid.
Method
(i) Take a small amount of copper oxide in a beaker and add dilute hydrochloric acid slowly
while stirring.
(ii) Note the colour of the solution.
Now answer
What has happened to the copper oxide?
Observation and discussion
It is observed that the colour of the solution become blue-green and the copper oxide
dissolves.
The blue green colour of the solution is due to formation of copper (II) chloride in the
solution.
Conclusion
Metal oxides react with the acids to form salt and water.
Metal oxide + Acid ⎯→ Salt + Water
CuO + 2HCl ⎯→ CuCl2 + H2O
Copper (II) Hydrochloric Copper (II) chloride Water
oxide acid (Blue-green)
This shows that metal oxides are basic in nature.
Some more examples:
(i) CaO(s) + 2HCl(aq) ⎯→ CaCl2(aq) + H2O()
(ii) MgO(s) + H2SO4(aq) ⎯→ MgSO4(aq) + H2O()

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 Chemistry
(6) Reaction of a Non-Metallic oxide with a base
Acids react with metal oxides but base react with non-metallic oxide to form their
respective salts and water.
Base + Non-metallic oxide ⎯→ Salt + Water
We have already discussed under acids that metal carbonates and metal hydrogen
carbonates react with acids to form carbon dioxide. On passing the CO2 gas evolved
through lime water [Ca(OH)2], lime water turns milky.
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) ⎯→ CaCO3(s) + H2O()
(White ppt.)
Since this is similar to the reaction between a base and an acid, we can conclude that
non-metallic oxides are acidic in nature.
Some more examples,
2NaOH( aq ) + CO2 ( g ) ⎯⎯
→ Na2CO3 ( aq ) + H2O( )
Sodium hydroxide Carbon dioxide Sodium carbonate Water

2KOH( aq ) + CO2 ( g ) ⎯⎯
→ K2CO3 (aq ) + H2O( )
Potassium hydroxide Carbon dioxide Potassium carbonate Water

Comparison between properties of acids and bases

Acids Bases
(i) Sour in taste. (i) Bitter in taste.
(ii) The properties are due to the (ii) The properties are due to the
presence of hydrogen ion (H+) in presence of hydroxide ion (OH–) in
aqueous solution of an acid. aqueous solution of a base.
(iii) Turns blue litmus to red. (iii) Turns red litmus to blue.
(iv) Aqueous solution conducts (iv) Aqueous solution conducts
electricity. electricity.
(v) Reacts with active metals like Na, K, (v) Does not react with metals except
Ca and Zn to give hydrogen gas. with Zn, Al and Sn.
(vi) Acidic properties disappear when (vi) Basic properties disappear when
react with bases (Neutralization). react with acids (Neutralization).
(vii) Reacts with carbonates to give (vii) Absorbs carbon dioxide to form
carbon dioxide. carbonate.
(viii) Corrosive to skin. (viii) Corrosive to skin and slippery in
nature.
(ix) The pH value is less than 7 at 25°C (ix) The pH value is greater than 7 at
(room temp.). 25°C (room temp.).

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NCERT Basics : Class 10

 Nature of oxides
Oxides Nature Examples
Metal oxide Basic in nature CaO, MgO, CuO
etc.
Non-metal Acidic in CO2, SO2, SO3
oxide nature etc.
Amphoteric Acidic and ZnO, Al2O3,
oxide basic SnO and PbO
Neutral oxide Neutral H2O, CO, N2O
and NO

5. What do all acids and all bases have in common?

In general, all acids have similar chemical properties. We have seen that all acids generate
hydrogen gas on reacting with metals, so hydrogen seems to be common in all acids.
All acids produce hydrogen ions [H+(aq)] when dissolved in water.
For example, HCl, H2SO4, HNO3, CH3COOH, etc.
Similarly all bases produce hydroxide ions (OH–) when dissolved in water. For example,
NaOH, Mg(OH)2, Ca(OH)2, NH4OH, etc.
Since the ions are the carriers of charge, therefore tendency to conduct electric current is
the common characteristic of all acids and bases when dissolved in water.

1. How will you test for a gas which is liberated when HCl reacts with an active metal?
2. Name the gas evolved when dilute HCl reacts with Sodium hydrogen carbonate.
3. Define olfactory indicators.

Aim
To study the conduction of electricity by aqueous solutions of acids and bases.
Materials required
Beaker, solution of glucose, alcohol, hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, nails, cork, battery,
bulb, switch.
[12]
 Chemistry
Method
(i) Take solution of glucose, alcohol, hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, etc.
(ii) Fix two nails on a cork and place the cork in a 100 mL beaker.
(iii) Connect the nails to the two terminals of a 6-volt battery through a bulb and a switch.
(iv) Now pour some dilute HCl in the beaker and switch on the current.
(v) Repeat with dilute sulphuric acid.
(vi) Repeat the experiment separately with glucose and alcohol solutions.
6-volt battery Bulb Bulb
Switch Switch

Beaker Beaker

Nail
Dilute HCl Glucose
Rubber cork solution

Acid solution in water Glucose solution in water

conducts electricity. does not conduct electricity.

Now answer
(i) What do you observe on passing electric current?
(ii) What do you observe in case of glucose and alcohol solution?
(iii) Does the bulb glow in all cases?
Observation and discussion
The bulb is found to glow in case of acids but not in case of glucose and alcohol solutions.
Conclusion
As electric current is carried through the solution by ions, this shows that acids dissociate in
the solution to produce H+ (aq) ions but substances like glucose and alcohol do not dissociate
to give H+ ions and hence are not acidic. Thus, H+ ions are responsible for the acidic
properties.
If we repeat the same activity using alkalis such as sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide etc,
similar results will be observed. As bases also produce ions in water i.e. OH –(aq) ions, they
are also electrically conducting in nature.
What happens to an acid or a base in a water solution?
The acidic behaviour of acids is due to the presence of hydrogen ions [H+ (aq)], in them. The
acids produce hydrogen ions only in the presence of water. So, in the absence of water, a
substance will not form hydrogen ions and hence will not show its acidic behaviour.
This can be well illustrated with the following activity.
Note: H+(aq) = H3O+
OR
Aq. hydrogen ion = Hydronium ion

[13]
NCERT Basics : Class 10

Aim
To test that dry HCl gas is not acidic but its aqueous solution is acidic.
Materials required
Test tube, NaCl, concentrated sulphuric acid, moist blue litmus paper.
Method
(i) Take about 1 g solid NaCl in a clean and dry test tube and set up the apparatus.
(ii) Add some concentrated sulphuric acid to the test tube.
(iii) Test the gas evolved successively with dry and wet blue litmus paper.
Moist litmus
paper

Test
tube Delivery tube
Conical flask
Test tube
containing
concentrated
H2SO4

Sodium
chloride

Preparation of HCl gas.

Now answer
(i) In which case does the litmus paper change colour?
(ii) On the basis of the above activity, what do you infer about the acidic character of (a) dry
HCl gas (b) HCl solution?
Observation and discussion
Dry blue litmus paper does not change colour but wet blue litmus paper changes its colour
to red.
Conclusion
Dry HCl gas is not acidic but HCl solution is acidic. This is because in the presence of water,
HCl dissociates to give H+ ions.
HCl(g) + H2O() → H3O+ or H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
Hydronium ion Chloride ion

[14]
 Chemistry
Hydrogen ions cannot exist alone but they exist after combining with water molecules. Thus,
hydrogen ions must always be shown as H+ (aq) or hydronium ion (H3O+).
H+ + H2O → H3O+
Similarly, when a base is dissolved in water, it forms OH– (aq) ion.
NaOH (s) ⎯→ Na+ (aq) + OH– (aq).
As we have seen that all acids generate H+ (aq) ions and all bases generate OH– (aq) ions, this
explains the formation of H2O() during neutralisation reaction.
Acid + Base → Salt + water
HX + MOH → MX + HOH
H+(aq) + OH–(aq) → H2O()

 Bases which are soluble in water are called alkalis. All bases do not dissolve in water.

Bases
E.g. ZnO, Mg(OH)2

Alkali
E.g. NaOH,
KOH

 Mixing of acid or base in water is called dilution and the acid

or the base is said to be diluted. During dilution,
concentration of ions (H3O+/OH–) per unit volume
decreases. This process is generally exothermic in nature,
which produces heat. Heat produced may be harmful
because it may cause the mixture to splash out and cause Warning sign displayed on
containers containing
burns. Moreover, the glass container may also break due to concentrated acids and
bases.
excessive local heating. So, precautions are recommended
during dilution of an acid or bases.

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NCERT Basics : Class 10

1. The gas burns with pop sound when a burning candle is brought near the gas bubbles.
2. Carbon dioxide gas.
3. There are some substances whose odour changes in acidic and basic medium. These are
called olfactory indicators.

How can we say all alkalis are bases but all bases are not alkalis?
Explanation
Only those bases which are soluble in water are called alkalis. All bases do not dissolve in
water. So, we can say all alkalis are bases but all bases are not alkalis.
E.g. KOH and NaOH are alkalis, while Mg(OH)2 is a base.

10

Aim
To test that dilution of a strong acid like H2SO4 and strong base like NaOH is exothermic.
Materials required
Beaker, water, concentrated H2SO4, NaOH pellets.
Method
(i) Take 10 mL water in a beaker.
(ii) Add a few drops of concentrated H2SO4 to it and swirl the beaker slowly.
(iii) Touch the base of the beaker.
(iv) Repeat the above activity with NaOH pellets.
Caution
Add sulphuric acid into water for dilution and not water into sulphuric acid as otherwise the
solution may splash out and cause burns.
Now answer
(i) Is there a change in temperature in the two cases?
(ii) Is this an exothermic or endothermic process?

[16]
 Chemistry
Observation and discussion
In both cases, the temperature is found to rise.
Conclusion
Dilution of concentrated H2SO4 with water as well as dissolution of NaOH in water is
exothermic.
Precaution needed for dilution
During dilution small quantity of acid or base should be added in water with stirring. Heat
evolved in this case will be quite slow.
If water will be added to the container containing acid or base, large amount of heat will be
produced immediately, which may be harmful.
6. How strong are acid or base solution?
Acids and bases may be either strong or weak. We can compare their relative strengths on
the basis of the Arrhenius theory. According to this theory, more the number of H+ ions
released by acid in water, stronger is the acid. Similarly, more the number of OH – ions
released by base in water, stronger is the base.
The concentration of H+(aq) or OH–(aq) ions in the acidic and basic solution respectively
decreases on dilution with water.
If we find quantitatively, the amount of H+(aq)/OH–(aq) ions present in a solution, we can
judge how strong an acid or a base is?
We can do this with the help of a universal indicator, which is a mixture of several
indicators. The universal indicator shows different colours at different concentration of
hydrogen ions or pH values in solution.
pH Scale
S.P.L. Sorenson, a Danish chemist in 1909 introduced the concept of measuring the
concentration of hydrogen ions [H+(aq)] in a particular solution. The 'p' in pH stands for
'potenz' in German, meaning power.

Increase
Increase in acidic
in acidic character Increase in basic
character character

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Neutral
pH Scale

On the pH scale we can measure pH from "0" (very acidic) to 14 (very alkaline).

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NCERT Basics : Class 10
(i) Solutions with pH = 0-3 are strongly acidic, with pH = 3–5 are moderately acidic while
with pH = 5–7 are weakly acidic.
(ii) Solution with pH = 7–9 are weakly basic, with pH = 9–12 are moderately basic while with
pH = 12–14 are strongly basic.
(iii) If pH = 7, then the solution is neutral.

11

Aim
The concentration of
To test the pH values of some solutions. H+ (aq) and OH–(aq)
Materials required ions in pure water is
1x10–7 mol litre–1 each
pH paper, given solutions in table.
and equal to each
Method other that makes its
(i) Test the pH value of solutions given in following pH = 7.

table.
(ii) Record your observations.
Now answer
(i) What is the nature of each substance on the basis of your observations?
Observations
[Link]. Solution Colour of Approximate Nature of
pH paper pH value substance
1 Saliva (before meal) Light green 7.4 Basic
2 Saliva (after meal) Yellow 5.8 Acidic
3 Lemon juice Red 2.3 Acidic
4 Colourless aerated drink Red-orange 3 Acidic
5 Carrot juice Yellow 6 Acidic
6 Coffee Yellowish orange 5 Acidic
7 Tomato juice Orange 4.1 Acidic
8 Tap water Light green 7.4 Basic
9 1M NaOH Dark violet 14 Basic
10 1M HCl Dark red 0 Acidic

Conclusion
Solutions with pH < 7 but close to 7 are weakly acidic, solutions with pH << 7 are strongly
acidic, solution with pH > 7 but close to 7 are weakly basic, solutions with pH>>7 are strongly
basic.
[18]
 Chemistry

 Some important pH of common substances.

Important note
The pH of human blood varies between 7.36 to 7.42. It is maintained by the soluble hydrogen
carbonates and carbonic acid present in blood.
7. Importance of pH in everyday life
(1) Plants and animals are pH sensitive
The pH plays an important role in the survival of animals,
including human beings. Our body works well within a
narrow pH range of 7.0 to 7.8. The aquatic animals, like
fish can survive in river water within a narrow range of pH
change.
For example, when the pH of rain water is less than 5.6, it
Red blood cells can exist
is called acid rain. Acid rain can lower the pH of river water only over a narrow range of
to such an extent and make it so acidic that the survival of pH

aquatic animals becomes difficult or may even kill the

aquatic animals.
(2) Soil pH and plants
The growth of plants in a particular soil is related to its pH. Actually, different plants
prefer different pH range for their growth. It is therefore, quite important to provide the
soil with proper pH for their healthy growth. Plants require a specific pH for their
growth. If the soil is too acidic or too basic the plants grow badly or do not grow at all.

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NCERT Basics : Class 10

12

Aim
To test the pH of the soil in the backyard of our home.
Materials required
Test tube, water, soil, pH paper.
Method
(i) Put about 2 g soil in a test tube and add 5 mL water to it.
(ii) Shake the contents of the test tube.
(iii) Filter the contents and collect the filtrate in the test tube. For Goldfish to survive, the
(iv) Check the pH of this filtrate with the help of universal pH of water must be
carefully controlled
indicator paper.
Now answer
What can you conclude about the ideal soil pH for the growth of plants in your region?
Observation and conclusion
The ideal soil pH should be close to 7, i.e., neither very acidic nor very alkaline.
Treatment of acidic or basic Soil
The pH of acidic soil can reach as low as 4 and that of the basic soil can go up to 8.3. Chemicals
can be added to soil to adjust its pH and make it suitable for growing plants.
If the soil is too acidic, then it is treated with materials like quicklime (calcium oxide) or
slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) or chalk (calcium carbonate). All these materials are bases
and hence react with the excess acid present in soil and reduce its acidity. If the soil is too
basic (or too alkaline) then its alkalinity can be reduced by adding decaying organic matter
(manure or compost), which contains acidic materials.
Soils with high peat content or iron mineral or with rotting vegetation tend to become acidic.
(3) Importance of pH in our digestive system
As we know our stomach produces gastric juice which
contains large amount of hydrochloric acid (pH about 1.4).
The acid so produced does not harm the stomach walls,
but kills germs and bacteria which enter in our digestive
system along with food, thus in a way it protects us from
diseases and helps in digestion. Sometimes excess of acid
is produced in the stomach due to overeating or eating
spicy foods. This stage is called acidity. To get relief from
this pain, we take tablets known as antacids. These are “Milk of Magnesia”
weak bases which neutralise the excess of acids. commonly used as antacid.
For example, Magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia)
Mg(OH)2

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 Chemistry
(4) pH changes as the cause of tooth decay
Generally, the pH in the mouth is more than 7, as the saliva produced in the mouth is
basic in nature. However, when we take food, some food particles remain in the mouth
after eating and bacteria present in the mouth produce acids by degradation of food
particles.
This acid lowers the pH in the mouth, tooth decay starts when the pH of acid formed in
the mouth falls below 5.5 and the enamel get corroded.
The bacteria present in the mouth break down the sugar that we eat into acids. Lactic
acid is one of these. The formation of these acids causes decrease in pH. The acids react
with calcium phosphate and the enamel coating slowly breaks.
Therefore, to prevent tooth decay, it is advised to clean the mouth and use toothpastes
which are generally basic, for cleaning the teeth. It neutralise the excess acid and prevent
tooth decay.
(5) Self-defence by animals and plants through chemical warfare
The sting of the honey bee contains formic acid, this acid
causes a lot of irritation and pain. The pain can be reduced by
applying baking soda paste on the affected region as the acid
gets neutralised.
In plant kingdom, nettle (Bichu Booti) is a herbaceous plant
which grows in wild. The nettle leaves have stinging hair.
When a person happens to touch the leaves of a nettle plant
Nettle plant
accidently, the stinging hair of nettle leaves inject methanoic acid
(HCOOH) into the skin of the person causing burning pain. The nettle sting, being acidic
can be neutralised by rubbing baking soda on the skin. Nature provides remedy for the
nettle sting in the form of a 'dock' plant, which often grows besides the nettle plants. The
leaves of dock plant contain some basic chemicals which neutralises methanoic acid.
Some flowering plants carry their own 'built in pH indicators'. For example, the flowers
of a hydrangea bush are blue in colour when grown in an acidic soil. If it is alkaline in
nature, the flowers become pink.
Some naturally occurring acids
Natural source Acid Natural source Acid
Vinegar Acetic acid Sour milk Lactic acid
(Curd)
Orange Citric acid Lemon Citric acid
Tamarind Tartaric acid Ant sting Methanoic acid
Tomato Oxalic acid Nettle sting Methanoic acid

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NCERT Basics : Class 10

1. How is the concentration of H+ ions of an acid influenced when it is diluted?

2. Arrange these in increasing order of their pH values- NaOH, blood, lemon juice.
3. Rainwater conducts electricity but distilled water does not. Why?
4. Why do acids not show acidic behaviour in the absence of water?
8. Salts
Salts are the ionic compounds consisting of two parts, one part carrying a positive charge
called positive ion or cation and the other part carrying a negative charge called a negative
ion or anion.
Families of salts
Salts are generally formed by reaction between an acid and base. On the basis of kind of acid
and base used, they contain specific cation or anion. So, we can divide salts in different
families on the basis of cation or anion present.
The salts having the same positive radical (or cation) or negative radical (or anion) are said
to belong to the same family.
Or we can say, salts can be classified into different families based on the common ion
present.

13

Aim
Write the formulae of the salts and to identify their acids and bases and their families.
Method
(i) Write down the formulae of the salts given below :
(1) Potassium sulphate (2) Sodium sulphate (3)
Calcium sulphate (4) Magnesium sulphate (5) Copper
sulphate (6) Sodium chloride (7) Sodium nitrate (8)
Sodium carbonate (9) Ammonium chloride.
(ii) Identify the acids and bases from which the above salts
may be obtained.
(iii) Salts having the same positive or negative radicals
belong to the same family. For example, NaCl and
A Digital pH meter
Na2SO4 belong to the family of sodium salts. Similarly, NaCl
and KCI belong to the family of chloride salts.

[22]
 Chemistry
Now answer
How many families can you identify among the salts given in this activity?
Observation and Conclusion
[Link]. Salt Formula Acid Base
1 Potassium sulphate K2SO4 H2SO4 KOH
2 Sodium sulphate Na2SO4 H2SO4 NaOH
3 Calcium sulphate CaSO4 H2SO4 Ca(OH)2
4 Magnesium sulphate MgSO4 H2SO4 Mg(OH)2
5 Copper sulphate CuSO4 H2SO4 Cu(OH)2
6 Sodium chloride NaCl HCl NaOH
7 Sodium nitrate NaNO3 HNO3 NaOH
8 Sodium carbonate Na2CO3 H2CO3 NaOH
9 Ammonium chloride NH4Cl HCl NH4OH
Families observed :- sulphate family, chloride family, sodium family.

What will happen when egg shell is placed in conc. HNO3?

Explanation
Egg shell contains calcium carbonate as its main
constituent. When dipped in concentrated HNO3,
Metal sulphides are
calcium carbonate reacts to evolve CO2. As a result, formed by the complete
eggshell slowly dissolves. displacement of
ionisable hydrogen ions
CaCO3 + 2HNO3 (conc.) ⎯→ Ca(NO3)2 + H2O + CO2
of H2S. For example,
pH of salts Ca(OH)2 + H2S
Depending upon the nature of acid and base which ⎯→ CaS + 2H2O
react to form the salt. Thus, metal sulphides
are salts.
OR
The nature of acid and base produced when salt reacts with water,
the salts can be classified into the following four types. Salts of a strong acid and a strong
base are neutral with pH value of 7. On the other hand, salts of a strong acid and weak base
are acidic with pH value less than 7 and those of a strong base and weak acid are basic in
nature, with pH value more than 7.
(1) Salts of strong acid and strong base. (Neutral salts)
For example, NaCl
NaCl  NaOH + HCl
Sodium Sodium Hydrochloride
chloride hydroxide acid
(strong base) (strong acid)

Hence, the acid and the base produced neutralize each other completely, so pH = 7.
(2) Salt of strong acid and weak base. (Acidic salt)
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NCERT Basics : Class 10
For example, NH4Cl
NH4Cl  NH4OH + HCl
Ammonium Ammonium Hydrochloride
chloride hydroxide acid
(weak base) (strong acid)

Here, pH < 7.
(3) Salt of weak acid and strong base (Basic salt)
For example, Na2CO3
Na2CO3  2NaOH + H2CO3
Sodium Sodium Carbonic acid
carbonate hydroxide (weak acid)
(strong base)

Here, pH > 7.
(4) Salt of weak acid and weak base (Neutral salts)
For example, CH3COONH4
CH3COONH4  CH3COOH + NH4OH
Ammonium Acetic acid Ammoniu hydroxide
acetate (weak base) (weak acid)

Here pH  7.

1. On dilution with water, the concentration of H+ ions of an acid decreases.

2. Lemon juice < Blood < NaOH
3. As electric current is carried through the solution by ions, distilled water does not contain
ions but rain water contain ions that's why rain water conducts electricity.
4. In the absence of water, a substance does not produce hydrogen ions and hence does not
show its acidic behaviour.

14

Aim
To find the pH of the given salt solutions.
Method
(i) Collect the following salt samples:
(a) Sodium chloride (b) Potassium nitrate
(c) Aluminium chloride (d) Zinc sulphate
(e) Copper sulphate (f) Sodium acetate
(g) Sodium carbonate (h) Sodium hydrogen carbonate
(ii) Check their solubility in water (use distilled water only).

[24]
 Chemistry
(iii) Check the action of these solutions on litmus and find the pH using a pH paper.
(iv) Report your observations in a tabular form.
Now answer
(i) Which of the salts are acidic, basic or neutral?
(ii) Identify the acid or base used to form the salt.

Salt Formula Solubility Action on pH Acid Base

in water litmus used used
Sodium chloride NaCl Soluble No action 7 HCl NaOH
Potassium nitrate KNO3 Soluble No action 7 HNO3 KOH
Aluminium AlCl3 Soluble Turns red <7 HCl Al(OH)3
chloride
Zinc sulphate ZnSO4 Soluble Turns red <7 H2SO4 Zn(OH)2
or ZnO
Copper sulphate CuSO4 Soluble Turns red <7 H2SO4 Cu(OH)2
or CuO
Sodium acetate CH3COONa Soluble Turns blue >7 CH3COOH NaOH
Sodium carbonate Na2CO3 Soluble Turns blue >7 H2CO3 NaOH
Sodium hydrogen NaHCO3 Soluble Turns blue >7 H2CO3 NaOH
carbonate

9. Chemicals from common salt

Sodium chloride (Common salt / table salt)
We know that hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide
combine with each other to form sodium chloride (NaCl)
which in common language is also known as common salt.
This is the salt which you sprinkle on your salads and use in
your kitchens. Common salt is an ionic compound of sodium Sodium chloride is an important
symbol in our struggle for
and chlorine (Na+Cl–)n. freedom. Remember Mahatma
The main source of common salt (sodium chloride) is the sea Gandhi's Dandi March !
water. Sea water contains about 3.5% of soluble salts, the most common of which is sodium
chloride (2.7 to 2.9%). Saline water of inland lakes, such as Sambhar lake in Rajasthan is also
a good source of common salt. Sodium chloride is also found as rock salt. Beds of rock salt
were formed when lakes/seas dried up in past. Common salt act as raw material for making
various materials of daily use. Let us discuss some of them.

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NCERT Basics : Class 10
(i) Sodium hydroxide
Commercially, sodium hydroxide is also called caustic soda because of its corrosive action
on animal and vegetable tissues.
Chlor-alkali process for obtaining sodium hydroxide
When we pass electricity through a solution of sodium chloride, commonly called brine, it
decomposes to form sodium hydroxide according to the following equation:
Electric current
2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O() ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) + H2(g)
On electrolysis, chlorine gas is formed at anode and hydrogen at cathode, sodium hydroxide
solution is formed near the cathode. All these products are commercially important.

at cathode at anode

H2 Cl2

Fuels, margarine, Water treatment, swimming De-greasing metals, soaps

ammonia for Pools PVC, disinfectants, and detergents, paper
fertilisers CFC’s pesticides making, artificial fibres

HYDROCHLORIC ACID BLEACH (CaOCl2)

For: Cleaning steel, ammonium For: Household bleaches,
chloride, Medicines, cosmetics bleaching fabric

Products of chlor-alkali process.

(ii) Bleaching powder
Chemically, bleaching powder is generally represented by
the formula, CaOCl2 (called, calcium oxychloride). The process of
We know that chlorine is produced during the electrolysis production of sodium
of aqueous sodium chloride (brine). This chlorine gas is used hydroxide from sodium
chloride is known as
for the manufacture of bleaching powder. Bleaching powder chlor-alkali process
is produced by the action of chlorine on dry slaked lime because of products
formed – chlor for
[Ca(OH)2]. Bleaching powder is represented as CaOCl2,
chlorine and alkali for
though the actual composition is quite complex. sodium hydroxide.
Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 ⎯→ CaOCl2 + H2O
Slaked lime Bleaching powder

[26]
 Chemistry
Uses of bleaching powder
(a) For bleaching cotton and linen in the textile industry, for bleaching wood pulp in paper
factories and for bleaching washed clothes in laundry.
(b) As an oxidising agent in many chemical industries.
(c) For disinfecting drinking water to make it free of germs.
Note: Bleaching powder is also known as chloride of lime.
(iii) Baking soda
The chemical name of baking soda is sodium hydrogen carbonate or sodium bicarbonate.
Baking soda (or sodium bicarbonate) is represented by the formula NaHCO3. The soda
commonly used in the kitchen for making tasty crispy pakoras is baking soda. Sometime it
is added for faster cooking. It is produced using sodium chloride as one of the raw materials.
Note: Anhydrous sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) is generally called soda ash.
In laboratory, baking soda can be prepared by passing
excess of CO2 gas through the saturated solution of sodium
carbonate. As a result, sodium hydrogen carbonate is
formed. It gets precipitated due to supersaturation. The
precipitate is separated, washed and dried without heating.
Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O ⎯→ 2NaHCO3 (ppt.)
Baking soda can be used to
On commercial scale, NaHCO3 is formed as an neutralise formic acid present in
red ant's sting.
intermediate product, when washing soda is prepared by
Solvay process or ammonia-soda process. In this method, a solution of sodium chloride
(called "brine") saturated with ammonia is allowed to react with CO 2, sodium hydrogen
carbonate & ammonium chloride are formed.
NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) + NH3(g) → NH4Cl(aq) + NaHCO3(s)
Common salt Ammonium Sodium hydrogen
chloride carbonate
It can be used to neutralise an acid because it is mild, non-corrosive base due to the presence
−
of HCO3 ion.

The following reaction takes place when it is heated during cooking.

2NaHCO3(s) ⎯⎯→ Na2CO3(s) + H2O() + CO2(g)

Heat

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NCERT Basics : Class 10
Uses of sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3)
(a) For making baking powder (which is a mixture of baking soda (sodium hydrogen
carbonate) and a mild edible acid like tartaric acid.) When baking powder is heated, the
following reaction takes place.
NaHCO3 + H+ ⎯→ CO2 + H2O + Sodium salt of the acid
(From acid)
Carbon dioxide produced during the reaction is responsible for making the bread and
cake to rise, making them soft and spongy.
(b) As an ingredient in antacids. Being alkaline, it neutralises excess acid in the stomach and
provides relief.
(c) It is used in soda-acid fire extinguisher.

Why do we feel a burning sensation in the stomach when we overeat? What is the
medicine used called?
Explanation
Burning sensation is due to excess HCl produced in the stomach. The medicine used to
neutralise it, is called antacid. For example, milk of magnesia.
(iv) Washing soda (sodium carbonate)
The chemical formula of washing soda is Na2CO3·10H2O (sodium carbonate decahydrate).
Washing soda is manufactured by Solvay process. This process is also known as ammonia
soda process. The raw materials needed for the process are sodium chloride, lime stone
(CaCO3) and ammonia (NH3). The reactions involved are
Step-I
NaCl(aq)+ H2O( ) + CO2(g) + NH3(g) ⎯⎯
→NH4Cl(aq)+ NaHCO3(s)
Common salt Ammonium Sodium hydrogen
chloride carbonate

The CO2 required in this reaction is obtained by heating limestone.

Heat
CaCO3(s) ⎯⎯ ⎯→ CaO(s)+ CO2(g)
Limestone Quick lime

Step-II
Dry sodium hydrogen carbonate is heated strongly to produce sodium carbonate.
Heat
2NaHCO3(s) ⎯⎯ ⎯→ Na2CO3(s) + H2O( ) + CO2(g)
Anhydrous sodium
carbonate (soda ash)

Step-III
Washing soda (Na2CO3·10H2O) is obtained by recrystallisation from a saturated solution of
soda ash (Na2CO3).
Crystalisation
Na2CO3(s) + H2O( ) → Na2CO3(aq) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ →Na2CO3 .10H2O
(Anhydrous sodium water Washing soda
carbonate)

[28]
 Chemistry
Uses of washing soda
(a) Washing soda (or sodium carbonate) is used for washing clothes (laundry purposes).
(b) Washing soda is used for softening hard water.
(c) Sodium carbonate (soda ash) is used for the manufacture of detergents.
(d) Sodium carbonate is used for the manufacture of many important compounds, such as
borax (Na2B4O7), hypo (Na2S2O3 · 5H2O), etc.
(e) Sodium carbonate is also used in paper, glass, soap and paint industries.
Note: Since one of the source of washing soda is ashes of plants, it is sometimes called soda
ash.

1. What do you mean by neutralization reaction? Give two examples.

2. What happens when baking soda is heated?
3. Name the compound used for softening hard water.
4. What is the common name of CaOCl2?
10. Are the crystals of salts really dry?
Crystals of some salts contain certain amount of associated
water.
The water associated with the crystal (or molecule) of any
salt is called water of crystallisation.
The salt containing water of crystallisation are called Raw gypsum, an important
hydrated salts. constituent of cement

15

Aim
To test the presence of water of crystallisation in copper sulphate crystals.
Materials required
Boiling tube, copper sulphate crystals, burner, water, test tube holder.
Method
(i) Heat a few crystals of copper sulphate in a dry boiling tube.
(ii) Note the colour of copper sulphate after heating.
(iii) Observe the water droplets in the boiling tube.
(iv) Add 2-3 drops of water on the sample of copper sulphate obtained after heating.
Now answer
(i) What do you observe on heating blue copper sulphate crystals?
(ii) Is the blue colour of copper sulphate restored on adding water?

[29]
NCERT Basics : Class 10
Observation and discussion
Blue coloured copper sulphate crystals on
heating leave behind white anhydrous
Test tube holder
copper sulphate and water droplets are seen Boiling tube
in the upper cooler parts of the boiling tube. Water droplets
Copper sulphate
On adding 2-3 drops of water to the white
residue, blue colour reappears.
Conclusion Burner
Copper sulphate crystals on heating lose
water to form white anhydrous copper
sulphate which can combine again with
water to form blue coloured copper sulphate Removing water of crystallisation
crystals.
Water of crystallisation
It is the fixed number of water molecules present in one formula unit of a crystalline salt. For
example,
(i) Blue vitriol CuSO4.5H2O
(ii) Green vitriol FeSO4.7H2O
(iii) Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O
Plaster of Paris (CaSO4.1/2H2O)
Plaster of Paris is hemihydrate (hemi means half and hydrate means water) of calcium
sulphate. Its molecular formula is CaSO4.1/2H2O or (CaSO4)2.H2O.
Preparation of plaster of Paris
Plaster of Paris is obtained by heating gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) in a kiln at 373K (or 100°C).
Heat
2[CaSO4 .2H2O](s) ⎯⎯⎯
100C
→(CaSO4 )2 .H2O + 3H2O( )
Gypsum Plaster of Paris

OR
373K 1 3
CaSO4 .2H2O(s) ⎯⎯⎯ →CaSO4 . H2O(s) + H2O( )
Gypsum(Hard mass) 2 2 Water
Plaster of Paris

Properties of Plaster of Paris

(1) Plaster of Paris is a white, odourless powder.
(2) At ordinary room temperature, Plaster of Paris absorbs water and a large amount of heat
is liberated.
(3) When mixed with a limited amount of water (50% by mass), it forms a plastic mass,
evolves heat and quickly sets to a hard-porous mass within minutes. This is called the
setting process.

[30]
 Chemistry
During setting, a slight expansion in volume occurs. It is due to this that it fills the mould
completely and gives sharp impression. The reaction during process is
1 3
CaSO4 . H2O (s) + H2O () → CaSO4.2H2O(s)
2 2

Plaster of Paris Water Gypsum (Hard mass)

Uses of plaster of Paris
(1) Plaster of Paris is used in making casts and patterns for moulds and statues.
(2) Plaster of Paris is used as cement in ornamental casting and for making decorative
materials.

Ornamental castings made from POP

(3) Plaster of Paris is used as a fire proofing material and for making chalks.
(4) Plaster of Paris is used in hospitals for immobilising the affected part in case of bone
fracture or strain.
(5) Plaster of Paris (POP) is used to fill small gaps on walls and roofs.
Note: Gypsum on heating gives Plaster of Paris, on the other hand Plaster of Paris on
hydration gives gypsum.

1. The reaction between acid and base present in aqueous solution to form salt and water is
called a neutralisation reaction.
NaOH + HCl ⎯→ NaCl + H2O
KOH + HCl ⎯→ KCl + H2O
2. 2NaHCO3 ⎯→ Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
3. Washing soda (Na2CO3 .10H2O)
4. Bleaching powder

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NCERT Basics : Class 10

 List of some important chemical compounds with their Common Names & Formulas.
Common Names Chemical Name of Compound Chemical Formula
Baking Soda Sodium Bicarbonate or Sodium NaHCO3
Hydrogen Carbonate
Washing Soda Sodium Carbonate Decahydrate NaCO3.10H2O
Caustic Soda Sodium Hydroxide NaOH
Bleaching Powder Calcium Oxychloride CaOCl2
Bleach Sodium Hypochlorite NaOCl
Caustic Potash Potassium Hydroxide KOH
Quick Lime Calcium Oxide CaO
Slaked Lime Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2
Limestone Calcium Carbonate CaCO3
Milk of Magnesia Magnesium Hydroxide Mg(OH)2
Plaster of Paris Calcium Sulphate Hemihydrate CaSO4.1/2H2O
Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O
Laughing Gas Dinitrogen Monoxide/ Nitrous N2O
Oxide
Brine NaCl + H2O
Acetic acid CH3COOH
White Vitriol Zinc Sulphate ZnSO4.7H2O
Blue vitriol Copper sulphate CuSO4.5H2O
Green vitriol Iron sulphate FeSO4.7H2O

Basic terminology
1. Olfactory - Related with sense of smell
2. Odour - Smell
3. Brine - Saturated salt solution
4. Crystals - Definite shaped salt
5. Mild - Neither strong nor weak
6. Edible - Can be eaten
7. Popping - To make a short, quick explosive sound.
8. Unclogging - To remove accumulated matter.
9. Stain - To leave a coloured mark that is difficult to remove.
10. Cation - Positively charged ion.
11. Anion - Negatively charged ion.
12. Pellet - Small particles created by compressing an original material.
13. Swirl - To cause something to make fast circular movements.
14. Splash - A small amount of liquid that falls onto something.
15. Casting - Is the process of pouring liquid metal into a mold where it cools and solidifies.
16. Ornamental - Made somewhere in order to look attractive.
17. Disinfectant - A substance that destroys bacteria and is used for cleaning.

[32]
 Chemistry

Memory Map

COMPOUNDS

On the basis of Taste

Acids Bases Salts

Release H+ ions in Release OH– ions in These are neutral
aqueous solution aqueous solution in nature
Sour to taste Bitter to taste Salty to taste

Strong acid Strong base

Complete dissociation- Complete
On the basis Acidic salts.
HCl H2SO4 dissociation-NaOH
of strength
Weak acid Weak base pH < 7.
Incomplete Partial dissociation
dissociation - -Mg(OH)2 Eg. – NH4Cl
CH3COOH H2CO3
Monobasic Mono acidic
released one H+ ion released one
On the basis of pH
On the basis of
release of no. per molecule -HCl OH– ion per
of H+ /OH–ions molecule - NaOH Basic salts.
Dibasic
Release two H+ ions Diacidic
Two OH– ions pH > 7.
per molecule- H2SO4
Per molecule
Eg. – CH3COONa
Tribasic Mg(OH)2
Release three–H+ ions
per molecule- H3PO4 Triacidic
Three OH– ions
Per molecule
Dilute acid Al(OH)3 Neutral salts.
More amount of
On the basis of water than acid pH  7.
Dilute base
concentration Concentrated acid More amount of
Less amount of water than base Eg. – CH3COONa
water than acid
Concentrated
base
Less amount of
water than base

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NCERT Basics : Class 10

Chemical
properties of Acids
and Bases

Metals Metals carbonates Acid + Bases

HCl + Zn → ZnCl2 + H2 CaCO3 + HCl → CaCl2 + HCl + NaOH → NaCl +
Zn + NaOH → NaZnO2 + H2 H2O + CO2 H2O

pH Scale
→ A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution is called pH, short form of power of
hydrogen. pH < 7(Acidic), pH > 7(Basic), pH  7(Neutral)

Indicators
→ It is a chemical which indicates by the means of a sharp change in colour, according to the
nature of the solutions.

• Chemicals from common salt (NaCl)

NaCl + Water
(Brine)

Electrolysis + CO2 + NH3 + H2O

At anode At cathode Near cathode NaHCO3

 Heating
Cl2 H2 NaOH
Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
+ + +
Rehydration
Ca(OH)2 Cl2 Cl2
Na2CO3 .10 H2O
  
CaoCl2 + H2O 2HCl NaOCl
Bleaching Bleach Washing soda
Powder

Plaster of Paris → CaSO4.2H2O ⎯⎯⎯
→ 1 3
100C CaSO4 . H2O + H2O
2 2
or
(CaSO4)2.H2O

[34]
 3 Metals and Non-metals

"High resistance to
corrosion, high melting
point and high strength
makes titanium and
zirconium perfect to
design aircraft frames.
They are known as
strategic metals."

1. Introduction
Everything around us is made up of different elements.
The four most
These elements can be classified into metals or non- abundant elements by
metals on the basis of their properties. A few elements mass in the human
have properties common to both metals and non-metals. body are oxygen
These are called semi-metals or metalloids. (65%), carbon (18%),
hydrogen (10%) and
2. Physical properties nitrogen (3%).
(I) Metals
(1) Lustre of metals
Most of the metals, in their pure state, have a shining surface. This property is called metallic
lustre.
For example, gold is shining yellow, copper is brown, iron, aluminium and zinc are lustrous
grey.

Aim
To check that metals have lustre i.e. a shining surface.
Materials required
Samples of iron, copper, aluminium and magnesium, sand paper.
Method Lustrous appearance of
(i) Take samples of iron, copper, aluminium and magnesium. metals makes them suitable
Note the appearance of each sample. for making jewellery.
(ii) Clean the surface of each sample by rubbing them with sand
paper and note their appearance again.
[1]
NCERT Basics: Class 10
Observation
The surface of the metals is dull because they are covered with a
layer of oxide, hydroxide, carbonate, etc. due to the attack of
gases present in the air on their surface. On rubbing the surface Sodium and Potassium
are so soft that they
with sand paper this layer is removed and a shining surface
can be cut by a knife.
appears. Hardest metal is
Conclusion Chromium and
softest metal is Cesium.
Metals in the pure state (or freshly prepared or cut) have shining
surface.
(2) Hardness of metals
Most of the metals are hard, but all metals are not equally hard. The hardness of metal varies
from metal to metal.

Aim
To test that metals are hard and hardness varies from metal to metal.
Materials required
Small pieces of iron, copper, aluminium and magnesium, knife, tong.
Method
(i) Take small piece of iron, copper, aluminium and magnesium. Try to cut these metals with a
sharp knife.
(ii) Hold a piece of sodium metal with a pair of tongs.
Caution
Always handle sodium metal with care. Dry it by pressing
between the folds of a filter paper.
Put it on a watch glass and try to cut it with a knife.
Observation and conclusion
All the four metals (Fe, Cu, Al and Mg) are found to be cut with
difficulty. This shows that metals are hard. The ease of cutting is
found to be in the order Mg > Al > Cu > Fe. This shows that Being highly malleable,
hardness varies from metal to metal. Sodium can be cut very silver foil is used for
wrapping sweets and
easily. Hence sodium is soft, i.e., it is an exception. chocolates.
(3) Malleability of metals
The property according to which metals can be beaten with a hammer into very thin sheets
without breaking is called malleability.
Gold and silver are the most malleable metals. Aluminium and copper are also highly
malleable metals.
All of these metals can be beaten with a hammer to form very thin sheets, called foil.

[2] 
 Chemistry

Aim
To test that metals are malleable, i.e. can be hammered into
sheets. Malleability capacity
of different metals can
Materials required be attributed to the
Pieces of iron, zinc, lead and copper, block of iron, hammer. strength of the metallic
bond and depends
Method
upon the extent of force
(i) Take piece of iron, zinc, lead and copper. that is applied.
(ii) Place any one metal on the block of iron and strike it four or
five times with a hammer.
(iii) Repeat with other metals.
(iv) Record the change in shape of these metals.
Observation and conclusion
It is observed that metals can be beaten into thin sheets i.e. they are malleable.
(4) Ductility of metals
Ductility is also an important property of metals. The ability of metals to be drawn
(stretched) into thin wires is called ductility. Generally, wires are made up of iron, copper
and aluminium. For example, 100 mg of silver can be drawn into a thin wire of about 200
metres length.
Copper and aluminium are also very ductile, and therefore, they can be drawn into thin wires
which are used in electrical wiring.

Aim
To justify that metals are ductile i.e. can be drawn into wire.
Materials required
Metal pieces of iron, copper, aluminium, lead, etc.
Method
(i) Consider some metals such as iron, copper, aluminium, lead, etc.
(ii) Check which of these metals are available in the form of wire.
Observation and conclusion
As wires of iron, copper and aluminium are easily available, this shows that metals can be drawn
into wires i.e., they are ductile.
[3]
NCERT Basics: Class 10
(5) Thermal conductivity of metals
The process in which a metal allows the flow of heat through it is called its thermal
conductivity. Most of the metals are good conductors of heat, such as silver, gold, iron,
copper and aluminium.

Aim
To test that metals are good conductors of heat and have high
melting point. Silver is the best
conductor of heat and
Materials required lead is the poorest
Aluminium or copper wire, pins, wax, spirit lamp, candle or a burner. conductor of heat.
Good thermal
Method conductivity of metals
(i) Take an aluminium or copper wire. Clamp the wire on a stand. makes them suitable
for wire and utensil
(ii) Fix a pin to the free end of the wire using wax. making.
(iii) Heat the wire with a spirit lamp, candle or a burner near the place
where it is clamped.

Metal wire Stand

Stand
Metal wire
Free end
Free end Clamp
Clamp
of wire
of wire
Wax
Wax

Pin
Pin
Burner
Burner

Metals conduct heat very easily

Now answer
(i) Does the metal wire melt?
Observation and conclusion
We observe that on heating the wire near the clamp, after some time the pin falls down. This shows
that heat flows through the wire and melts the wax. Further, the wire does not melt even after
heating for a long time. This shows that metals have high melting points.
(6) Electrical conductivity of metals
The property in which metal facilitates the flow of electric current through it is called
electrical conductivity. All metals are good conductors of electricity because they contain
free or mobile electrons. These free electrons conduct electric current.

[4] 
 Chemistry

Aim
To test that metals are good conductor of electricity.
Materials required
Electric circuit, metal piece.
Battery
Bulb Silver is the best
conductor of electricity.
Since silver is expensive,
therefore, copper and
Clips Switch
aluminium are
A B commonly used for
Insert sample making electric wires.
to be tested

Metals conduct electricity

Method
(i) Set up an electric circuit as shown in figure.
(ii) Place the metal to be tested in the circuit between terminals A and B as shown in the figure.
Now answer
Does the bulb glow? What does this indicate?
Observation and discussion
The bulb glows. This shows that electric current flows through the metal.
Conclusion
Metals are good conductor of electricity.
(7) Sonorous
The property of metals in which metals produce sound when they strike a hard object or
other surface is called sonority or sonorisity. Some metals like copper, silver, gold,
aluminium give musical sound when they are struck by themselves or any other object.

Sonorous
Hard Lusture

Thermal Electrical
METALS
conductance conductance
Ductile Malleable
High M.P.
& B.P.

Note: Difference in properties of different materials is based on their internal structures.

[5]
NCERT Basics: Class 10
(II) Non-metals
Among the total known elements, there are only 22 non-metals, out of which 11 are gases
like oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, one is a liquid (bromine) and the rest 10 are solids such as
sulphur, phosphorus, iodine and the allotropes of carbon (diamond and graphite).
Do non-metals also have physical properties similar to that of metals?
Let us find out.

Aim Lead and mercury offer

To study the physical properties of non-metals. greater resistance to
the flow of current.
Materials required Therefore, they have
Samples of carbon, sulphur, iodine, hammer, knife, battery, etc. low electrical
conductivities.
Method
(i) Collect samples of carbon (coal or graphite), sulphur and iodine.
(ii) Carry out the activities 1 to 6 with these non-metals.
Observation
Type of Hard- Malle-
Element Symbol Ductility Conduction Sonority
surface ness ability
Heat Electricity
Carbon
C Lustrous Soft No No Yes Yes No
(graphite)
Non-
Sulphur S Soft No No No No No
lustrous
Iodine I Lustrous Soft No No No No No
Conclusion
Non-metals possess different properties than metals.
The important physical properties of non-metals are given below :
(1) Non-metals may be solids (such as sulphur, phosphorus and diamond), liquid (bromine),
or gases (such as oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, neon, argon, etc.) at room temperature.
(2) Non-metals are usually brittle and cannot be used to make sheets and wires.
(3) Non-metals are non-lustrous and cannot be polished. (Exception : Graphite and iodine are
lustrous non-metals).
(4) Non-metals are generally bad conductor of heat and electricity.
Exception : Graphite is a good conductor of electricity. Non-metals do not conduct the
electric current due to absence of mobile electrons.
[6] 
 Chemistry
(5) Non-metals can be easily broken due to their low tensile strength.
(6) Non-metals are generally light and have low densities.
(7) Unlike metals, non-metals do not produce any ringing sound when struck with an object.
(8) Non-metals are soft (Exception : Diamond)
(9) Non-metals have low melting and boiling points.
(Exception : Graphite has very high melting point (3730°C))
On the basis of the above discussion of the physical properties of metals and non-metals, we have
concluded that elements cannot be grouped according to the physical properties alone, as there
are many exceptions.
Note: Allotropes differ in physical properties but have almost similar chemical properties.

1. Name one metal and one non-metal that exist in liquid state at room
temperature. Also name two metals having melting point less than 310
K (37°C).
2. A non-metal A is an important constituent of our food and forms two
Gallium metal has
oxides B and C. Oxide B is neutral whereas C causes global warming. such a low melting
Identify A, B and C. point (30°C) that it
Some exceptions melts with the heat
of a hand.
(i) All metals except mercury are solid at room temperature. We know
that metals have very high melting points but gallium (Ga) and cesium (Cs) have very low
melting points. These two metals will melt if we keep them on our palm.
(ii) Iodine is a non-metal but it is lustrous.
(iii) Alkali metals such as lithium, sodium and potassium are so soft, that they can be easily cut
with a knife i.e. they have low densities and low melting points.
(iv) Carbon is a non-metal that can exist in different forms. Each form is called an allotrope.
Diamond, an allotrope of carbon is the hardest natural substance, which has very high
melting and boiling point. Graphite is another allotrope of carbon which is good conductor
of electricity.

Low M.P.
& B.P.
Brittle Soft

Low density Non-Metals Non-lustrous

Non-conductor Non sonorous

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NCERT Basics: Class 10

1. Metal mercury (Hg) and non-metal bromine (Br2) exist in liquid state at room temperature.
The two metals with melting point less than 310 K are cesium (Cs) and gallium (Ga).
2. The non-metal A is carbon. B is carbon monoxide (CO), C is carbon dioxide (CO2)
Nature of oxides
Elements can be more clearly classified as metals and non-metal on the basis of their chemical
properties.

Aim
To show that metal oxides are basic while non-metal oxides are acidic.
Materials required
Magnesium ribbon, sulphur powder, burner, china dish, red and blue litmus paper, test tubes,
water.
Method
(i) Take a magnesium ribbon and some sulphur powder.
(ii) Burn the magnesium ribbon. Collect the ashes formed and dissolve them in water.
(iii) Test the resultant solution with both red and blue litmus paper.
(iv) Now burn sulphur powder. Place a test tube over the burning sulphur.
(v) Add some water to the above test tube and shake.
(vi) Test this solution with blue and red litmus paper.
Now answer
(i) Are the products formed on burning magnesium and sulphur acidic or basic?
(ii) Can you write equations for these reactions?
Observation and discussion
The solution obtained on dissolving ashes after burning magnesium turns red litmus blue whereas
solution obtained on dissolving gases from burning sulphur turns blue litmus red. This shows that
magnesium oxide (MgO) is basic while oxides of sulphur (SO2, SO3) are acidic.
The reactions are:
2Mg(s) + O2(g) ⎯→ 2MgO(s)
Magnesium Oxygen Magnesium oxide
MgO(s) + H2O() ⎯→ Mg(OH)2(aq)
Magnesium Water Magnesium
Oxide hydroxide
S(s) + O2 (g) ⎯→ SO2(g)
Sulphur Oxygen Sulphur dioxide
SO2(g) + H2O() ⎯→ H2SO3(aq)
Sulphur dioxide Water Sulphurous acid
[8] 
 Chemistry
Conclusion
Metal oxides are ionic and basic in nature, whereas non-metallic oxides are covalent and acidic in
nature.
For example, Na2O, K2O are ionic and CO2, NO2 are covalent.
Some of the non-metal oxides are neutral in nature like H2O, CO, N2O and NO.
3. Chemical properties of metals
We have studied the physical characteristics of metals.
Now let us focus our attention on their chemical Lithium cannot be
properties. Metals in general have tendency to lose one or stored in kerosene oil
because it is the lightest
more electrons present in the valence shells of their atoms
metal and it floats on its
to form positive ions. Metals are therefore, regarded as surface and reacts with
electropositive elements. air. Thus, it is kept
wrapped in paraffin
M → Mn + + ne–
⎯⎯
( metal atom) ( metal ion ) wax.
The chemical properties of the metals are mostly linked with
the electron releasing tendency of their atoms. Greater the tendency, more will be the
reactivity of the metal.
(1) Reaction of metal with oxygen
Almost all metals combine with oxygen to form metal oxides. But they possess different
reactivity towards oxygen.

Aim
To study the burning of metals in air to form oxides.
Materials required
Samples of sodium, potassium, magnesium, copper and aluminium, tong, burner, china dish.
Method
(i) Take samples of sodium, potassium, magnesium, copper and aluminium.
(ii) Hold sample with a pair of tongs and try to burn it over the flame. Repeat with other metal
samples.
(iii) Collect the products if formed.
(iv) Let the products and the metal surface cool down.
Now answer
(i) Which metals burn easily?
(ii) What flame colour did you observe when the metal burns?
(iii) Arrange the metals in the decreasing order of their reactivity towards oxygen. Are the
products soluble in water?
(iv) How does the metal surface appear after burning?
[9]
NCERT Basics: Class 10
Observation and discussion
Sodium and potassium react vigorously with oxygen.
4Na(s) + O2(g) ⎯→ 2Na2O(s)
4K(s) + O2(g) ⎯→ 2K2O(s)
Sodium and potassium burns with a golden yellow and lilac colour flame respectively to form
sodium and potassium oxides, which dissolve with water to form alkali called sodium hydroxide
and potassium hydroxide.
Na2O(s) + H2O() ⎯→ 2NaOH(aq)
K2O(s) + H2O() ⎯→ 2KOH(aq)
Magnesium also burns easily, to form magnesium oxide.
2Mg(s) + O2(g) ⎯→ 2MgO(s)
Copper and Aluminium do not burn but on heating in air form
black copper (II) oxide and white aluminium oxide (Al2O3) Due to high reactivity
respectively. of Na and K with
oxygen, they are kept in
2Cu(s) + O2(g) ⎯→ 2CuO(s) kerosene. If they are
Copper Copper (II) oxide (Black) kept in air they will
4Al(s) + 3O2(g) ⎯→ 2Al2O3(s) react with oxygen to
form their respective
Aluminium Aluminium oxide (White) oxides.
These metal oxides are found to be insoluble in water.
The order of reactivity with oxygen is :
K > Na > Mg > Al > Cu
At ordinary temperature, the surfaces of metals such as magnesium, zinc and lead, etc. are covered
with a thin layer of the oxide. The protective layer of the oxide prevents the metal from further
oxidation.
Conclusion
Almost all metals combine with oxygen to form metal oxides.
Metal + Oxygen ⎯→ Metal oxide
Nature of metallic oxide
Generally, metallic oxides are basic in nature except aluminium and zinc oxides which are
amphoteric in nature. That means these oxides (Al2O3, ZnO) react with base as well as acid. The
basic oxide of metals react with acid to give salt.
For example,
CuO(s) + H2SO4() ⎯→ CuSO4(aq) + H2O()
Copper(II) Sulphuric Copper(II) Water
oxide acid sulphate

[10] 
 Chemistry
Some oxides of metals dissolve in water and form alkalis.
For example,
Na2O(s) + H2O() ⎯→ 2NaOH(aq)
Sodium oxide Water Sodium hydroxide
K2O(s) + H2O() ⎯→ 2KOH (aq)
Potassium oxide Water Potassium hydroxide
Reactions showing amphoteric nature of Al2O3 and ZnO.
Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq) ⎯→ 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O()
Aluminium Hydrochloric Aluminium Water
oxide acid chloride
Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) ⎯→ 2NaAlO2(aq) + H2O()
Aluminium Sodium hydroxide Sodium meta Water
oxide (base) aluminate
Similarly,
ZnO(s) + 2HCl(aq) ⎯→ ZnCl2(aq) + H2O()
Zinc Hydrochloric Zinc Water
oxide acid chloride
ZnO(s) + 2NaOH(aq) ⎯→ Na2ZnO2(aq) + H2O()
Zinc oxide Sodium hydroxide Sodium zincate Water

 Nature of oxides
Oxides Nature Examples
Metal oxide Basic in nature CaO, MgO, CuO etc.
Non-metal oxide Acidic in nature CO2, SO2, SO3 etc.
Amphoteric oxide Acidic and basic ZnO, Al2O3, SnO and PbO
Neutral oxide Neutral H2O, CO, N2O and NO
(2) Reaction of metals with water
Metal reacts with water and produce a metal oxide and hydrogen gas. Metal oxides that are
soluble in water dissolve in it to form metal hydroxide. But all metals do not react with water.
Metal + Water ⎯→ Metal oxide + Hydrogen gas
(Steam)

Metal oxide + Water ⎯→ Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen gas

(Cold/Boiling)

[11]
NCERT Basics: Class 10
The following activity clears this reaction properly.

10
Anodising is a process
of forming a thick
Aim oxide layer of
aluminium. This oxide
To study the reactivity of metals with water.
coat of aluminium
(Al) makes it resistant
to further corrosion.

 This activity needs teacher's assistance.

Materials required
Samples of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, zinc and copper, beaker, cold water, hot
water, burner, glass wool, test tube.
Method
(i) Collect the samples of sodium, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, zinc and copper.
(ii) Put small piece of the samples separately in beakers half-
filled with cold water.
(iii) Put the metals that do not react with cold water in beaker
Warning sign displayed on
half-filled with hot water. containers containing
(iv) For the metals that do not react with hot water, arrange the concentrated acids and
bases.
apparatus (to produce steam) and observe their reaction
with steam.
Metals sample
Metal sample
Hydrogen
Hydrogen
Glass wool
Glass wool
soaked in water
soaked in water Cork
Cork
Water
Water
Burner Delivery
Delivery
Burner Stand
Stand
tube
tube

Action of steam on a metal

Now answer
(i) Which metals reacted with cold water? Arrange them in the increasing order of their
reactivity with cold water.
(ii) Did any metal produce fire on water?
(iii) Does any metal start floating after some time?
(iv) Which metals reacted with steam?
(v) Which metals did not react even with steam?

[12] 
 Chemistry
Observation and discussion
(i) Na and K metals react vigorously with cold water to form NaOH and KOH respectively and
H2 gas is liberated.
2Na(s) + 2H2O() ⎯⎯→ 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Sodium Cold water Sodium hydroxide Hydrogen gas
(ii) 2K(s) + 2H2O() ⎯⎯→ 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
Potassium Cold water Potassium hydroxide Hydrogen gas
These reactions are so violent and exothermic that the H2 gas evolved, catches fire.
Calcium reacts with cold water to form Ca(OH)2 and H2 gas. It is less violent.
Ca(s) + 2H2O() ⎯⎯→ Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
Calcium Cold water Calcium hydroxide Hydrogen gas
(iii) Magnesium reacts with hot boiling water to form Mg(OH)2 and H2 gas.
Mg(s) + 2H2O() ⎯⎯→ Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
Magnesium Boiling water Magnesium hydroxide Hydrogen gas
Magnesium and calcium floats on surface of water due to bubbles of H2 gas sticking on its
surface.
(iv) Aluminium does not react either with cold or hot water. But it reacts only with steam to form
aluminium oxide and hydrogen gas.
2Al(s) + 3H2O(g) ⎯⎯→ Al2O3(s) + 3H2(g)
Aluminium Steam Aluminium oxide Hydrogen gas
Similarly, zinc reacts with steam to form zinc oxide and H2 gas.
Zn(s) + H2O(g) ⎯⎯→ ZnO(s) + H2(g)
Zinc Steam Zinc oxide Hydrogen gas
(v) Copper do not react with water even under strong conditions. The above reactions indicate
that sodium and potassium are the most reactive metals while copper is less reactive, metals
such as lead, copper, silver and gold do not react with water at all.
Conclusion
The reactivity order of these metals with water are
K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Cu
Reactivity with water decreases ⎯→

(a) (b) (c)

The reaction (a) Potassium metal (stored in mineral oil to prevent oxidation) and (b) water. (c)
The reaction of potassium with water. The flame occurs because of the produced hydrogen gas.
(H2(g) burns in air which reacts with O2(g), at the high temperature)

[13]
NCERT Basics: Class 10
(3) Reaction of metals with acids
The highly reactive metals react with dilute acid to displace hydrogen from acid and give a
salt.
Metal + Dilute acid ⎯→ Salt + Hydrogen
The reactivity of different metals is different with same acid. This is made clear by the
following activity.

11

Aim
To study the reaction of metals with acids.

 Do not take sodium and potassium in this activity as they react vigorously even with cold
water.
Materials required
Samples of magnesium, aluminium, iron, copper, test tubes, dilute hydrochloric acid,
thermometers.
Method
(i) Put the samples of Mg, Al, Fe and Cu separately in test tubes containing dilute hydrochloric
acid.
(ii) Suspend thermometers in the test tubes so that their bulbs are dipped in the acid.
(iii) Observe the rate of formation of bubbles carefully.
Now answer
(i) Which metals reacted vigorously with dilute hydrochloric acid?
(ii) With which metal did you record the highest temperature?
(iii) Arrange the metals in the decreasing order of reactivity with dilute acids.
Observation and discussion
In the test tube which contains Mg, the hydrogen bubbles appear very rapidly.
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) ⎯⎯→ MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Magnesium Hydrochloric acid Magnesium chloride Hydrogen
In the test tubes containing Al and Zn, reaction with acid is fast.
2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) ⎯⎯→ 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)
Aluminium Hydrochloric acid Aluminium chloride Hydrogen
The reaction between Fe and acid is slow.
Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) ⎯⎯→ FeCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Iron Hydrochloric acid Ferrous chloride Hydrogen

[14] 
 Chemistry
No reaction is observed in the test tube which contain Cu and dil HCl.
Cu(s) + HCl(aq) ⎯⎯→ No reaction ()
Copper Hydrochloric acid
Temperature was found to rise in case of all the metals that reacted with dilute acid showing that
reaction is exothermic. The rise in temperature is maximum in case of magnesium.
Conclusion
The order of reactivity with dilute HCl is : Mg > Al > Fe > Cu
Important information
Hydrogen gas is not evolved when metals such as Zn, Fe, Cu and Al react with nitric acid. Because
HNO3 is strong oxidising agent. It oxidises H2 gas to water and is itself reduced to oxides of
nitrogen (NO, N2O and NO2).
3Fe(s) + 8HNO3(aq) ⎯→ 3Fe(NO3)2(aq) + 4H2O() + 2NO(g)
Iron Nitric acid (dil) Iron(II) nitrate Water Nitric oxide
3Cu(s) + 8HNO3(aq) ⎯→ 3Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 4H2O() + 2NO(g)
Copper Nitric acid Copper nitrate Water Nitric oxide
But copper reacts with hot concentrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4) to produce copper sulphate,
sulphur dioxide and water.
Cu(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) ⎯→ CuSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O()
Copper Sulphuric acid Copper sulphate Sulphur dioxide Water
Mg reacts with very dilute HNO3 to evolve H2 gas.
Mg(s) + 2HNO3(aq) ⎯→ Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g)
Magnesium Nitric acid (dil) Magnesium nitrate Hydrogen
Fe reacts with dil H2SO4 to evolve H2.
Fe(s) + dil H2SO4 ⎯→ FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Iron Sulphuric acid Ferrous sulphate Hydrogen

 Aqua Regia (Royal water): Aqua regia is a Latin word it means "royal water". It is a freshly
prepared mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid and concentrated nitric acid in the ratio
of 3 : 1. It is a highly corrosive, fuming liquid and is used to dissolve gold and platinum.
HCl : HNO3 – 3 : 1
(4) Reaction of metal with solutions of other metal salts
When a more reactive metal is placed in a salt solution of less reactive metal, then the more
reactive metal displaces the less reactive metal from its salt solution. This reaction is also
known as displacement reaction.

[15]
NCERT Basics: Class 10
Let us learn it with the help of following activity.

12

Aim It may be noted that

To study the reaction of metals with solutions of other metal hydrogen is not a
salts. metal but even then it
Materials required has been placed in the
reactivity series
Clean wire of copper, iron nail, solution of iron sulphate, solution of because hydrogen can
copper sulphate, test tubes. also lose electron and
Method form positive ion H+
(i) Take a clean wire of copper and an iron nail. like metals.
(ii) Put the copper wire in a solution of iron sulphate and the iron
nail in a solution of copper sulphate taken in test tubes.
(iii) Record your observations after 20 minutes.
Cork
thread
Test tube stand
Test tube
Iron nail Copper wire
Copper Iron sulphate solution
sulphate
solution

Iron nail

Reaction of metals with salt solutions.

Now answer
(i) In which test tube did you find that a reaction has occurred?
(ii) On what basis can you say that a reaction has actually taken place?
(iii) Can you correlate observations for the Activities 9, 10 and 11?
(iv) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction that has taken place. Name the type of
reaction.
Observation and discussion
Reaction is found to occur in the tube containing iron nail dipped in copper sulphate solution. This
is because in this tube, blue colour of copper sulphate solution fades and light green colour due to
formation of iron (II) sulphate appears. Moreover, a brown deposit of copper takes place on iron
nail. Thus, the following reaction takes place.
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) ⎯→ FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Iron Copper sulphate Iron (II) sulphate Copper
(Blue) (Green) (Brown)
Conclusion
Iron is more reactive than copper and displaces copper from copper sulphate solution. But, as
copper is less reactive than iron, so it will not displace iron from iron sulphate solution. In general,
a more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its salt in the solution.

[16] 
 Chemistry

 Metal A + salt solution of metal B → salt solution of metal A + metal B.

(only if metal A is more reactive than metal B)
Let us discuss one more example of displacement reaction.
Reaction of copper with silver nitrate solution
When a strip of copper metal is placed in a solution of AgNO3, the solution becomes gradually blue
due to the formation of copper nitrate and a shining coating of silver metal gets deposited on the
copper strip. The reaction may be written as :
2AgNO3(aq) + Cu(s) ⎯⎯→ Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)
Silver nitrate Copper Copper nitrate Silver
(colourless solution) (blue colour)
However, if we place silver wire in a copper sulphate solution no reaction occurs. This means
copper can displace silver from its salt solution but silver cannot displace copper from its solution.
i.e. copper is more reactive metal than silver.
The reactivity series
The arrangement of metals in order of decreasing reactivities is called reactivity series or
activity series of metals. After performing displacement experiments the following series has
been developed.
Reactivity series of metals

 Here is a tip to memorise the activity series of some metals which can help you to perform
displacement reaction.
Element Symbol Trick
Potassium K Please Most reactive
Sodium Na Stop
DECREASING REACTIVITY

Calcium Ca Calling
Magnesium Mg Me
Aluminium Al A
Zinc Zn Zebra
Iron Fe Instead
Tin Sn Try
Lead Pb Learning
Hydrogen H How
Copper Cu Copper
Mercury Hg Merc
Least reactive
Silver Ag Saves
Gold Au Gold

Reactivity series of some metals

[17]
NCERT Basics: Class 10

 In earlier standards, we have seen how elements combine to form stable molecules.
 We have also learnt that the driving force behind formation of a chemical bond is to attain
an electronic configuration with a complete octet.
 The atoms attain a complete octet by giving, taking or sharing of electrons with each other.
 In previous class, we have learnt about atomic number, electronic configuration and number
of electrons in different shells like – K, L, M, N.
4. Reaction of metals with non-metals
Atoms of elements combine to form stable molecules. The combining power of an atom is
expressed as valency. Each atom has a tendency to attain a completely filled valence shell.
The noble gases, which have a completely filled valence shell or outermost shell, are very
stable.

 The electronic configuration of noble gases and some metals and non-metals are given in the
following table.
Electronic configuration of some elements
Types of Element Atomic Number of electrons in
elements number shells
K L M N
Noble gases Helium (He) 2 2
Neon (Ne) 10 2 8
Argon (Ar) 18 2 8 8
Metals Sodium (Na) 11 2 8 1
Magnesium (Mg) 12 2 8 2
Aluminium (Al) 13 2 8 3
Potassium (K) 19 2 8 8 1
Calcium (Ca) 20 2 8 8 2
Non-metals Nitrogen (N) 7 2 5
Oxygen (O) 8 2 6
Fluorine (F) 9 2 7
Phosphorus (P) 15 2 8 5
Sulphur (S) 16 2 8 6
Chlorine (Cl) 17 2 8 7

[18] 
 Chemistry
It is clear from the above table that except helium, all other
noble gases have 8 electrons (octet) in their outermost shell, It should be noted
which represent a highly stable electronic configuration. Due to that ionic compounds do
not exist as molecules
this stable configuration, the noble gases have no tendency to lose
but aggregates of
or gain electrons. So they exist in monoatomic form. oppositely charged ions.
However, metals and non-metals which do not have complete octet These compounds do
not bear any charge i.e.
will try to attain stability either by gaining or loosing electrons. they are neutral.
Lets discuss formation of sodium chloride (NaCl).
Sodium atom has one electron in its outermost shell. If it loses the electron from its M shell then
its L shell becomes the outermost shell, which has stable octet like noble gases. The nucleus of this
atom still has 11 protons but the number of electrons becomes 10. Therefore, it becomes
positively charged sodium ion or cation (Na+).
Na ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
lose 1 electron
→ Na + + e−
2, 8, 1 2, 8
Sodium ion

On the other hand, chlorine has seven electrons in its outer most shell and it require one more
electron to complete its octet. The nucleus of chlorine atom has 17 protons and the number of
electrons become 18. Therefore, it becomes negatively charged chloride ion (Cl–) or anion.
Cl + e− ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
gain 1 electron
→ Cl −
2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8
Chloride ion

So, Na+ and Cl– ions being oppositely charged attract to each other and are held by strong
electrostatic forces of attraction to exist as NaCl. In other words, Na+ and Cl– ions are held together
by electrovalent or ionic bond.

Na + Cl ⎯→[Na+] [ Cl ] –
or
NaCl

Na Cl Na Cl
Sodium atom Chlorine atom Sodium atom Chlorine atom
(a cation) (an anion)

Sodium chloride
(NaCl)

Formation of sodium chloride.

[19]
NCERT Basics: Class 10
Electrovalent bond or ionic bond may be defined as the electrostatic force of attraction which
holds the oppositely charged ions together or it may also be defined as a chemical bond formed
between two atoms by complete transfer of electrons from one atom to another so as to complete
their octet and hence acquire the stable nearest noble gas configuration. The number of electrons
lost or gained by the atom is called its electrovalency.
Let us discuss the formation of one more ionic compound magnesium chloride (MgCl2).
The electronic configuration of magnesium (Mg) and chlorine (Cl) atoms are
Mg12 : 2, 8, 2
Cl17 : 2, 8, 7
Magnesium atom has two electrons in its valence shell, so has a tendency to lose both of its
electrons to attain the nearest noble gas configuration i.e. Ne.
Mg → Mg2+
2, 8, 2 2,8.
On the other hand, chlorine has only one electron less than the nearest noble gas (i.e. Ar)
configuration. Magnesium transfers both its valence electrons to two chlorine atoms, each of
which needs one electron to form Cl– ion.
–
Mg −2e
⎯⎯→ Mg2+
–
2, 8, 2 2, 8 Mg + Cl ⎯→ [Mg2+] [ Cl ] 2

2Cl
–
+2e
⎯⎯→ 2Cl– or
Cl MgCl2
2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8 Magnesium chloride
Some common ionic compounds are
1. Magnesium Mg + O ⎯⎯→ Mg2+[O]2– or MgO
oxide 2, 8, 2 2, 6
2. Magnesium Mg + 2F ⎯⎯→ Mg2+2[F]– or MgF2
fluoride 2, 8, 2 2, 7
3. Calcium Ca + O ⎯⎯→ Ca2+[O]2– or CaO
oxide 2, 8, 8, 2 2, 6
4. Aluminium 2Al + 3O ⎯⎯→ 2Al3+3[O]2– or Al2O3
oxide 2, 8, 3 2, 6
5. Magnesium Mg + 2Cl ⎯⎯→ Mg2+2[Cl]– or MgCl2
chloride 2, 8, 2 2, 8, 7
6. Aluminium Al + N ⎯⎯→ Al3+N3– or AlN
nitride 2, 8, 3 2, 5
Properties of ionic compounds
To learn about the properties of ionic compounds, let us perform the following activity.

[20] 
 Chemistry

13

Aim
To study the properties of ionic compounds.
Spatula
Materials required Spatula
containing
containing
Samples of sodium chloride, potassium iodide, barium chloride, metal sample
sample
spatula, burner, water, kerosene, battery, beaker, bulb, switch,
electrodes of graphite.
Method
(i) Take samples of sodium chloride, potassium iodide, barium Burner
Burner

chloride or any other salt from the science laboratory.

(ii) Take a small amount of sample on a metal spatula and heat directly
on the flame. Repeat with other samples.
(iii) Try to dissolve the compound in water and kerosene.
(iv) Make a circuit as shown in figure and insert the electrodes into a
Heating a salt sample
solution of one salt. Test the other salt samples too in this manner. on spatula
Now answer
(i) What is the physical state of the salt taken?
(ii) Did the samples impart any colour to the flame on heating? Bulb
Battery Switch
(iii) Did the compounds melt on heating?
(iv) Are the compounds soluble in water or kerosene?
(v) Did the electric bulb glow on passing electric current? Beaker
(vi) What is your inference about the nature of these compounds? Graphite rod
Observation and discussion Salt
(i) All the salts taken are solids. solution
under test
(ii) Each salt imparted a particular colour to the flame.
Testing the conductivity of a salt
(iii) The compounds did not melt on heating. solution.
(iv) The compounds were soluble in water but not in kerosene.
(v) The electric bulb glows on passing electric current.
(vi) All these properties show that the compounds are ionic in nature.
Conclusion
(i) Ionic compounds are generally solids.
(ii) They impart a characteristic colour to the flame.
(iii) No, they have high melting point.
(iv) They are soluble in a polar solvent like water and insoluble in non-polar solvents like
kerosene, petrol, etc.
(v) Their molten or aqueous solution conduct electricity.
(iv) Following are the general properties of ionic compounds.

[21]
NCERT Basics: Class 10
(a) Physical state
Ionic compounds are solids and relatively hard because of the strong force of attraction
between the positive and negative ions. This force of attraction is also known as strong
electrostatic force of attraction. These compounds are generally brittle and break into pieces
when pressure is applied.
(b) Solubility
Electrovalent compounds are generally soluble in water (because of their polar nature) and
insoluble in solvents such as kerosene, petrol, etc.
(c) Melting and boiling points
Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points, due to the strong electrostatic force
of attraction between the oppositely charged ions. Therefore, large amount of energy is
needed to break these bonds.
Ionic Melting Point Boiling Point
Compound (K) (K)
NaCl 1074 1686
LiCl 887 1600
KBr 1007 1708
KI 953 1600
CaCl2 1045 1900
CaO 2850 3120
MgCl2 981 1685

(d) Conduction of electricity

Ionic compounds in the solid state do not conduct electricity because movement of ions in
the solid state is not possible due to their rigid structure. But they can conduct electricity in
molten or aqueous state.
(e) Colour to the flame
Most of the salts when brought into the flame, impart characteristic colour to the flame.
Flame colours are produced from the movement of the electrons in the metal ions present
in the compounds.

[22] 
 Chemistry
Metal Colour of flame
Sodium Yellow
Barium salts Green
Potassium Lilac/violet

 Here are some important physical properties of metals and nonmetals.

Properties Metals Non-metals
Physical properties
State Metals are solids at ordinary Non-metals exist in all the three states
temperature. i.e. solid, liquid and gas.
Exception: Mercury is a liquid
metal.
Lustre They possess lustre or shine. They possess no lustre. Exceptions are
Iodine and graphite.
Malleability Metals are generally malleable Non-metals are neither malleable nor
and Ductility and ductile, exceptions are alkali ductile.
metals.
Hardness Metals are generally hard. Alkali Non-metals possess varying hardness.
metals are exceptions. Diamond is an exception. It is the
hardest substance known to occur in
nature.
Density They have high densities. They generally possess low densities.

Conductivity Metals are good conductors of Non-metals are poor conductors of heat
heat and electricity. and electricity. The only exception is
graphite which is a good conductor of
electricity.
Melting and They usually have high melting Their melting and boiling points are
boiling and boiling points. usually low. The only exceptions are
points boron, carbon and silicon.

[23]
NCERT Basics: Class 10

 Here are some important chemical properties of metals and nonmetals.

Distinction between Metals and Non-metals
Chemical Properties
Action with Metals generally react with Non-metals do not displace
mineral acids dilute mineral acids to liberate hydrogen on reaction with dilute
H2 gas. minerals acids.
Nature of They form basic oxides. For Non-metals form acidic or neutral
oxides example, Na2O, MgO, etc. These oxides. For example, SO2, CO2, P2O5,
oxides are ionic in nature. etc. are acidic whereas CO, N2O, etc.
are neutral. These oxides are
covalent in nature.
Electrochemical Metals are electropositive in Non-metals are electronegative in
behaviour character. character.

Oxidising or Metals behave as reducing Non-metals generally behave as

reducing agents. This is because of their oxidising agents since they have the
behaviour tendency to lose electrons. tendency to gain electrons.
Na → Na+ + e– 1/2 Cl2 + e– → Cl–

Why sodium chloride has high melting point?

Explanation
Sodium chloride consist of Na+ and Cl– ions. These oppositely
Aluminium is the
charged ions are strongly attracted towards each other. To break most abundant metal
these strong forces of attraction, a large amount of energy is in the earth's crust.
needed and hence sodium chloride has a high melting point. The second most
abundant metal is
5. Occurrence of metals
iron and third one is
The earth's crust is the major source of metals. They are calcium.
present in nature in the free state as well as in combined state.
Oxygen & silicon are the main elements present in earth's crust. Both
are non-metals. Seawater also contains some soluble salts such as NaCl, MgCl2, etc.
Native and combined states of metals
Metals occur in the crust of earth in two states : native state and combined state.

[24] 
 Chemistry
(1) Native state
A metal is said to occur in native or free state when a metal is found in nature in the
elementary or metallic state. The metals at the bottom of the activity series are least reactive.
They are often found in free state.
For example, Gold, silver, copper and platinum are found in free state because they are very
unreactive metals. So, they have no tendency to react with oxygen and they do not react with
moisture, CO2 of air or any other non-metal.
(2) Combined state
The metals at the top of reactivity series are not expected to occur in free state due to their
reactive nature. They exist in combination with other elements as oxides, carbonates,
halides, sulphates, sulphides, etc.
For example, Sodium, potassium, calcium, aluminium, magnesium, etc. are very reactive
metals. All of these are lying at the top of activity series. These are never found in the free
state.
The metals in the middle of the activity series such as zinc, iron, lead, etc. are moderately
reactive. They are found in the earth crust mainly as oxides, sulphide or carbonates.

 On the basis of reactivity, metals are divided into the following three categories.
K
Na Highly reactive metals
Ca (Top of the activity series)
Mg Never found in the free state.
Al

Zn
Fe Moderately reactive metals
Ni (Middle of the activity series)
Sn Found in combined state.
Pb

Cu Less reactive metals

Ag (Just below hydrogen)
Found in the free state as well as combined state.
Pt Least reactive metals
Au (Bottom of the activity series).
Found in the free state.

Occurrences of metals in the activity series

[25]
NCERT Basics: Class 10
Minerals and ores
The elementary state of the compounds in the form of which the metals occur in nature are called
minerals.
The minerals from where metals can be conveniently and profitably extracted are called ores.
For example, Copper occurs in nature in the form of several mineral like copper pyrites(CuFeS2),
copper glance (Cu2S) and cuprite (Cu2O). We obtain copper metal profitably from copper pyrites
mineral, so it is called ore of copper.

 Students, don’t get confused between ores and minerals

Minerals
E.g. Cu2S

Ores
E.g. CuFeS2

All ores are minerals, but all minerals are not ores.
6. Extraction of metals: Metallurgy
The process through which a pure metal is extracted from its ores is known as extraction
of metals. The series of various processes involved in the extraction of metals from their
ores, followed by refining of the metal is known as metallurgy.
Various steps involved in the extraction of metals or metallurgical process:
1. Crushing and grinding of the ore.
2. Concentration of the ore or enrichment of the ore.
3. Extraction of metal from the concentrated ore.
4. Refining or purification of the impure metal.
1. Crushing and grinding of the ore
Most of the ores in nature occur as big rocks. They are broken into small pieces with the help
of crushers. These pieces are then reduced to fine powder with the help of a ball mill or a
stamp mill. This process is known as pulverization of the ore.
Large pieces of ore

Crushed ore

Crushed ore Finely divided powder

(A) Crusher (B) Stamp mill

Pulverization of ore
[26] 
 Chemistry
2. Enrichment of ore or concentration of ore
The ores mined from the earth's crust contain a number of impurities, such as soil, sand, etc.
called gangue or matrix. The process of removal of impurities (gangue) from the ore is
called enrichment of ore or concentration of ore. The impurities must be removed from
the ore prior to the extraction of the metal. The processes used for removing the gangue
from the ore are based on the differences between the physical or chemical properties of the
gangue and the ore. Different separation techniques are accordingly employed.
3. Extraction of metal from the enriched ore
The method used for extraction of the metal from the
concentrated ore depends upon the nature of metal. The reaction in
which one of the
Based on the reactivity, the metals have been grouped into the reactant (Cu2S) carries
following three categories : the reduction of the
product (Cu2O) is
(I) Metals of low reactivity. (Low in the activity series) known as auto
(II) Metals of medium reactivity. (In the middle of the activity reduction or self-
reduction.
series)
(III) Metals of high reactivity. (At the top of the activity series)
(I) Extraction of metals low in the activity series (Cu, Hg, Ag, Pt, Au)
As these metals are very less reactive, they are either found in native state or in the form of
sulphide ores. For example, Cinnabar (HgS)
These sulphide ores can be converted to oxide ores on heating in the presence of excess of
air called Roasting.
2HgS(s) + 3O2(g) Heat→
⎯⎯⎯ 2HgO(s) + 2SO2(g)
Mercuric sulphide Oxygen Mercuric Sulphur
(Cinnabar) oxide dioxide
This oxide can be reduced to metal by further heating.
2HgO Heat→
⎯⎯⎯ 2Hg() + O2(g)
Mercuric oxide Mercury Oxygen
Similarly, when copper glance (Cu2S) an ore of copper, is subjected to roasting, it directly
gives copper.
2Cu2S(s) + Heat→
3O2(g) ⎯⎯⎯ 2Cu2O(s) + 2SO2(g)
Copper glance Oxygen Cuprous oxide Sulphur dioxide
2Cu2O(s) + Heat→
Cu2S(s) ⎯⎯⎯ 6Cu(s) + SO2(g)
Copper oxide Copper glance Copper Sulphur dioxide

[27]
NCERT Basics: Class 10
(II) Extraction of metals in the middle of the activity series (Fe, Zn, Pb, etc.)
These metals are found in the form of their oxides, sulphides and carbonates. For easy
extraction, sulphide and carbonate ores are first converted into the oxide.
(a) Conversion into metal oxide
(i) Calcination : for the conversion of carbonate ores into oxides.
It is the process of heating the ore strongly in the absence of air.
For example,
Heat
ZnCO3(s) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ → ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
(Absence of air)
Zinc carbonate Zinc oxide Carbon dioxide
(Calamine - ore of Zn)
(ii) Roasting : for the conversion of sulphide ores into oxides.
It is the process of heating the ore strongly in the presence of excess of air.
2ZnS(s) + Heat
3O2(g) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)
Presence of excess of air
Zinc sulphide Zinc Sulphur
(Zinc blende-ore of Zn) oxide dioxide
(b) Reduction of the metal oxide to metal
For reduction suitable reducing agents are used, like carbon, carbon monoxide,
aluminium, sodium or calcium.
(i) Reduction by heating with carbon (coke) –
When zinc oxide is heated with carbon, zinc metal is produced.
ZnO(s) + C(s) ⎯⎯→ Zn(s) + CO(g)
Zinc oxide Carbon Zinc metal Carbon monoxide
(Reducing agent)
Reduction by carbon is also known as smelting.
Similarly, iron and lead are also obtained from their oxides by heating with carbon.
Fe2O3(s) + Heat→
3C(s) ⎯⎯⎯ 2Fe(s) + 3CO(g)
PbO(s) + C(s) ⎯⎯⎯ Heat→ Pb(s) + CO(g)
(ii) Reduction with CO
Iron is obtained from ferric oxide by heating with CO.
Fe2O3(s) + Heat→ 2Fe(s) + 3CO (g)
3CO(g) ⎯⎯⎯ 2

(iii) Reduction by aluminium

Besides using carbon (coke) to reduce metal oxides to
metals, sometimes displacement reactions can also be used.
The highly reactive metals such as sodium, calcium,
aluminium, etc. are used as reducing agents because they
The thermite reaction
can displace metals of lower reactivity from their gives off so much heat that
compounds. the iron formed is molten

[28] 
 Chemistry
Certain metal oxides are reduced by aluminium to metals. This method is known as
aluminothermy or thermite process.
For example, Chromium, manganese, vanadium metals are obtained by the reduction of
their oxides with Al powder. The following reaction takes place.
3MnO2(s) + 4Al(s) ⎯⎯→Heat
3Mn() + 2Al2O3(s) + Heat
Cr2O3(s) + 2Al(s) ⎯⎯→ Heat
2Cr() + Al2O3(s) + Heat
These displacement reactions are highly exothermic, so a
large amount of heat is evolved and metals are produced in
the molten state.
In fact the reaction of iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) with
aluminium, is used to weld railway tracks or cracked
machine parts. This reaction is known as thermite
reaction. The mixture of iron oxide and aluminium
Thermite process for
powder is called thermite.
joining railway tracks
Fe2O3(s) + 2Al(s) ⎯⎯→
Heat
2Fe() + Al2O3(s) + Heat

1. Name two metals other than silver and gold which are not attacked even by steam.
2. Name two metals which react with very dilute HNO3 to produce hydrogen gas.
(III) Extraction of metals high up in the activity series
(K, Ca, Na, Mg and Al)
The highly reactive metals such as K, Na, Mg have strong affinity for oxygen, so they can not
be reduced with the help of carbon. Hence these metals are obtained by electrolysis of their
molten or fused oxides or chlorides, this method is called electrolytic reduction.
On electrolysis, metal ions, being positive, are liberated at the cathode (negative electrode)
where they gain electrons and convert in the metal atoms.
For examples,
(i) Sodium metal is obtained by electrolysis of molten sodium chloride.
Heat
NaCl(s) ⎯⎯⎯⎯
to melt→ Na () + Cl ()
+ –

At Cathode : Na+() + e– ⎯⎯→ Na(s) (Reduction)

Sodium ion electron Sodium metal
At Anode : Cl–() ⎯⎯→ Cl(g) + e– (Oxidation)
Chloride ion Chlorine atom
Cl(g) + Cl(g) ⎯⎯→ Cl2(g)
Chlorine atoms Chlorine gas
Thus, sodium metal is obtained at cathode whereas chlorine gas is obtained at the
anode.

[29]
NCERT Basics: Class 10
(ii) Aluminium oxide is reduced to aluminium by the electrolysis of molten aluminium
oxide.
Heat
Al2O3(s) ⎯⎯⎯⎯
to melt→ 2Al () + 3O ()
3+ 2–

At Cathode : Al3+() + 3e ⎯⎯→ Al(s) (Reduction)

Aluminium ion Aluminium metal
At Anode : O2–() ⎯⎯→ O(g) + 2e– (Oxidation)
Oxide ions Oxygen atom
O(g) + O(g) ⎯⎯→ O2(g)
Oxygen atoms Oxygen gas
(4) Refining of impure metals
The metals produced by various reduction processes described above are not very pure.
They contain impurities, which must be removed to obtain pure metals.
The most widely used method for refining of impure metals is electrolytic refining.
Process
(i) In this process, the impure metal is made the anode and a thin strip of pure metal is
made the cathode.
(ii) A solution of the metal salt is used as an electrolyte. On passing the electric current
through the electrolyte, the pure metal from the anode dissolves into the electrolyte.
(iii) An equivalent amount of pure metal from the electrolyte gets deposited on the cathode.
The soluble impurities go into the solution, leaving the insoluble impurities which settle
down at the bottom of the anode.
At Anode : M(s) ⎯⎯→ Mn+(aq) + ne–
Metal atom Metal ion
(from anode)
At cathode: Mn+(aq) + ne– ⎯⎯→ M(s)
Metal ion Metal atom
(from solution)
Anode mud / anode sludge
The soluble impurities present in the impure metal pass into solution whereas insoluble
impurities fall below the anode as anode mud.
For example, Electrolytic refining of copper.
Key
e– – + e–

– +
Cathode Anode

Tank Acidified
copper
Impurities sulphate
(anode mud) solution

[30] 
 Chemistry
Electrolytic refining of copper. The electrolyte is a solution of acidified copper sulphate. The
anode is impure copper, whereas the cathode is a strip of pure copper. On passing electric
current, pure copper is deposited on the cathode.

Explain why carbon can reduce copper oxide to copper but not sodium oxide to sodium?
Explanation
Carbon is a strong reducing agent. Hence, it can reduce copper oxide to copper as follows.
CuO(s) + C(s) ⎯⎯→ Cu(s) + CO(g)
Sodium is much more reactive than copper. It has greater affinity for oxygen than the affinity for
carbon. Moreover, at high temperature, sodium can combine with carbon to form sodium carbide.

 Process of metallurgy
Ore
(1) Crushing and grinding
Powdered ore

(2) Concentration of ore (3) Extraction of metal (4) Refining

Removal of impurities Electrolytic refining

Metals Metals Metals

of high of medium of low
reactivity reactivity reactivity

Electrolysis of Sulphide
molten ore Carbonate Sulphide ores
ore ore
Roasting
Pure Calcination Roasting
metal heating

Metal
Oxide of metal
Carbon /
Aluminium Refining
Reduction to
metal

Purification
of metal

[31]
NCERT Basics: Class 10
7. Corrosion
When the surface of a metal is attacked by the gases and water vapour present in the air, it
is said to corrode and the phenomenon is called corrosion. Thus, corrosion may be defined
as follows:
The process of slowly eating up of metals due to their conversion into oxides, carbonates,
sulphide, sulphates, etc. by the action of atmospheric gases and moisture is called corrosion.
In case iron is the metal involved in the chemical process, then corrosion is called rusting.
Factors which promote corrosion
(a) Position of metal in the reactivity series: Active metals placed above hydrogen are easily
corroded as compared to metals which are placed below hydrogen.
(b) Presence of water vapours and gases like CO2, SO2, etc. in the air.
(c) Presence of salts or electrolyte in water promotes corrosion.
e.g. Rusting of iron is faster in sea water than in ordinary or distilled water.

14

Aim
To prove that air and moisture are essential for rusting of iron.
Materials required
Three test tubes, iron nails, water, oil, anhydrous calcium chloride (drying agent), corks.
Method
(i) Take three test tubes and place clean iron nails in each of them.
(ii) Label these test tubes A, B and C. Pour some water in test tube A and cork it.
(iii) Pour boiled distilled water in test tube B and add about 1 ml of oil and cork it. The oil will
float on water and prevent the air from dissolving in the water.
(iv) Put some anhydrous calcium chloride in test tube C and cork it. Anhydrous calcium chloride
will absorb the moisture, if any, from the air. Leave these test tubes for a few days and then
observe.
A
(A) B
(B) C
(C)

Air
Air Dry
Dry Air
Air
Air Air
Layer
Layer of oil
(prevents
of oil air
(prevents
Rusty dissolving
air in
iron
Rusty the water)
dissolving
in the water)
nails
iron
nails

Water
Water Boiled
Boileddistilled
distilled
water (boiled
water(boiled to to
remove any
remove any
dissolved air)
dissolved air)
Anhydrous
Anhydrous calcium
calcium
chloride
chloride
(drying agent)
drying agent

Investigating the conditions under which iron rust. In tube A, both air and water are present. In
tube B, there is no air dissolved in the water. In tube C, the air is dry.
[32] 
 Chemistry
Observation
It is observed that iron nails rust in the tube A but they do Rusting is the term used
not rust in test tubes B and C. In test tube A, the nails are only in case of iron. If the
rusted surface of iron is
exposed to both air and water. In test tube B, the nails are rubbed with a sand paper,
exposed to water only and the nails in test tube C are exposed to the rust will appear again
in a few days. This shows
dry air free from water vapour.
that the rust is formed by a
Conclusion chemical reaction and not
by a physical process.
Presence of both air and moisture is essential for rusting to take
place.
Example of corrosion
(i) When iron is exposed to moist air for a long time, its surface acquires a brown flaky
substance called rust and the process is known as rusting. Rust is a mixture of Fe2O3 and
Fe(OH)3.
(ii) Copper reacts with CO2 in the air and slowly loses its shiny brown surface and acquires a
green coating of basic copper carbonate in moist air.
2Cu(s) + CO2(g) + O2(g) + H2O() ⎯→ [Link](OH)2
Copper Basic copper carbonate
from moist air Green

(iii) Silver articles becomes black after sometime when exposed to air. [Due to reaction with H2S
in the air to form a black coating of silver sulphide(Ag2S).]
(iv) Lead or stainless steel lose their lusture due to corrosion.
Prevention of corrosion
(i) By painting : The corrosion of a metal can be prevented simply by painting the metal surface
by grease or varnish that forms a protective layer on the surface of the metal which protect
the metal from moisture and air.
(ii) Self prevention : Some metals form protective layers.
For example, When zinc is left exposed to the atmosphere, it combines with the oxygen of
air to form a layer of zinc oxide over its surface. The oxides layer does not allow air to go
inside the metal. Thus, zinc is protected from corrosion by its own protective layer.
Similarly, aluminium combines with oxygen to form a dull layer of aluminium oxide on its
surface which protects aluminium from further corrosion.
(iii) Cathodic protection : In this method, the more reactive metal which is more corrosion-
prone is connected to a bar of another metal which is less reactive and to be protected. In
this process, electron flows from more reactive metal to the less reactive metal. The metal
to be protected becomes the cathode and the more reactive metal becomes the anode.
In this way, the two metals form an electrochemical cell and oxidation of the metal is
prevented.

[33]
NCERT Basics: Class 10
For example, The pipelines (iron) under the surface of the earth are protected from
corrosion by connecting them to a more reactive metal (magnesium or Zn) which is buried
in the earth and connected to the pipelines by a wire.

e–

Tin and chromium do

not corrode. Tin is non-
poisonous and is used to
Moist coat tiffin boxes by
Soil electroplating. Chromium
plating prevents rusting
(–) and gives a shiny
(+)
appearance to iron and
Mg steel articles.
Sacrificial Fe
Pipeline
anode (cathode)
(oxidation) (reduction)

Cathodic protection
(iv) Oiling and greasing : Both protect the surface of metal against moisture and chemicals, etc.
In addition the oil and grease prevent the surface from getting scratched.
(v) Electroplating : It is a very common and effective method to check corrosion. The surface
of metal is coated with chromium, nickel or aluminium, etc. by electrolysis also called
electroplating. They are quite resistant to the attack by both air and water. If the surface of
metal is electroplated by zinc, it is known as galvanisation and in case tin metal is used,
then the process is called tinning.
(vi) By alloying : It is a very good method of improving the properties of a metal.
An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals or non-metal. It can be prepared
by first melting the metal and then dissolving the other elements (metal or non-metal) in
proper proportions. The physical properties of an alloy are different from the constituent
metals (from which it is made).
Some of the common alloys are
(i) Steel : Iron is the most widely used metal. But it is never used in its pure state. This is because
pure iron is very soft and stretches easily when hot. But, if it is mixed with a small amount
of carbon (about 0.05%) it becomes hard and strong.
When iron is mixed with nickel and chromium to form stainless steel which is hard and does
not rust.

[34] 
 Chemistry
(ii) Amalgam : An alloy of mercury and one or more other metals is
known as an amalgam. It may be solid or liquid. A solution of
sodium metal in liquid mercury metal is called sodium amalgam,
which is used as a reducing agent. Amalgam of silver, tin and zinc
is used by dentists for filling in teeth.
(iii) Brass : Brass is an alloy of copper (Cu) and Zn. It contains 80%
copper and 20% zinc. It is more malleable and more stronger
than pure copper. Brass is used for making cooking utensils,
condenser sheets, pipe, screws, bolts, wire, scientific
Brass, a solid solution of copper
instruments, ornaments, etc.
and zinc, is used to make musical
(iv) Bronze : It is also the alloy of copper. It contain 90% of instruments and many other
objects.
copper and 10% tin. It is highly resistant to corrosion and
used for making utensils, statues, coins, hardware, etc.
(v) Solder : It is an alloy of lead (50%) and tin (50%). It is used for soldering (or welding)
electrical wires together as it melts at a low temperature.
(vi) Alloys of Gold : The purity of gold is expressed is terms of 'carats'. Pure gold is known as 24
carats gold. It is very soft due to which, it is not suitable for making jewellery. It is alloyed
with either silver or copper to make it hard and more suitable for making ornaments. In
India, gold ornaments are usually made of 22 carats gold. It is an alloy of gold with silver or
copper.

24 carat gold 18 carat gold 14 carat gold

100% 56% 20% 24% 36% 25% 37%

Gold Silver Copper

24-carat gold is an element. It contains only gold atoms. 14-carat and 18-carat gold are
alloys. They contain a mixture of different atoms.

[35]
NCERT Basics: Class 10
The wonder of ancient Indian metallurgy
The iron pillar near the Qutub-Minar in Delhi was made around 400
BC by the iron workers of India. They had developed a process which
prevented the wrought iron pillar(a type of iron) from rusting even
after thousands of years. This is likely because of formation of a thin
film of magnetic oxide (Fe3O4) on the surface as a result of finishing
treatment given to the pillar, painting it with a mixture of different
Ashoka pillar
salts then heating and quenching (rapid cooling). The iron pillar is 8 near Qutub-Minar in Delhi
metres high and 6000 kg (6 tones) in weight.
This tells us that ancient Indians had good knowledge of metals and their alloys.

1. Lead and copper.

2. Magnesium and manganese.

 Some important alloys are mentioned below -

Alloy Composition

Brass Cu + Zn

Bronze Cu + Sn

German Silver Cu + Zn + Ni

Gun Metal Cu + Sn + Zn

Duralumin Al + Cu + Mg + Mn

Solder Pb + Sn

Steel Fe + C

Stainless steel Fe + Cr + Ni + C

Amalgam Hg + other metal

[36] 
 Chemistry
Basic terminology
1. Hammered - To hit something several times.
2. Resistance - Trying to stop something from happening.
3. Lustre - Shine
4. Clamp - A tool that is used to hold two thing tightly.
5. Brittle - To break into particles.
6. Violent - Very strong and impossible to control.
7. Affinity - Tendency to combine.
8. Malleability - To form sheets
9. Ductility - To form wires.
10. Conductivity - Property to allow heat or electricity to go through something.
11. Sonorous - Production of sound.
12. Enrichment - To increase the percentage.
13. Refining - To purify.
14. Lilac - Light purple or pale violet tone.

Memory Map
Metallurgy

Ore
Crushing and grinding

Concentration of ore Extraction of metal Refining

Physical Chemical Metals of high Metals of low Electrolytic

Metals of medium
method method reactivity reactivity refining
reactivity

Electrolysis of Sulphide
molten ore ores

Pure Roasting
metal Carbonate Sulphide
ore ore
Metal
Calcination Roasting
Absence of O2 Presence of O2

Oxide of metal

Carbon/Aluminium

Reduction of
metal

[37]
NCERT Basics: Class 10

Metal and Non-metals

Metal Non-Metals Reaction of metals Reaction of Reaction of metals

properties properties with O2 Metals with H2O with non-metals

Lusturous Non-lustrous Reaction of M Reaction of M Ionic bond

Sonorous Non-sonorous with O2 with H2O (electrovalent bond)
Hardness Soft M + O2 → MO Ca, Na and K →
Conductance Low M.P. & B.P. Anodising of Al cold water + –
Na×+ Cl → [Na] [×Cl ]
High M.P. & B.P. Brittle Al2O3 → 2Al3+ + Mg → boil water
Malleable Non-conductor 3O2– Al, Zn → Steam
Ductile Low density At anode → 3O2– Reaction of
Electrical → 3/2 O2 + 6e– metals with acids
conductance At cathode → M + dil acid →
2Al3+ + 6e– → 2Al Salt + Hydrogen

Occurrence of Reactivity series of

metals metals

K
Na
Native Combined
state Ca Most reactive
state
Mg metal
Al
Reactivity decreases

Zn
Fe
Ni
Moderate
Sn reactive
Pb metal
H
Cu

Hg
less reactive
Ag metal
Au

[38] 
 4 Carbon and its Compounds

"Carbon is the fourth most

abundant element in the
Universe after hydrogen,
helium and oxygen and
is the second most abundant
element in the human body and
is present in all
known life forms."

 In earlier standards, we have studied about carbon is a versatile non-metallic element.

 We know that atomic number of carbon is 6. It has an electronic configuration 2, 4.
1. Introduction
The compounds obtained from 'Carbon' are widely used
as clothes, medicines, books, food, fertilizer, fuel, etc. All
The number of
living structures are carbon based. compound of carbon is
more than three million
Carbon is a non-metal with symbol "C". which is much larger
than the compound
The amount of carbon present in the earth's crust and in formed by all other
elements put together.
the atmosphere is quite meagre. The earth's crust has
only 0.02% carbon in the form of mineral (like
carbonates, hydrogen carbonates, coal and petroleum) and the atmosphere has 0.03% of
carbon dioxide. Inspite of this small amount of carbon available in nature, the importance of
carbon seems to be immense.
Carbon forms a large number of compounds with hydrogen which are known as
hydrocarbons. In addition to hydrogen, carbon compounds may also contain some other
elements such as oxygen, halogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, etc.

[1]
NCERT Basics: Class 10

C
6
Non-metals usually
form covalent bonds
among themselves.

Carbon
Among three isotopes of carbon,
C-12, C-13 and C-14; C-12
is most stable and comprises nearly
99% of all carbon on earth.

Aim
To illustrate that most of the things we use or consume in our day-to-day life are made up of
compounds of carbon.
Materials required: Ten things you used or consumed.
Method
Make a list of ten things you have used or consumed since morning.
Compare this list with the lists made by your classmates and then sort the
There is no living organism
items into the following table.
know which lacks carbon
If there are items which are made up of more than one material, put them
into both the relevant columns.
Things made of Things made of glass/clay Others
metals (Ceramics)

— — Water
Bucket — Bucket (plastic)
Mug Mug Mug (plastic)
Cooking pans Cooking pans Furniture (Wood/plastic)
— — Soaps and detergents
— — Newspaper, books, magazines, etc.
— — Food items (bread, butter, sugar, milk,
tea leaves, eggs, juices, etc.)

— — Medicines and vitamins.

[2] 
 Chemistry
Discussion
Except water and cooking utensils (made up of metals, glass/clay or ceramics), a large number of
things such as soaps, detergents, newspaper, books, furniture (made up of wood and plastic) and
various food items are made up of only compounds of carbon. However, some of the things such
as mugs, cups/plates are usually made up of glass or ceramics while buckets are made up of metals
or plastics.
Conclusion
Most of the things we use or consume in our day to day life are made up of compounds of carbon.
2. Bonding in carbon compounds
Carbon forms covalent bonds in its compounds with similar kind of atoms or different kind
of atoms. In each compound the valency of carbon is four. That is, carbon has tetravalent
character.
Covalent Bond
A chemical bond formed between two atoms of the same element or two atoms of different
elements by sharing of electrons is called a covalent bond.
Necessary conditions for the formation of covalent bond
1. The combining atoms should have non-metallic character.
2. The combining atoms should contain 4 to 7 electrons in their respective valence shell.
3. In hydrogen, there is only 1 valence electron, but it also forms covalent bond.
4. The combining atoms need 1, 2, 3 or 4 electrons to complete their octet (hydrogen completes
its duplet).
5. The combining atoms should contribute equal number of electrons to form pair of electrons
to be shared.
6. After sharing, the pair of electrons of each combining atom should attain stable electronic
configuration like its nearest noble gas.

Why does carbon form only covalent bond?

Explanation
Reactivity of an element is explained as its tendency to attain a completely filled outer shell
configuration that is to attain its nearest noble gas configuration.
Carbon has 4 electrons in its outer most shell. In order to complete the shell, it should either gain
or loss electrons.
(i) It could gain four electrons forming C4– anion. But it would be difficult for the nucleus with
six protons to hold on to ten electrons, that is, four extra electrons.
(ii) It would lose four electrons forming C4+ cation. But it would require a large amount of energy
to remove four electrons leaving behind a carbon cation with six protons in it nucleus
holding on to just two electrons.
Thus, carbon can neither gain nor lose 4 electrons but can share with other atoms to attain
nearest noble gas configuration.
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NCERT Basics: Class 10
Melting and boiling points of compounds of carbon are low as compared to those of ionic
compounds because the force of attraction between the molecules of these compounds are not
very strong.
➢ Covalent compounds have low melting and low boiling points because intermolecular forces
(cohesive forces) in covalent compounds are weaker than those in ionic compounds. Some
exception like diamond and graphite are covalent solids which have very high M.P. & B.P.
Melting and Boiling points of some compounds of carbon
Compound Melting Point (K) Boiling Point (K)
Methane (CH4) 90 K 111 K
Chloroform (CHCl3) 209 K 334 K
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH) 156 K 351 K
Acetic acid 290 K 391 K
(CH3COOH)

Classification of covalent bond

On the basis of the number of electrons shared by two combining atoms, the covalent bond are of
three types
(i) Single covalent bond: A single covalent bond is formed by the sharing of one pair of
electrons between the two atoms. It is represented by one short line (–) between the two
atoms.
Examples: H–H or H2, Cl–Cl or Cl2, H–Cl or HCl, CH3–CH3 or C2H6.
(ii) Double covalent bond: A double covalent bond is formed by the sharing of two pairs of
electrons between the two combining atoms. It is represented by putting two short lines (=)
between the two bonded atoms.
Examples: O = O or O2, O = C = O or CO2, H2C = CH2 or C2H4.
(iii) Triple covalent bond: A triple bond is formed by the sharing of three pairs of electrons
between the two combining atoms. It is represented by putting three short lines () between
two bonded atoms.
Examples: N  N or N2, CH  CH or C2H2.
Unpaired Sharing of available
Electron dot structure
Valence electrons Valence electrons
is a way of representing
atom or molecule by
showing electrons as
A + B A B dots surrounding the
element’s symbol. One
bond is represented as
two electrons.
Atom 1 Atom 2 Covalent molecule
(non-metal) (non-metal
or metalloid)
[4] 
 Chemistry
3. Formation of some covalent compounds
Lets discuss formation of some covalent compounds by Lewis dot structure/Electron dot
structure.
1. Formation of hydrogen (H2)
Atomic number of hydrogen is 1. Hence it has one electron in its K-shell and thus require
one more electron to complete the K-shell and attain electronic configuration of nearest
noble gas i.e. He.
Hydrogen
Atomic number – 1
Shell –K Incomplete duplet (unstable)
Electron –1

Helium
Atomic number – 2
Shell –K Complete duplet (stable)
Electron –2

s e
o ele t ons

H2 Molecule
So, two hydrogen atoms share one electron each to form a molecule of hydrogen, H2. By
doing so, each hydrogen atom attains the stable electronic configuration of the nearest noble
gas, helium. The formation of diatomic molecule of H2 can be depicted by using dots or
crosses to represent the valence electrons involved in sharing. Such structure of molecules
are called electron dot structures or Lewis dot structures.
2. Formation of Cl2 Molecule
The atomic number of chlorine is 17, thus there are 17 electrons in an atom of chlorine.
Electronic configuration of Cl atom
Shells K L M
 Incomplete octet
Electrons 2 8 7

Electronic configuration of Ar atom

Shells K L M
 complete octet
Electrons 2 8 8

Chlorine atom needs one more electron to complete its octet

[5]
NCERT Basics: Class 10

Cl Cl
Cl2 Molecule
3. Formation of oxygen (O2)
The atomic number of O atom is 8. There are 6 electrons in the valence shell of oxygen atom,
it needs 2 more electrons to attain the nearest stable inert gas [Neon (2, 8)] configuration.

O2 Molecule
4. Formation of nitrogen molecule (N2)
The atomic number of nitrogen is 7 and its electronic configuration is K(2), L(5). It needs 3
electrons more to complete its octet like noble gas neon (2, 8).

N2 Molecule
5. Formation of ammonia molecule (NH3)
The atomic number of N is 7. Its electronic configuration is 2, 5. There are 5 electrons in its
valence shell. It needs 3 electrons more to complete its octet like noble gas, neon
(2, 8).

Ball and stick model of

ammonia molecule.
NH3 Molecule
[6] 
 Chemistry
6. Formation of H2O molecule
The electronic configuration of hydrogen is K (1) and that of oxygen is K(2), L(6). Thus, each
hydrogen require one electron and oxygen require two electrons to achieve the stable
electronic configuration.

7. Formation of CH4 molecule

Methane is a covalent compound containing four covalent bonds. It contains one carbon
atom and four hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to central carbon atom.
H
×
C 4× H H × C × H
×
H

CH4 Molecule

Explain the formation of the following with the help of Lewis dot structure.
(i) HCl (ii) CO2 (iii) CCl4
4. Allotropes of carbon
Allotropy: It is the phenomenon of existence of an
element in two or more forms which have different
physical properties but identical chemical properties. Diamond has a very
hard crystalline
The different forms are called allotropes. Carbon forms structure. It has a
three crystalline allotropes, high melting point
and is a non
(i) Diamond (ii) Graphite (iii) Fullerene
conductor of
(i) Diamond electricity.
Diamond is a crystalline allotrope of carbon. Its atomic
symbol and empirical formula is 'C'.
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NCERT Basics: Class 10

154 pm
(bond length) Strong covalent
bond

Diamond is the hardest naturally

occurring substance. The Cullinan
diamond is the largest ever found was
Structure of diamond mined in South Africa in 1905.
Structure
In diamond, each carbon atom is covalently bonded to four other carbon atoms in a
tetrahedral arrangement. This tetrahedral arrangement of carbon atoms gives a rigid, three-
dimensional structure to diamond.
Properties
1. Pure diamond is a transparent and colourless solid.
2. Polished diamond sparkles brightly because it reflects most of the light.
Preparation of synthetic diamond
Diamond can be synthesized by subjecting pure carbon to very high pressure and
temperature. These synthetic diamonds are smaller than natural diamonds.
(ii) Graphite
Graphite is also known as black lead as it marks paper black. The name graphite has been taken
from the Greek word ''graphein" (which means to write) in reference to its uses as 'lead' in lead
pencils.
Structure
Graphite is an opaque and dark grey solid. In a crystal of
graphite the carbon atoms are arranged in a hexagonal
pattern in parallel planes. In a layer of graphite each Among all allotropes
carbon atom is strongly bonded to three other carbon of Carbon, graphite is a
atoms by covalent bonds. Thus, one valence electron of good conductor of
each carbon atom is free in every layer of graphite crystal. electricity and is used
in making electrodes
The free electron makes graphite a good conductor of for electrolytic cells.
electricity.
Each layer is bonded to the adjacent layers by weak
forces. As a result, each layer can easily slide over the
other. This makes graphite slippery in nature.

Weak Vander
Wall force of
attraction
(340 pm)
Covalent
bond
(141.5 pm)
Fig.9 Lead pencils.
Structure of graphite Lead Pencils

[8] 
 Chemistry
(iii) Fullerene
Fullerenes are recently discovered, spherical or tube-like allotropes of carbon.
The molecule containing sixty atoms of carbon has been named as Buckminster fullerene.
Fullerenes has been named after American architect and engineer
R. Buckminster-fuller whose geodesic domes follow similar building principles.

Buckminster fuller with geodesic dome

Fullerene was discovered

in 1985 by Robert F. Curl
Jr. Harold Kroto and
Richard E. Smally.

Structure of Fullerene
Types of fullerene
C60, C70, C74 and C78 are the members of fullerene family. But C60 is the most stable and most
studied form of fullerenes.
C60 molecule has marvelously symmetrical structure. It is a fused ring of aromatic system
containing 20 hexagons and 12 pentagons of C-atoms.

(i) Formation of hydrochloric acid (HCl)

H atom has one valence electron. It needs one electron more to complete its duplet and
chlorine atom has seven valence electrons. It needs one more electron to complete its octet
and acquire stable electronic configuration (2, 8, 8) like noble gas Argon.

H + Cl ⎯→ H Cl ⎯→ H – Cl ⎯→ HCl
Shared pair Covalent
of electrons bond

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NCERT Basics: Class 10
(ii) Formation of CO2 molecule
The atomic number of C is six and the electronic configuration of C is K(2), L(4) and that of
oxygen is K(2), L(6). Thus, carbon require four and each oxygen require two electrons to
achieve the stable electronic configuration.

O C O ⎯→ O C O
K, L K, L K, L Shared pair
2, 6 2, 4 2, 6 of electrons CO2  O = C = O
Carbon dioxide molecule Double covalent bonds
(iii) Formation of carbon tetrachloride molecule (CCl4)
The electronic configuration of carbon and chlorine atoms are (2, 4) and (2, 8, 7)
respectively. Carbon atom needs four electrons and chlorine atom needs one electron to
attain the stable electronic configuration.

Cl
C + 4 Cl ⎯→ Cl C Cl

Carbon Four Cl
atom chlorine
Shared paired of electrons Any number of
atoms
carbon atoms can be
Cl linked up by covalent
bonds because of
CCl4 molecule ⎯ Cl – C – Cl
catenation.
Cl
Covalent bond in
carbon tetrachloride

5. Versatile nature of carbon

About three million (or thirty lakh) compounds of carbon are known. The existence of such
a large number of organic compounds is due to the following characteristic features of
carbon.
(i) Catenation: tendency to form carbon-carbon bond
"The property of forming bonds with atoms of the
same element is called catenation".
Carbon has the maximum tendency of catenation in
the periodic table. This is because of strong carbon- Catenation means self-linking,
carbon bonds as compared to other atoms. like chains.

No other element exhibits the property of catenation to the extent seen in carbon
compounds. Silicon forms compounds with hydrogen which have chains of upto seven or
eight atoms, but these compounds are very reactive. The carbon-carbon bond is very strong
and hence stable. This gives us the large number of compounds with many carbon atoms
linked to each other.
[10] 
 Chemistry
When two or more carbon atoms combine with one another, they form different types of
chains such as,
(i) Straight chains
(ii) Branched chains
(iii) Closed chain or ring chains
CH3 CH CH2 CH CH3

CH3 CH3
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3
CH2 CH2 CH2

CH3 CH CH CH3

CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3

CH3 CH3

Straight Chain
Branched Chain

Cyclo propane Cyclo butane Cyclo hexane

Closed Chain (Minimum 3 Carbon required in closed chain structure)

Why carbon shows maximum catenation among all elements?

Explanation
Causes of maximum catenation in carbon are:
(i) Small size.
(ii) Unique electronic configuration (2, 4).
(iii) Great strength of carbon-carbon bonds (355 kJ/mol).
(ii) Tetravalency of carbon
The atomic number of carbons is 6 and hence its electronic
configuration of carbon atom is 2, 4. After carbon, sulphur
It has four electrons in the outermost shell, therefore its is the second element
valency is four (tetravalency). Thus, carbon forms four showing maximum
catenation.
covalent bonds in its compounds.
Compounds of carbon are formed with oxygen, hydrogen,
nitrogen, sulphur, chlorine and many other elements
giving rise to compounds with specific properties, which
depends upon the elements other than carbon present in the molecule.
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NCERT Basics: Class 10

Tetravalency
(iii) Tendency to form multiple bonds
Due to small size, carbon can easily form double or triple bonds (called multiple bonds)
with itself and with the atoms of other elements as nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur etc.
H H H
H–C–H C=C H–CC–H
H H H
Single bond Double bond Triple bond

Is it possible for two carbon atoms to share four electron pairs to complete the octet and
form C2 molecule?
Explanation
No, two carbon atoms cannot mutually share more than 3 electron pairs. Actually, as a result of
electron sharing, the nuclei of the participating atoms are also drawn closer. After sharing three
pairs, the nuclei are so close that the force of repulsion in the positively charged nuclei will push
them apart. The atoms are no longer in a position to share one more pair and form four bonds.
(iv) Isomerism
Compounds having same molecular formula but different structural formulae are known as
isomers and the phenomenon of existence of isomers is termed as isomerism.
Example
Isomers of Pentane (C5H12)

1 CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3

As the number of
3 CH3
carbon increases in
2 the compound,
CH3 CH2 CH CH3 CH3 C CH3 number of isomers
also increases.

CH3 CH3

[12] 
 Chemistry

1. Name any element other than carbon which shows allotropy.

2. How many isomers are possible with formula C4H10.
6. Organic compounds
Because of versatile nature of carbon, it forms many compounds. Organic chemistry: Branch
of chemistry which deals with the study of organic compounds. Hydrocarbons: Organic
compounds of carbon and hydrogen. In eighteenth century all known compounds were
divided into two categories.
Compounds

Organic Inorganic
compounds compounds
(like urea, sugar, oils, fats, (like marble, common salt,
dyes, etc. which were isolated alum, CuSO4, etc. which were
directly or indirectly from isolated from non-living
living organisms such as sources such as rocks and
animals and plants.) minerals.)
Vital force theory
This theory was given by Berzelius in 1815.
According to him, organic compounds were produced only under the
influence of some mysterious force existing in the living organism. This
mysterious force was called the vital force.
So, it was believed that no organic compound can be prepared in the
laboratory.
Wohler's synthesis
Berzelius's theory was disapproved by Friedrich Wohler in 1828 by
preparing urea from ammonium cyanate (NH4CNO) in laboratory.
O Friedrich Wohler

Structure of urea ⎯→ H2N–C–NH2

Isomerization – The process of converting a molecule into its isomer (s)
O
C
⨁ –
NH4O–CN H2N NH2
Heating ammonium cyanate isomerizes it into urea.
Modern definition of organic compounds
Compounds of carbon, containing usually hydrogen and one and more other element such as
oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, halogens, phosphorus, etc. are called organic compounds.

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NCERT Basics: Class 10
7. Saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbon
On the basis of bonding, carbon compounds can be classified in two categories:
(i) Saturated hydrocarbons
(ii) Unsaturated hydrocarbons
(i) Saturated Hydrocarbon
The hydrocarbons which contain only single carbon-carbon covalent bonds are called
saturated hydrocarbons.
They are also called alkanes.
General formula for alkanes is CnH2n+2 where 'n' is the number of carbon atoms.
General formula of saturated hydrocarbon (CnH2n+2)
No. of 'C' atoms Name Formula Structure
H
1 Methane CH4 H–C–H
H
HH
2 Ethane C2H6 H–C–C–H
HH
HHH
3 Propane C3H8 H–C–C–C–H
HHH
HH HH
4 Butane C4H10 H–C–C–C–C–H
HHHH
HH H HH
5 Pentane C5H12 H–C–C–C–C–C–H
HH HHH
HH H HH H
6 Hexane C6H14 H–C–C–C–C–C–C–H
HH HHHH

H Hydrocarbons C

H H H H H H H H H H
H C H H C C H H C C C H H C C C C H
H H H H H H H H H H
Methane Ethane Propane Butane
Common hydrocarbons

[14] 
 Chemistry
(a) Structure of methane [CH4]
Methane consists of one carbon and four hydrogen atoms, which are covalently bonded
to e ot e ’s, forming following structure.

Methane gas
Monument, Groningen

(b) Structure of ethane [C2H6]

To derive the structure of ethane, the following steps are followed.
Step-I: Link the two carbon atoms.
C—C
Carbon atoms are linked together with a single bond.
Step-II: Three valencies of each carbon atom remain unsatisfied, so each is bonded
to three hydrogen atoms giving the following structure.
HH
H–C–C–H
HH
Each carbon atom is bonded to three hydrogen atoms.

Lewis dot structure of ethane

(c) Structure of propane [C3H8]
In a similar manner we can derive the structure of propane.
HHH
H–C–C–C–H
HHH

Lewis dot structure of propane

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NCERT Basics: Class 10
(ii) Unsaturated hydrocarbons
The hydrocarbons in which two carbon atoms are bonded to each other by a double (=) or a
triple () bond is called an unsaturated hydrocarbon.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are of two types viz. alkenes and alkynes.
(a) Alkenes ( –C=C– )
The hydrocarbons in which the two carbon atoms are bonded by a double bond are
called alkenes.
Their general formula is CnH2n where "n" is the number of carbon atoms.
lkenes e lso known s ole ns. In g eek ‘ole’ me ns o l n ns means production
because lower members of alkenes form oily product with chlorine.
General formula of alkenes: CnH2n
No. of C atoms Name Formula Structure
H H
2 Ethene C2H4 C=C
H H
H HH
C3H6
3 Propene H–C–C=C–H
CH3–CH=CH2
H
H HH H
C4H8
4 Butene H–C=C–C–C–H
CH2=CH–CH2–CH3
H H

 We cannot form methene because it has only one carbon.

Formation of ethene molecule [C2H4]
The electronic configuration of carbon atom is 2, 4. There are four valence electrons in one
C atom. Each H atom contains one valence electron.

Carbon and hydrogen Shared pair of electrons

with their valence 
electrons CH2 = CH2
Double covalent bond in
Ethene molecule

[16] 
 Chemistry
(b) Alkyne (–CC–)
The hydrocarbons in which two carbon atoms are bonded by a triple bond are called
alkynes.
Their general formula is CnH2n–2 where 'n' is the number of carbon atoms.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are more reactive than saturated hydrocarbons.
General formula of alkynes: CnH2n–2
No. of 'C' atoms Name Formula Structure
2 Ethyne C2H2 or H–CC–H
HC  CH
3 Propyne C3H4 or H
H3C–C  C–H H–C–CC–H
H
4 Butyne C4H6 or HH
H3C–CH2 –C CH H–C–C–C  C–H
HH

Formation of ethyne molecule (C2H2)

Carbon and hydrogen Shared pair of electrons

with their valence 
electrons CH  CH
Triple covalent bond in
Ethyne molecule

 Alkanes general formula of alkane is CnH2n+2

 Alkenes general formula of alkane is CnH2n
 Alkynes general formula of alkane is CnH2n–2

1. Phosphorous
2. Two, CH3– CH2– CH2–CH3 (n-butane) and CH3 – CH – CH3 (iso-butane)
|
CH3
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NCERT Basics: Class 10
8. Chains, branches and rings
On the basis of structure carbon compounds can be divided
into 3 categories:
(a) Straight chain compounds Compounds with
(b) Branched chain compounds same molecular
formula but
(c) Closed chain / cyclic / ringed compounds different structures
of chain are called
(a) Straight chain compounds structural isomers.
If a carbon compound has carbon-carbon link in chain
structure, we get a straight chain compound.
Open chain compounds, whether straight chain or branched
chain are known as aliphatic compounds.
In these, a carbon can form bond with a maximum of 2 carbon atoms e.g.
(i) Straight chain alkanes
CH4 CH3–CH3 CH3–CH2–CH3 CH3–CH2–CH2–CH3
Methane Ethane Propane Butane
(ii) Straight chain alkenes
H2C=CH2 CH3–CH=CH2 CH3–CH=CH–CH3 or CH2=CH–CH2–CH3
Ethene Propene Butene
(iii) Straight chain alkynes
HCCH H3C–CCH H3C–CC–CH3 or HCC–CH2–CH3
Ethyne Propyne Butyne
(b) Branched structure
The alkanes containing three or less carbon atoms do not form branches.
CH4 CH3–CH3 CH3–CH2–CH3
Methane Ethane Propane
The alkane containing four carbon atoms (C4H10) has two types of arrangement of carbon
atoms.
CH3
H3C–CH
H3C–CH2–CH2–CH3
CH3
Continuous chain Branched chain

Structural Isomers
Thus, carbon compounds in which at least one carbon of the chain is linked to three or four
other carbon atoms are called branched chain compounds.
Like saturated compounds, unsaturated compounds can also have branched chain structure.
For example, C4H8, butene may have following structure.

[18] 
 Chemistry

CH3–CH2–CH=CH2 CH3–CH=CH–CH3 CH3 – C = CH2

|
CH3
(i) (ii) (iii)
Among these three, (i) and (ii) are straight chains while (iii) is a branched chain.
Boiling point
(i) Butane has a straight chain structure whereas iso-butane has a branched chain
structure. A branched exhibits weaker Vander Waals forces as compared to straight
chains. Strong intermolecular forces in butane results in a higher boiling point as larger
energy is required to separate them.
(ii) C4H10 → (Butane) Butane have 2-isomers.
(1) CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 (n–Butane)
(2) CH3 – CH – CH3 (iso–Butane)
CH3

n–Butane > iso–Butane

(c) Closed chains or cyclic hydrocarbons or ring hydrocarbons
These hydrocarbons contain closed chain or ring of atoms in their molecules. These further
can be of two types:
(i) Alicyclic hydrocarbon or saturated cyclic carbon compounds or cycloalkanes
These hydrocarbons contain a ring chain of three or more carbon atoms.
These cyclic compounds are named by writing prefix 'cyclo' before the name of
corresponding straight chain hydrocarbon.
H H

H H H C H
C C
C H H
H H H H H H
C C H H
H C C H H H C
C C
H C C H H C H
H H H C C
C C H
H H H H
H H H H
Cyclopropane Cyclobutane Cyclopentane Cyclohexane

(ii) Aromatic hydrocarbon or unsaturated cyclic carbon compound

These have at least one benzene ring in their molecules.
It is a special type of ring of six carbon atoms with three double bonds in alternate
positions.
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NCERT Basics: Class 10

H H
1 1
H 6 C H H 6 C H
C C2 C C2
or or
C C3 C C3
H 5 C H H 5 C H
4 4
H H
Benzene

1. Name the allotropes of carbon that are good conductors and bad conductors of electricity.
2. How many crystalline allotropes of carbon are there?
9. Functional group
Carbon forms most of the compounds with hydrogen. But
carbon also forms bonds with other atoms such as halogen,
oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. Therefore, carbon is said to be All members of a
homologous series,
a very friendly element.
have same functional
These compounds are obtained by replacing one or more group. That is why,
hydrogen atoms by other atoms such that the valency of they show same
chemical properties.
carbon remains satisfied. The atom or a group of atoms
replacing the hydrogen atom are called heteroatom or
functional group respectively.
Different organic compounds having same functional group have almost same properties.
These are called families.
To understand the meaning of a functional group, let us consider ethane (C2H6) and ethanol
(C2H5OH). Here, ethanol is obtained by replacing one hydrogen atom of ethane by the
hydroxyl group as shown below:
H H H H
| | | |
H–C–C–H H–C–C– OH ⎯→ Functional group
| | | |
HH H H
Ethane Ethanol
Both ethane and ethanol have different physical and chemical properties. For example,
1. Ethane is a gas while ethanol is a liquid at room temperature.
2. Ethanol is an antiseptic and hypnotic (induces sleep) but ethane does not have these
properties.
3. Ethanol reacts with sodium to form sodium ethoxide with the evolution of hydrogen gas but
ethane does not give this reaction.

[20] 
 Chemistry
Example of different compounds with same functional group
H H H
H–C– OH H–C–C–OH
H H H
Methanol Functional Ethanol Functional
group group

Properties of CH3–OH and CH3–CH2OH are similar and it is due to the presence of –OH
(hydroxyl) group.
This group is known as alcoholic group.
Family of compounds having –OH group is called alcohol.

 Halo group is a functional group as it imparts special property to the parent hydrocarbon,
but according to IUPAC nomenclature, it is not considered as a functional group and thus its
prefix is used for naming
Some Functional Groups in Carbon compounds
Hetero atom Functional Group Formula of Functional
Group
Halogen atom Halo –X
(F, Cl, Br, I) (Fluoro, Chloro, (–F, –Cl, –Br, –I)
Bromo, Iodo)
1. Alcohol –OH
H
2. Aldehydes –C or –CHO
O

Oxygen 3. Ketones
C=O or –CO
(O)
O
4. Carboxylic acid
–C–OH or –COOH
R–C–O–R or RCOOR
5. Ester O

10. Homologous Series

"A series of organic compounds having similar structures and similar chemical properties in
which the successive members differ in their molecular formula by –CH2 group".
The different members of the series are called as homologous.
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NCERT Basics: Class 10
Characteristics of homologous series
(i) All the members of a homologous series can be described by a common general formula.
Example: All alkanes can be described by the general formula CnH2n+2.
(ii) Each member of a homologous series differs from its higher and lower neighbouring
member by a common difference of –CH2 group.
(iii) Molecular masses of the two adjacent homologous differ by
14 mass units, because molecular mass of –CH2 group is 12 +
2 = 14.
Functional group
(iv) All the members of a homologous series show similar largely decides the
chemical properties. for example, substitution reaction is chemical properties
of hydrocarbon it is
shown by all alkanes. attached with.
(v) All the members of a homologous series show a gradation in
physical properties as molecular mass increases. For example,
M.P. and B.P. increases with increase in molecular mass.
(vi) All the members of the series can be prepared by similar methods known as the general
method of preparation.

Gradation in Same general

physical properties formula

Similar chemical Homologous Difference

properties series of –CH2

Common method Difference of

of synthesis 14 mass unit

 Some members of alkane, alkene and alkyne homologous series.

Alkane Alkene Alkyne
CnH2n+2 CnH2n CnH2n–2
Homologous series Homologous series Homologous series
Name Formula Name Formula Name Formula
Methane CH4 - - - -
Ethane C2H6 Ethene C2H4 Ethyne C2H2
Propane C3H8 Propene C3H6 Propyne C3H4
Butane C4H10 Butene C4H8 Butyne C4H6
Pentane C5H12 Pentene C5H10 Pentyne C5H8
Hexane C6H14 Hexene C6H12 Hexyne C6H10

[22] 
 Chemistry

1. Graphite is the good conductor of electricity and diamond is the bad conductor of electricity.
2. Three viz. graphite, diamond and fullerene.

Aim: To illustrate the concept of homologous series.

Method
Calculate the difference in the formulae and molecular masses for
(a) CH3OH and C2H5OH
(b) C2H5OH and C3H7OH and
(c) C3H7OH and C4H9OH.
Now answer
1. Is there any similarity in these three?
2. Arrange these alcohols in the order of increasing carbon atoms to get a family. Can we call
this family a homologous series?
3. Generate a homologous series for compounds containing upto 4 carbons for the following
functional groups.
(a) Aldehydes (b) Carboxylic acids
(c) Ketones (d) Halo group
Discussion
Formula Molecular Mass Difference In
(Calculated)
Difference In Molecular mass
(a) CH3OH 12 + 3 + 16 + 1 = 32 –CH2 14
C2H5OH 24 + 5 + 16 + 1 = 46
(b) C2H5OH 24 + 5 + 16 + 1 = 46 –CH2 14
C3H7OH 36 + 7 + 16 + 1 = 60
(c) C3H7OH 36 + 7 + 16 + 1 = 60 –CH2 14
C4H9OH 48 + 9 + 16 + 1 = 74

1. Yes, all these compounds are the members of a homologous series for alcohols.
2. CH3OH, C2H5OH, C3H7OH and C4H9OH -increasing carbon atoms. These four compounds form
a homologous series.
3. Homologous series containing functional groups.

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NCERT Basics: Class 10
(a) Aldehydes: HCHO, CH3CHO, CH3CH2CHO, CH3CH2CH2CHO
(b) Carboxylic acids: HCOOH, CH3COOH, CH3CH2COOH, CH3CH2CH2COOH
(c) Ketones: CH3COCH3, CH3COCH2CH3.
(d) Haloalkanes: CH3X, CH3CH2X, CH3CH2CH2X, CH3CH2CH2CH2X
Conclusion
The common difference in the molecular formulae and molecular masses of any two successive
(adjacent members) of a homologous series are CH2 unit and 14u (mass units) respectively.

1. Write the molecular formula of fifth and eighth member of homologous series of
(a) alkane (b) alkene (c) alkyne (d) alcohol.
11. Nomenclature of carbon compounds
There are two ways to name carbon compounds:
1. Trivial system 2. IUPAC system
1. Trivial system: In earlier days, organic compounds were named after the source from
which they were obtained. For example, urea got its name because the substance was
obtained from the urine of mammals. These names are without any systematic basis and are
known as common names or trivial names.
Common name of methanol is wood spirit because it is obtained by destructive distillation
of wood. Common name of methanoic acid is formic acid because it is extracted from red
ants (formicus)
2. IUPAC system: It is the system for naming organic compound given by International Union
of Pure and Applied Chemistry. This system is very useful in the study of organic
compounds.
In IUPAC system of nomenclature, the name of organic compounds consists of three parts.
(i) Word root (ii) Suffix (iii) Prefix
(i) Word root: The word root denotes the number of carbon atoms present in the chain.
For chains containing upto four carbon atoms, special word roots (meth-C1, eth-C2,
prop-C3, but-C4) have been used while those containing more than four carbon atoms,
Greek numerals have been used to represent the word root. For example,
Chain Word Chain Word
length root length root
C-1 Meth C-6 Hex
C-2 Eth C-7 Hept
C-3 Prop C-8 Oct
C-4 But C-9 Non
IUPAC Logo
C-5 Pent C-10 Dec

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 Chemistry
(ii) Suffix: It indicates the nature of linkage in the carbon atoms.
Carbon linkage Primary suffix
C–C – ane
C=C – ene
CO – yne

It indicates the presence of functional group in the organic compound. While adding
se on y su x t e n l ‘e’ om t e n me o t e bon n s elete .
A few important suffixes are listed below
Functional group Suffix
Alcohols (– OH) –ol
Aldehydes (– CHO) –al
Ketones (> C=O) –one
Carboxylic acids (–COOH) –oic acid
Ester (RCOOR) –Alkyl Alkanoate

(iii) Prefix: There are few groups which are not regarded as functional groups in IUPAC
name of a compound. These are regarded as substituent and are represented as prefixes
and are put before the word root while naming a particular compound. A few important
prefixes are given:
Substituent Prefix
–F Fluoro
–Cl Chloro
–Br Bromo
–I Iodo
–R Alkyl

Thus a complete IUPAC name of an organic compound may be represented as

Prefix + Word root + suffix
Rules
1. Find and name the longest continuous carbon chain.
2. Identify and name groups attached to this chain.
3. Number the chain consequently, starting at the end nearest to a substituent group.
4. Designate the location of each substituent group by an appropriate number and name.
5. Assemble the name, listing groups in an alphabetical order.
The prefixes di, tri, tetra, etc. are used to designate several groups of the same kind.

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NCERT Basics: Class 10
Some examples,
CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 → Pentane
CH3–CH–CH2–CH3 → 2-Methylbutane
CH3
CH3

CH3–C–CH3 → 2, 2-Dimethylpropane

CH3

Alkyl group: When one hydrogen of an alkane is removed, it changes into alkyl group. It is
usually represented as –R. General formula of alkyl group is CnH2n+1.
For example, –CH3 (methyl), –C2H5 (ethyl) etc.
12. Chemical properties of carbon compounds
Carbon compounds generally show following four chemical reactions.
Chemical reactions

Combustion Oxidation Addition Substitution

1. Combustion reaction
Definition
Combustion is the process of complete burning of a substance in presence of oxygen along
with the liberation of large amount of heat and light.
It can be considered as rapid and complete oxidation. Any substance, which contain carbon
and hydrogen, on proper combustion will produce carbon dioxide and water along with
energy.
Combustion of acetylene with oxygen produces a flame of over 3600K. Due to the high
temperature of flame, oxyacetylene gas is used in welding and cutting.
Combustion of some common substance
(i) Combustion of carbon: Carbon (or charcoal) burn in air or oxygen to give CO2
producing heat and light.
Combustion
C(s) + O2(g) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ → CO2(g) + Heat + Light
Carbon Oxygen Carbon dioxide
(ii) Combustion of hydrocarbon: Hydrocarbons burn to produce carbon dioxide (CO2),
water (H2O) and heat and light.
Combustion
CH4(g) + O2(g) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ → CO2(g) + H2O(g) + Heat + Light
Methane Oxygen
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 Chemistry
Note: Natural gas and biogas contain methane. So, burning of natural gas and biogas are also
combustion reactions.
(iii) Burning of LPG (Butane) produces CO2, H2O, heat and light.
13
C4H10(g) + O2(g) ⎯⎯⎯⎯
Combustion
→ 4CO2(g) + 5H2O(g) + Heat + Light
2
Butane/LPG
(iv) Combustion of alcohol
C2H5OH(aq) + 3O2(g) ⎯⎯⎯⎯
Combustion
→ 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g) + Heat + light
Ethanol Oxygen (from air)

Aim: To illustrate that saturated hydrocarbons burn with a blue non-luminous flame, while
unsaturated hydrocarbons give luminous yellow sooty flame.
Materials required: Some carbon compounds (naphthalene, camphor, alcohol), burner, metal plate.
Method
Take some carbon compounds (naphthalene, camphor, alcohol) one by one on a spatula and burn them.
Observe the nature of the flame and note whether smoke is produced.
Place the metal plate above the flame. Is there a deposition on the plate in case of any of the
compounds?
Observation and Discussion:
Compound Flame Nature of
Deposit
used Produced compound
Yellow & Carbon
Naphthalene Unsaturated
Smoky flame deposited
Blue non- No Carbon
Camphor Saturated
luminous flame deposited
Blue non- No Carbon
Alcohol Saturated
luminous flame deposited

Naphthalene, burns with a smoky flame and carbon particles get deposited as it undergoes
incomplete combustion due to excess of carbon content.
Alcohol and camphor burns with blue non-luminous flame and no carbon gets deposited. They
undergo complete combustion, therefore produce more heat.
Conclusion
Saturated compounds burn with a non-luminous blue flame while unsaturated compounds burn
with a yellow sooty flame.

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NCERT Basics: Class 10

1. (a) C5H12 (Pentane) and C8H18 (Octane).

(b) C6H12 (Hexene) and C9H18 (Nonene).
(c) C6H10 (Hexyne) and C9H16 (Nonyne).
(d) C5H11OH (Pentanol) and C8H17OH (Octanol).

Aim: To illustrate that complete combustion of a fuel gives a blue flame while
incomplete combustion gives a yellow sooty flame.
Materials required: Burner, metal plate.
Method
(i) Light the Bunsen burner.
(ii) Close the air hole and observe the colour of the flame.
(iii) Put a metal plate over it and observe the nature of deposit.
Bunsen Burner
(iv) Open the air regulator to allow the flow of air.
(v) Observe the colour of the flame.
(vi) Put a metal plate and observe the nature of deposit.
Observation
Air Colour of Nature of
Regular flame deposit
Partially Yellow Black carbon
Closed Sooty flame Deposited
Open Blue No black
Flame Carbon
deposited

Conclusion
In the presence of sufficient oxygen, fuel burns completely and hence does not give a yellow sooty
flame, but a blue, non-sooty flame is produced.

Predict the nature of the flame when,

1. Saturated hydrocarbons burn in the presence of excess of air.
2. Saturated hydrocarbon burns in the presence of limited amount of air.
3. Unsaturated hydrocarbons are burnt.
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 Chemistry

Why do substances burn with or without the flame?

Explanation
(i) When a candle or the LPG gas burns, it always burns with a flame.
Reason: A flame is produced only when gaseous substances burn. In candle wax melts and
forms a gaseous substance and LPG is a gaseous fuel.
(ii) When coal, wood or charcoal is ignited, it burns with a flame in the beginning and then glows
red and gives lots of heat without producing a flame.
Reason: When wood or charcoal is ignited, the volatile substances present in them,
vaporizes and burns with a flame in the beginning and after that glows red.
A luminous flame is produced when the atoms of a gaseous substances are heated and begin
to glow for example, different elements produce different colour, like copper gives greenish
blue colour in the flame.
The gas/kerosene stove used at home has inlets for air so that a sufficiently oxygen rich
mixture is burnt to give a clean blue flame. If you carefully observe the bottoms of vessels
getting blackened, it is clear indication that the air holes are blocked and the fuel is getting
wasted.

How formation of coal and petroleum takes place?

Explanation
Coal and petroleum have been formed from biomass which has been
subjected to various biological and geological processes.
Coal is the remain of tree ferns and other plants that lived millions of
years ago and buried inside the earth during earthquakes and
volcanoes. Due to huge pressure and temperature inside the earth and
in the absence of air, the fossil fuels (vegetable matter or wood, etc.)
were converted into coal.
Petroleum and natural gas are the remains of tiny plants and animals LPG gas, contains
that lived in the sea. It is a dark coloured, viscous and foul-smelling butane as major
component
crude oil. The name petroleum is derived from Latin words. "petra"
meaning rock and "oleum" meaning oil. Since, petroleum is found trapped between various rocks,
it is also known as rock oil.

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NCERT Basics: Class 10
2. Oxidation reaction
Definition: Addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen is called oxidation and the
substances which are capable of adding oxygen to other substances are called oxidising
agents.
Combustion is uncontrolled oxidation in which organic compounds are completely burnt
and get oxidized to CO2 and water. However, in oxidation, oxygen is added to the compound,
in a controlled manner.
Carbon gives carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide depending upon the oxygen available.
2C(s) + O2(g) ⎯⎯→ 2CO(g)
Carbon Oxygen (Limited) Carbon monoxide
C(s) + O2(g) ⎯⎯→ CO2(g)
Carbon Oxygen (Excess) Carbon dioxide
Hydrocarbon when oxidised give different product as follows:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Incomplete oxidation
→ CO2(g) + 2H2O()
Methane Oxygen (Excess)
2CH4(g) + 3O2(g) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Incomplete oxidation
→ 2CO(g) + 4H2O()
Methane Oxygen (Limited)
Alcohols also give different products on oxidation depending upon the reaction conditions.
Example
(i) Alcohols on oxidation with certain oxidising agents such as chromic anhydride in acetic
acid, yield corresponding aldehydes.
CrO3 in
CH3CH2OH(aq) + [O] ⎯⎯⎯→
CH COOH
CH3CHO(aq) + H2O ()
3

Ethanol Nascent Ethanal

Oxygen (an aldehyde)
(ii) On oxidation with alkaline potassium permanganate (or acidified potassium
dichromate), corresponding carboxylic acid is formed.
Alkaline KMnO
CH3CH2OH(aq) + 2[O] ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→
Heat
4
CH3COOH (aq) + H2O()
Nascent oxygen Ethanoic acid

Aim: To study the reaction of ethanol with alkaline potassium permanganate.

Materials required: Ethanol, test tubes, water, alkaline KMnO4.
Method
(i) Take about 3 ml of ethanol in a test tube and warm it gently in a water bath.
(ii) Add 5% solution of alkaline KMnO4 drop by drop into this solution.
(iii) Observe the colour of alkaline KMnO4 after adding initially as well as finally.

[30] 
 Chemistry
Now answer
Does the colour of potassium permanganate persists when it is added initially? Why does the
colour of potassium permanganate not disappear when excess is added?
Discussion
When a 5% solution of alkaline KMnO4 is added to warm alcohol drop by drop, the colour of
KMnO4 disappears initially because it oxidises ethanol to ethanoic acid and is itself reduced to
manganese dioxide (MnO2). However, if the KMnO4 solution added is more than what is required
to oxidise ethanol to ethanoic acid, then some of the KMnO4 solution remains unused and hence
its colour will not disappear.
Conclusion
Alkaline KMnO4 solution oxidises ethanol to ethanoic acid while it itself is reduced to MnO2.
AlkalineKMnO4 ,Heat
CH3CH2OH(aq) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
orK2Cr2O7 /H2SO4 ,Heat
→ CH3COOH(aq) + H2O()
3. Addition reaction
Definition: Reactions in which unsaturated hydrocarbons (unsaturated carbon
compounds) react with a molecule like H2, X2, H2O, etc. to form saturated compounds are
called addition reactions.
Hydrogenation reaction : Addition of hydrogen to an unsaturated carbon compound is
called hydrogenation reaction.
For example, Unsaturated hydrocarbons add hydrogen, in the presence of catalysts, such as
nickel or palladium to give saturated hydrocarbons.
(i) Addition of hydrogen to ethene
H H
H H Ni, 250°C
C=C + H2 (g) H–C–C–H
H H
H H
Ethene Ethane
(Double bond containing (Saturated hydrocarbon)
unsaturated carbon compound)
(ii) Addition of hydrogen to ethyne
H H
H – C  C – H + H2(g) Ni, Heat C=C
H H

Ethyne Ethene
(Triple bond containing (Ethylene)
unsaturated hydrocarbon)
H H
H H
C=C + H2(g) Ni, Heat H–C–C–H
H H
H H Vanaspati ghee is
Ethene hydrogenated
(Ethylene) Ethane vegetable oil

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NCERT Basics: Class 10
Industrial importance of hydrogenation reactions
Hydrogenation of vegetable oils is essential because they
contain unsaturated compounds which are very reactive
and undergo oxidation easily on exposure to air and may
Sunl g t
turn rancid.
Certain vegetable oils such as ground nut oil, cotton seed oil P oto em l
and mustard oil, contain double bonds (C = C) and are e t on
liquids at room temperature. Because of the unsaturation,
the vegetable oils undergo hydrogenation, like alkenes, to
P oto em l e t on nee
form saturated products called vanaspati ghee, which is lg t
semi-solid at room temperature.
Vegetable oils + Hydrogen ⎯⎯⎯ Ni,Heat
→ Vanaspati Ghee
(Unsaturated oil) (Saturated ghee)
4. Substitution reactions
Definition: The reactions in which one or more hydrogen atoms of a hydrocarbon are
replaced by some other atoms or groups are called substitution reaction.
Example: Methane reacts with chlorine (or bromine) in the presence of sunlight and
undergoes substitution reaction. It is called photochemical reaction because it takes place
in the presence of sunlight.
CH4(g) + Cl2(g) ⎯⎯⎯
Sunlight
→ CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g)
Chloromethane
CH3Cl(g) + Cl2(g) ⎯⎯⎯→
Sunlight
CH2Cl2(g) + HCl(g)
Dichloromethane
CH2Cl2(g) + Cl2(g) ⎯⎯⎯→
Sunlight
CHCl3(g) + HCl(g)
Trichloromethane
(Chloroform)
CHCl3(g) + Cl2(g) ⎯⎯⎯
Sunlight
→ CCl4(g) + HCl(g)
Tetra chloromethane
(Carbon tetrachloride)

1. Saturated hydrocarbon such as methane, ethane, propane, butane, natural gas and LPG burn
with a blue flame in the presence of sufficient / excess of air / oxygen.
2. In the presence of limited amount of air / oxygen, saturated hydrocarbons, such as, methane,
butane, etc. give a smoky flame.
3. Unsaturated hydrocarbons such as ethene, ethyne, etc. burn with a luminous / yellow smoky
flame.

[32] 
 Chemistry
13. Some Important Carbon Compounds
Many carbon compounds are invaluable to us. But here we shall study the properties of two
commercially important compounds – ethanol and ethanoic acid.
1. Ethanol (Ethyl Alcohol, C2H5OH)
Ethanol is the second member of the homologous series of alcohols.
Physical properties
(i) Physical state / colour and odour: Pure ethanol is a colourless liquid having a pleasant
smell and a burning taste.
(ii) Boiling and freezing points: It is a volatile liquid with a boiling point of 78.1°C, and
freezing point is –118°C.
(iii) Solubility: Ethanol is miscible with water in all proportions, due to the formation of
hydrogen bonds with water molecules. Consumption of ethanol causes drunkenness.
Chemical properties
(i) Combustion (or burning): Ethanol is highly inflammable liquid and readily burns in
air with a blue flame to form water vapour, carbon dioxide and evolves heat. Thus,
combustion of ethanol is an exothermic reaction.
C2H5OH (aq) + 3O2(g) Combustion→ 2CO2(g)
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ + 3H2O(g) + Heat
(ii) Reaction with sodium metal: Ethanol reacts with sodium metal to produce sodium
ethoxide and hydrogen gas is evolved.
2C2H5OH (aq) + 2Na(s) ⎯⎯→ 2C2H5ONa (aq) + H2(g)
Ethanol Sodium metal Sodium ethoxide Hydrogen

Aim: To identify the gas evolved when sodium reacts with ethanol.
Materials required: Sodium, ethanol.
Method
Drop a small piece of sodium, about the size of a couple of grains
of rice, into ethanol (absolute alcohol).
Now Answer
(i) What do you observe?
Reaction of sodium metal
Fig.28 Reaction of sodium metal
(ii) How will you test the gas evolved? with ethanol
with ethanol.
Discussion and conclusion
When a small piece of sodium is added to absolute alcohol (100% alcohol), a brisk effervescence
due to the evolution of H2 gas takes place. Hydrogen is a combustible gas, therefore, when a
burning splinter is brought near it, it burns with a 'pop' sound.

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NCERT Basics: Class 10
(iii) Reaction with conc. sulphuric acid (Dehydration): Ethanol when heated with excess of
concentrated sulphuric acid at 443 K, gets dehydrated to give ethene.
H2SO4 (conc.), 443K
C2H5OH(aq) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ Excess
→ H2C = CH2(g) + H2O()

Ethanol Ethene
Note: The concentrated sulphuric acid can be regarded as a
dehydrating agent which removes water from ethanol.
Uses of ethanol
(i) Ethanol is present in alcoholic beverages such as beer,
wine, whisky.
(ii) As a solvent for paints, varnishes, dyes, cosmetics,
perfumes, soaps and synthetic rubber, etc. Ethylene glycol (an alcohol) is a
component of antifreeze, which is
(iii) Ethanol is used in cough syrups, digestive syrups and used to protect the cooling system
tonics. of automobiles
(iv) A mixture of 80% petrol and 20% alcohol is called
power alcohol. It is used as fuel in cars and aeroplanes.
(v) A mixture of ethanol and water has lower freezing point than water this mixture is known
as antifreeze and is used in radiators of vehicles in cold countries and at hill stations.
(vi) As an antiseptic to sterilize wounds and syringes in hospitals.
(vii) For the manufacture of terylene and polythene.
(viii) As a preservative for biological specimens.
(ix) Ethyl alcohol is used as hypnotic (induces-sleep).
(x) Sugarcane plants are the most efficient converter of sunlight energy into chemical energy.
Molasses (dark coloured thick syrup left after the crystallization of sugar from sugarcane
juice) gives alcohol by fermentation in presence of yeast (which contains the enzymes
invertase and zymase)

How alcohol affects human health?

Explanation
Intake of even a small quantity of pure ethanol (called absolute alcohol) can be lethal. Also long-
term consumption of alcohol leads to many health problems. When large quantities of ethanol are
consumed, it tends to slow metabolic processes and to depress the central nervous system.
This results in lack of coordination, mental confusion, drowsiness, lowering of normal inhibitions
and finally stupor (unconscious state of mind). Drinking of alcohol over a long period of time
damages liver.

[34] 
 Chemistry

1. Write the balanced chemical equation for the combustion of propane and propanol.

How misuse of ethanol is avoided in industries?

Explanation
Denatured alcohol: Ethanol to which certain poisonous and nauseating substances like methyl
alcohol, pyridine, etc. have been added is termed as denatured alcohol. To prevent the misuse of
ethanol (Alcohol), industrial alcohol is coloured blue so that it can be recognised easily.
Methanol is highly poisonous compound for human beings. Methanol when taken, even in small
amount, can cause death.
Methanol gets oxidised to methanal in the liver, which causes coagulation of protoplasm.
Methanol also effects the optic nerve and causes blindness.
2. Ethanoic acid (acetic acid) CH3COOH
Ethanoic acid is commonly called acetic acid and belongs to the homologous series of
carboxylic acid. Its chemical formula is CH3COOH.
5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar and is used for preservating foods like
sausages, pickles, etc.
Physical properties
(i) At ordinary temperature, ethanoic acid is a colourless liquid with a strong pungent smell
and sour taste.
(ii) Its boiling point is 391 K and its density at 273 K is 1.08 (heavier than water).
(iii) It is miscible with water due to the formation of hydrogen bonds with water molecules.
(iv) On cooling at 289.6 K, it turns in ice-like crystals, hence named as glacial acetic acid.
(v) It dissolves sulphur, iodine and many other organic compounds.
(vi) It dimerises when dissolved in benzene.

Aim: To compare the strength of dilute acetic acid and dilute hydrochloric acid.
Materials required: Dilute acetic acid, dilute hydrochloric acid, litmus paper, universal indicator.
Method
Compare the pH of dilute acetic acid and dilute hydrochloric acid using both litmus paper and
universal indicator.

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NCERT Basics: Class 10
Now answer
Are both acids indicated by the litmus test?
Does the universal indicator show them as equally strong acids?
Discussion
Both dilute hydrochloric acid and dilute acetic acid turn blue litmus red but this action does not
tell whether hydrochloric acid is a stronger acid than acetic acid.
But when we compare the pH of the aqueous solution of these two acids using universal indicator,
we find that the pH of dilute acetic acid is around 4 (yellowish pink colour) while that of
hydrochloric acid is around 2(light pink colour). Therefore, acetic acid is a weaker acid than
hydrochloric acid.
Conclusion
Since HCl is completely ionized while acetic acid is only partly ionized, therefore, hydrochloric
acid is a stronger acid than acetic acid.
Chemical properties
(i) Reaction with alcohols (Esterification reaction)
Esters are sweet-smelling substances. These are used in making perfumes and as flavouring
agents.
Ethanoic acid reacts with ethanol in the presence of conc. H2SO4 to form ethyl ethanoate
which is an ester.
CH3COOH(aq) + C2H5OH(aq) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Conc.H SO .heat
2 4
→ CH3COOC2H5 (aq) + H2O()

Ethanoic acid Ethanol Ethyl ethanoate

(Ester)
The reaction of carboxylic acid with an alcohol to form an ester is called "esterification
reaction".
Note: Ester can be hydrolysed in the presence of an acid or a base to give back the parent
carboxylic acid and the alcohol.
Example
(a) Ethyl ethanoate on acid hydrolysis gives ethanoic acid and ethanol.
CH3COOC2H5(aq) + H2O() ⎯⎯→ CH3COOH(aq.) + C2H5OH(aq)

(b) Hydrolysis of ester in the presence of base (alkali) is called "Saponification reactions".
CH3COOC2H5(aq) + NaOH(aq) ⎯⎯→ CH3COONa(aq) + C2H5OH(aq)
Ethyl ethanoate Sodium Hydroxide Sodium ethanoate Ethanol
  Note: Alkaline hydrolysis of higher esters is used in the manufacture of soaps.

[36] 
 Chemistry

Aim: To study the esterification process using ethanol and acetic acid.
Materials required: Ethanol, ethanoic acid, conc. H2SO4, beaker, water.
Method
(i) Take 2ml of ethanol in a test tube.
(ii) Add 2ml of ethanoic acid (acetic acid) into it.
(iii) Add few drops of conc. H2SO4.
The Fig.33
smell of ofbananas
The smell bananas
(iv) Warm it in a beaker containing water. results from an aromatic
resultsester
from aninaromatic
present them.
Observation ester present in them
Pleasant fruity smelling compound (called ester) is formed.
Conclusion
Acetic acid reacts with alcohol in presence of conc. H2SO4 which act as a dehydrating agent to form
ester.
Test tube
containing
reaction Beaker
mixture

Water
Wire
gauge

Tripod Burner
stand

Esterification reaction

(ii) Reaction with a base

Like mineral acids, ethanoic acid reacts with a base such as sodium hydroxide to give a salt
(sodium ethanoate or commonly called sodium acetate) and water (neutralisation
reaction).
NaOH(aq) + CH3COOH(aq) ⎯→ CH3COONa(aq) + H2O()

(iii) Reaction with sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate

Ethanoic acid decomposes sodium hydrogen carbonate and sodium carbonate with a rapid
evolution of carbon dioxide gas.
NaHCO3(aq) + CH3COOH(aq) ⎯⎯→ CH3COONa(aq) + H2O() + CO2(g)

Sodium bicarbonate Ethanoic acid Sodium ethanoate

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NCERT Basics: Class 10

Na2CO3(aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) ⎯⎯→ 2CH3COONa(aq) + H2O() +CO2(g)

Sodium carbonate Ethanoic acid Sodium ethanoate

Note: Reactions of ethanoic acid with NaOH, NaHCO3, Na2CO3 and active metals show that
the hydrogen present in the carboxyl (–COOH) group is acidic in nature.

Aim: To study the reaction of carboxylic acid with sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate.
Materials required: Na2CO3, ethanoic acid, sodium hydrogen carbonate.
Method
(i) Take 1g of Na2CO3 and add 2ml of ethanoic acid into it.
(ii) A gas is formed.
(iii) Pass the gas formed through lime water and note down the observation.
(iv) Repeat the same procedure with sodium hydrogen carbonate and record observation.
Observation
Brisk effervescence due to carbon dioxide gas formed which turns lime water milky.
Conclusion
Acetic acid reacts with Na2CO3 and NaHCO3 to liberate CO2 gas.
Uses of ethanoic acid
1. Ethanoic acid is used in the manufacture of various dyes, perfumes and rayon.
2. It is used for making vinegar.
3. Its 5% solution is bactericidal (destroys bacteria).
4. It is used for coagulation of the latex.

1. (i) C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O

(ii) 2C3H7OH + 9O2 → 6CO2 + 8H2O
14. Soaps and detergents
Detergent
A substance capable of removing dirt and grease from any fabric or body is called detergent.
They can be of two types, soaps and synthetic detergents. The term detergent is usually used
for synthetic detergent.
(i) Soap
A soap is the sodium or potassium salt of a long-chain fatty acids (carboxylic acid). Soap is
basic in nature so, soap solution turns red litmus to blue

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 Chemistry

10

Aim: To demonstrate that oil dissolves in soap solution.

Materials required: Water, test tubes, oil, soap solution.
Method
(i) Take about 10 mL of water each in two test tubes. Add a drop of oil (cooking oil) to both the
test tubes and label them as A and B.
(ii) To test tube B, add a few drops of soap solution.
(iii) Now shake both the test tubes vigorously for the same period of time.
(iv) Leave the test tubes undisturbed for some time and observe. Does the oil layer separate out?
In which test tube does this happen first?
Observation
(i) Oil and water layers separate out immediately in test tube A to which soap was not added.
(ii) Only one layer of emulsion of oil in water can be observed in test tube B to which soap was
added, if left undisturbed.
Conclusion
Soap dissolves in dirt (oily in nature) and helps in cleaning clothes.
Examples of soap are:
(i) Sodium stearate (C17H35COONa)
(ii) Sodium palmitate (C15H31COONa)
Preparation of soap
The soap is prepared by heating animal fats or vegetable oils (olive oil, castor oil or palm oil) with
sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide.
The process of formation of soap by the hydrolysis of fat or oil with alkali is called saponification.
Oil or Fat + Sodium hydroxide → Soap + Glycerol
CH2–O–COC17H35 CH2–OH
– +
CH –O–COC17H35 + 3 N OH 3 C17H35COO N + CH–OH
So um So um
CH2–O–COC17H35 y ox e CH2–OH
T gly e es ste te
Gly e ol
(so )
Structure
A soap molecule contains two parts that interact differently with water, (i) one part is a long
hydrocarbon chain which is non-polar in nature and thus does not dissolve in water. It is also
called hydrophobic part, (ii) other part belongs to the –COONa group. It is polar and hydrophilic
in nature.
A soap molecule may be represented as

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NCERT Basics: Class 10
Soap molecule
Hydrophilic
ionic part

R–C–O–Na+
O
Hydrophobic hydrocarbon part

(ii) Synthetic detergents

Synthetic detergent differ from soaps in chemical composition. Synthetic detergents are
sodium salts of long chain sulphonic acid. They are more efficient than soaps. They are
usually used to make shampoos and products for cleaning clothes.
Cleansing action of soaps and detergents
The molecules of soap are sodium or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acids. The ionic
end of soap dissolves in water while the carbon chain dissolves in oil. The soap molecules,
thus form structures called micelles where one end of the molecules is towards the oil
droplet while the ionic end faces outside. This forms an emulsion in water. The soap micelle
thus helps in dissolving the dirt in water and we can wash out clothes clean.
Dirt particles
(oil or grease) Soap Hydrophilic end
Na + molecule Hydrophobic end
+
+ Na
Na
Grease or dirt
Oil Na+
Na+

Na+ Na+ Na+ Micelle

Water

Formation of micelles Effect of soap in cleansing

3D view of micelle

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 Chemistry

11

Aim: To demonstrate that soaps produce foam with soft water but curdy white precipitate with
hard water.
Materials required: Distilled water, hard water, soap solution, test tubes.
Method
(i) Take about 10 mL of distilled water (or rainwater) and 10 mL of hard water (from a tube
well or hand-pump) in separate test tubes.
(ii) Add a couple of drops of soap solution to both.
(iii) Shake the test tubes vigorously for an equal period of time and observe the amount of foam
formed.
Now answer
(i) In which test tube do you get more foam?
(ii) In which test tube do you observe a white curdy precipitate?
Observation
(i) Test tube containing distilled water has more foam.
(ii) Test tube containing hard water has curdy white precipitate.
Discussion and conclusion
(i) Soap easily forms lather with soft water.
(ii) Hard water prevents lathering of soap by forming curdy precipitate called scum.
Na – Soap + Ca2+/Mg2+ ⎯→ [Soap-Ca/Mg] + Na+
white ppt.
When soaps is used for washing clothes with hard water, a large amount of soap is wasted
in reacting with the calcium and magnesium ions of hard water to form an insoluble
precipitate called scum, before it can be used for the real purpose of washing soap. A large
amount of soap is needed for washing clothes when the water is hard.

12

Aim: To demonstrate that hard water produces foam with detergent but only curdy white
precipitate with soap.
Materials required: Test tubes, hard water, soap solution, detergent solution.
Method
(i) Take two test tubes with about 10 mL of hard water in each.
(ii) Add five drops of soap solution to one and five drops of detergent solution to the other.
(iii) Shake both the test tubes for the same period.
Now answer
(i) Do both the test tubes have the same amount of foam?
(ii) In which test tube is a curdy solid formed?
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NCERT Basics: Class 10
Observation
Test tube in which detergent is present contain more amount of foam.
Curdy solid is formed in the test tube containing soap.
Conclusion
Detergents have better cleansing action than soap.
Detergents are generally ammonium or sulphonate salts of long chain carboxylic acids. The
charged ends of these compounds do not form insoluble precipitates with the calcium and
magnesium ions in hard water. Thus, they remain effective in hard water.
Differences between soaps and synthetic detergents
Soaps Synthetic detergents
1 Soaps are sodium salts of long chain Synthetic detergents are the sodium salts of
fatty acid (carboxylic acids). long-chain benzene sulphonic acids or the
sodium salt of a long chain alkyl hydrogen
sulphate.
2 The ionic part of soap is The ionic part in a synthetic detergent is –
–COO–Na+. SO3–Na+ .
3 They are prepared from animal fats or They are prepared from hydrocarbons
plant-based oils. extracted from coal or petroleum.
4 Their efficiency decreases in hard Their efficiency is unaffected in hard water.
water.
5 Soaps take more time to dissolve in Synthetic detergents dissolve faster than
water. soaps in water.
6 They are biodegradable. Some synthetic detergents are not
biodegradable.
7 Examples: Example: Sodium lauryl sulphate, sodium
Sodium stearate, sodium palmitate. dodecyl benzene sulphonate.

Basic terminology
1. Catenation - The self-linking of atoms of an element to create chains and rings
2. Isomer - Compounds that have the same molecular formula but are structurally different.
3. Saturated hydrocarbon - Compounds containing carbon to carbon single bonds only.
4. Unsaturated hydrogen - Compounds containing carbon to carbon double/triple bonds
only.
5. Homologous series - A collection of compounds with the same general formula that differ
only in the carbon chain length.
6. Aliphatic compounds - Open chain compounds, whether straight chain or branched chain.
7. Oxidising agent - The substances which are capable of adding oxygen to other substances.
8. Hydrophilic end - A water-attracting molecule.
9. Hydrophobic end – Water-hating or repelling
10. Micelle – Micelles are molecule made up of a hydrophobic tail & a hydrophilic head mainly
used to remove dirt.

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 Chemistry
Memory Map
IUPAC Nomenclature
Properties of carbon Name of IUPAC Name
Versatile nature of carbon compounds
Always form covalent bonds Alkene Alk + ene =
Tetravalent Alkene
Electronic configuration- 2,4 Alkyne Alk + yne =
3-Allotropes- Diamond graphite Alkyne
and fullerenes Halo Halo + Alkane =
Multiple bonding- C–C, C=C Alkanes Haloalkane
CC Alcohols Alkane–e + ol =
Catenation- Unique property of Alkanol
self-linking of carbon atoms Aldehydes Alkane–e + al =
C C Alkanal
| | Ketones Alkane–e + one
C–C–C, C–C=C = Alkanone
Isomerism- Molecular formula Carboxylic Alkane–e + oic
same but different structure acid acid = Alkanoic
formula acid

CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Chemical properties of carbon compounds

Combustion Substitution Addition Oxidation

Burning of carbon Replacement of an Addition of two Addition of
compound in Air atom or group reactants to form oxygen
a single product

Ethanol Soaps
Colourless, distinct smell and Sodium salts (or potassium
burning taste, soluble in water salts) of the long chain
in all proportions, neutral to carboxylic acids. The ionic group
litmus. in soap –COO–Na+
C2H5OH + Na → CH3CH2ONa + H2 Eg: Stearic acid + NaOH → Soap
C2H5OH + Glycerol
H H Detergents
C=C + H2O Sodium salts of long chain
H H Benzene sulphonic acids. The
C2H5OH + 3O2 ionic group in a detergent is.
→ 2CO2 + 2H2O + Heat SO3Na+.
It can be used for washing even
when the water is hard.

Ethanoic acid
Colourless, Pungent smelling liquid, soluble in water in all proportions.
Reaction with sodium carbonate:
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 ⎯→ 2CH3COONa + CO2 + H2O

Esterification : + H–O–CH2–CH3 ⎯→

Hydrolysis : CH3COOC2H5 C2H5OH + CH3COOH

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