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CAIE AS LEVEL

PSYCHOLOGY (9990)
THEORY

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CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY

Each experiment consists of an experimental and control

condition.
1. Research Methods An experimental condition is one or more of the situations
in an experiment which represent the different levels of the
1.1. Experiments IV and are compared, either with one another or with the
control condition.
An experiment is an investigation looking for a causal
relationship in which an independent variable (IV) is A control condition is a situation in which the IV is absent.
manipulated and is expected to be responsible for changes This is compared to the experimental condition(s).
in the dependent variable (DV).
1.2. Self-Reports
There are three types of experiments:
Laboratory experiments: A research method in which Self-reports consist of two main types — questionnaires
there is an IV, DV, and strict controls. This looks for a and interviews.
causal relationship and is conducted in a setting which Questionnaires are a research method that involves asking
is not the usual environment for the participant with questions, mainly written, to gain information from the
regard to the behaviour they are performing. participants.
Field experiments: This is conducted in a setting which There are four types of questionnaires:
is the normal environment for the participant with Likert scales: questions asking whether the participant
regard to the behaviour they are performing. The likes or dislikes something.
researcher has control over a few variables, but it
Rating scales: questions that require the participant to
difficult to control all variables.
represent their answer on the numerical scale provided
Natural experiments: An investigation looking for a to them.
causal relationship in which the IV cannot be directly
Open questions: questions which allow the participant
manipulated by the experimenter. Instead, they study
to give detailed answers without any restrictions.
the effect of an existing difference or change. This is not
Closed questions: questions which allow the participant
a true experiment as the experimenter cannot
to respond using a few, stated responses without the
manipulate the levels of the IV.
opportunity to expand on their answers.
Laboratory experiments:
Interviews are a research method using verbal questions
Strengths Weaknesses asked directly to the participants.
Artificial Environment There are three types of interviews:
High levels of standardization hence it can
hence it lacks ecological
be replicated easily to test for reliability Structured: an interview with questions in a fixed order
validity
which may be scripted. Consistency might also be
High levels of control hence researches required in the interviewer’s posture, voice, etc., and
Participants may show
can be more confident that the IV is
demand characteristics hence these are highly standardized.
directly affecting the DV
Semi-structured: an interview with a fixed list of
questions, however, the interviewer could add more
Field experiments:
questions if required to clarify or get details on any
Strengths Weaknesses previous answers.

Situational variables are difficult to

Unstructured: an interview in which most questions
Realistic setting hence high depend on the respondent’s answers. A list of topics
control so it is tough know if the IV
ecological validity
is affecting the DV may be provided that need to be covered for the
Limited demand characteristics so Issues in breaking ethics since the
interview.
behaviour is more likely to be participants do not know that
natural and valid they’re taking part in a study

Natural experiments:
Strengths Weaknesses
High ecological validity because Difficult to know whether the IV
the IV is naturally occurring caused an effect on the DV

Difficult to replicate to test for

Valid representation of a
reliability as the event is naturally
person’s behaviour
occurring

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CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY

Strengths Weaknesses A naturalistic observation is a study conducted by watching

the participants’ behaviour in their normal environment
Participants are more likely to
Participants may give without interference from the researcher in either social or
give truthful answers as it
does not involve talking to
socially desirable physical environment. A controlled observation is one
answers
someone face to face which is conducted by watching the participants’ behaviour
in a situation in which the social or physical environment
Questionnaires A large sample can answer
the questionnaire in a short
Too many closed has been manipulated by the researcher.
questions may force
time span which should
an answer that does
General:
increase the
not reflect the
representativeness and Strengths Weaknesses
participant’s opinion
generalizability of the findings
If the participants are aware of the
If participants are unaware
Participants may be observation, they may not act ‘naturally’
of the observation taking
Lots of open questions will less likely to give but show more socially desirable
place - increases ecological
make participants reveal truthful answers as behaviour. This can reduce the validity of
validity
Interviews reasons as to why they they are face to face the findings
behave in a particular way or with the interviewer or
As behaviours are
have a particular opinion because of social- It may be difficult to replicate the study if it
‘counted’, data can be
desirability is naturalistic as many variables cannot be
analysed statistically with
controlled which reduces the reliability
minimal bias
1.3. Case Studies
A detailed investigation of a single instance, usually a
Participant observation:
person, family or institute, that produced in-depth data Strengths Weaknesses
specific to that instance.
High ecological validity as the
There are ethical problems of
Strengths Weaknesses participants are observed in a real-life
informed consent
setting
As researchers are focused
on one individual, they can As the research is focused on one As the observers become involved with The presence of an outsider
collect rich, in-depth data person, the case is unique which makes the group, they are more likely to can change the behaviours of
which adds validity to the generalisations difficult understand the motives and reasons the group members. This
findings for behaviours which increases the lowers the validity of the
validity of the findings findings
Attachments may be formed between
High ecological validity as researcher and participant which may
participants are studied in reduce objectivity of data collected and Non-participant observation:
their everyday lives analysis of it. This could reduce the
validity of the findings. Strengths Weaknesses
It can be difficult to make detailed
Participants behaviour will not
observations and to produce
1.4. Observations be affected by observation
qualitative data that allows
because the observer is out of
A research method that involves watching human or animal understandings as to why the
sight
behaviours are occurring
behaviour.
An observer can be overt/covert or they can be Researchers’ observations are
more likely to be objective as
participant/non-participant observers.
they are detaching from the
Overt observers are when the participants know who the people they are observing
researcher is and that they are being observed. A covert
observer could be present in the group of participants Structured observation:
observing them but they do not know who it is.
A participant observer is one who watches from the Strengths Weaknesses
perspective of being part of the social setting of the The behavioural checklist allows The sampling of observed behaviour
participants. A non-participant observer does not become objective quantitative data to be tends to be restricted and does not
collected which can then be give an idea of the reasons as to why
involved in the situation being studied.
analysed statistically the behaviours are occurring
An observation can be structured/unstructured or
naturalistic/controlled.
Unstructured observation:
A structured observation is a study in which the observer
records only a limited range of behaviours. An Strengths Weaknesses
unstructured observation is one in which the observer They can generate in-depth, rich Observers may easily be drawn to
records a range of behaviours, which is usually confined to quantitative data that can help eye catching behaviours and hence
a pilot study to refine the behavioural categories. explain why behaviours are may not fully represent all the
occurring behaviours

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CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY

Naturalistic observation: An alternative hypothesis is the testable statement which

predicts the difference or relationship between the
Strengths Weaknesses
variables in a particular investigation.
As participants are unaware that Very little control over There are three types of hypothesis.
they are being watched, they should extraneous variables which
behave more naturally, removing the makes it difficult to draw a cause A directional (one-tailed) hypothesis is a statement
chances of demand characteristics and effect relationship predicting the direction of a relationship between
Replication may be difficult as variables.
High ecological validity as the there cannot be a totally A non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis is a statement
observation takes place in a natural standardised procedure, hence predicting only that one variable will be related to the
setting making it difficult to test for
other, not the direction of the relationship.
reliability
A null hypothesis is a testable statement stating that
any difference or correlation in the results is due to
Controlled observation:
chance.
Strengths Weaknesses
As the set-up is controlled, the observers An artificial situation can
1.7. Variables
can be more confident about what is easily influence participants’
Independent variable (IV): the factor under investigation in
causing the behaviours behaviour
an experiment which is manipulated to create two or more
Less chance of extraneous variables Low ecological validity as the conditions and is expected to be responsible for changes in
affecting participants’ behaviour setting is artificial
the DV.
Dependent variable (DV): the factor in an experiment which
1.5. Correlations is measured and is expected to change under the influence
A statistical technique that measures the extent which two of the IV.
variables are related. This analyses the relationship Operationalization is the definition of variables so that they
between co-variables, maybe establish a causal can be accurately manipulated, measured or quantified
relationship between two measured variables if possible. A and replicated.
change in one variable can correspond with a change in the
other; however, correlation does not imply causation. None 1.8. Experimental Design
of the variables are manipulated, they are only measured.
This is the way in which participants are allocated to the
A positive correlation is a relationship in which the increase
in one variable accompanies an increase in the other. different levels of the IV.

A negative correlation is a relationship in which the An independent measures design is an experimental

increase in one variable accompanies a decrease in the design in which a different group of participants is used for
other. each IV level. If the IV is naturally occurring, the researcher
must use it.
No correlation refuters to a situation where no definite
A repeated measures design is an experimental design in
trend occurs and the two mentioned variables do not
appear to be related to each other. which participants perform at every IV level. It cannot be
used if the IV is naturally occurring. It also uses
Strengths Weaknesses counterbalancing (ABBA design).
Issues of causality because there A matched pairs design is an experimental design in which
The researchers easily establish
could be a third variable affecting participants are arranged in pairs. Each pair is similar in
a cause and effect relationship
the changes important ways to the study, and one member performs at
Correlations do not require any Correlations are restricted to a different level of the IV.
manipulation so can be used research that are quantitative and Independent measures design:
where experiments are unethical so they cannot be used to measure
or impractical why behaviours are occurring Strengths Weaknesses
As participants take art on only one
There may be participant
1.6. Hypotheses and Aims condition, they are less likely to guess the
variables affecting the DV
aim of the study, hence reducing the
rather than the IV
An aim tells you the purpose of the investigation. It is effects of demand characteristics
generally expressed in terms of what the study intends to
More participants are
show. It is written before the experiment is carried out and There are no order effects that can required for this type of
does not predict the outcomes. reduce the validity of the findings design as compared to
A hypothesis is a testable statement predicting a difference repeated measures

between levels of the IV in an experiment or a relationship

between variables in a correlation. Repeated measures design:

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CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY

Strengths Weaknesses Strengths Weaknesses

Eliminates any participant There is a chance of demand In-depth, detailed accounts given in
variables as all of them characteristics as participants may work the words of participants are Interpretation of data could be
take part in all conditions out the aim or change their behaviour. collected. It can be argued that subjective as these are words
using qualitative data is not rather than numbers
Fewer participants are Order effects can affect the findings of the
reductionist
needed as compared to study and reduce its validity. This could be
independent measures overcome using counterbalancing. As the data comes directly from the There may be researcher bias -
participant, we can understand why the researcher may only select
the participant thinks, feels or acts data that fits into the hypothesis
Matched pairs design: in a particular way or aim of the study

Strengths Weaknesses
Quantitative data is the numerical data about the quantity
Matching participants as
closely as possible on
of a psychological measure.
measurable traits may help Trying to match participants’ similar traits
Strengths Weaknesses
control for individual is very time-consuming.
differences affecting the As the data are numerical, it allows As the data are numerical, they
results. easier comparison and statistical miss out on why participants
analysis to take place. chose the answers that they did
Trying to match people exactly is
This design is better suited impossible as there will always be Numerical data are objective and Using quantitative data can be
when a repeated measures individual differences from one person to scientific, so there is a minimal seen as reductionist as it involves
design may not work due another. Therefore, the study may lack chance of psychologists researchers reducing complex
to an order effect that may internal validity if these differences affect miscalculating the data and ideas and behaviours to a number
affect results. the IV rather than the experimental drawing invalid conclusions. or percentage.
condition.

The sample may be smaller as trying to 1.11. Sampling of Participants

find a large sample of people matching
similar traits may be difficult. This may A population is a group sharing one or more characteristics
mean the findings may lack external
from which a sample is drawn.
validity.
A sample is a group of people selected to represent the
population in a study.
1.9. Controlling of Variables
The sampling technique is the method used to obtain the
It is essential to control variables to be certain about the participants for a study from the population. There are
findings of a study. three types of sampling techniques.
An extraneous variable is a variable which either acts Opportunity sampling is when the participants are
randomly, affecting the DV in all levels of the IV, or chosen because they are available at the time and place
systematically, affecting only one level of the IV (called a where the research is taking place.
confounding variable), so can obscure the effect of the IV, Volunteer (self-selected) sampling is when participants
making the results difficult to interpret. are invited to participate in studies via advertisements
A situational variable is a confounding variable caused by or emails.
an aspect of the environment.
Random sampling is when all population members are
Participant variables are another confounding variable allocated numbers, and a fixed amount of these are
caused by the individual differences of participants. chosen unbiasedly, for example, by picking out
Control is a way to keep any potential extraneous variables numbers from a hat.
constant. These are required to ensure that the results of
the study are reliable.

1.10. Types of Data

There are two types of data: qualitative and quantitative.
Qualitative data is descriptive, in-depth data indicating the
quality of a psychological characteristic.

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CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY

Strengths Weaknesses 1.13. Reliability

Large numbers of This is the extent to which a procedure, task or measure is
participants can be Researchers are unlikely consistent.
Opportunity obtained relatively quickly to gain a wide variety of
Sampling and easily because participants to allow for Internal reliability refers to whether the procedures are
researchers use people generalisation standardised so that each participant experiences the
who are around
same thing.
Participants are more likely Researchers are unlikely External reliability is the extent to which the results of a
to participate if they have to gain a wide variety of
procedure can be replicated from one time to another,
Volunteer already volunteered so the participants to allow for
Sampling drop-out rate should be generalisation because gaining consistent results.
lower, making participants will only be of
Inter-rater/inter-observer reliability refers to the extent to
generalisations stronger a certain type
which two researchers interpreting qualitative responses
Obtaining details of the TP will produce the same records from the same raw data.
Researchers can generalise to use to draw the sample
the target population (TP) may be difficult - a There are two methods to test the reliability of a study: the
with more confidence representative sample split-half method and the test-retest method.
Random cannot be guaranteed
Sampling The split-half method involves the results of the first half of
Researchers may gain a the questionnaire or interview to be the same as the
‘perfect sample’ but still results of second half when the questions are the same in
have the problem that
both halves but presented in different a manner.
participants will not take
The test-retest method is a way to measure the consistency
of a test or task by using it twice and then comparing the
1.12. Validity
results of each time to check how similar they are.
Validity is the extent to which the researcher is testing what
they claim to be testing. 1.14. Data Analysis
Internal validity is how well an experiment controls Measures of Central Tendency: a mathematical way to
confounding variables. This allows the researcher to be determine the typical or average score from a data set. This
more confident about the causal relationship.
includes the mean, median and mode.
Ecological validity is the extent to which the findings in one Mean is calculated by adding all the scores in a data set and
situation would generalise to other situations. This is dividing them by the number of scores in the data set.
influenced by whether the situation represents the real Median is the middle score of a data set when it is ranked
world effectively and whether the task is relevant to real in order (ascending order).
life.
Mode is the most frequent score in a data set.
Mundane realism is the extent to which a task represents Measures of spread: a mathematical way to describe the
the real-world situation. variation or spread within a data set. This includes the
Face validity is a measure of validity indicating whether a range and the standard deviation.
measure appears to test what it claims to. The range is between the most significant and negligible
Concurrent validity is when a test correlates well with a values with an addition 1.
measure that has previously been validated. Standard deviation calculates the average difference
Generalizability is defined as how widely the findings of a between each score and the data set's mean.
study apply to other settings and populations. The normal distribution is an even spread of a symmetrical
variable about the mean, median and mode. It forms a bell-
Demand characteristics are features of an experiment that
shaped curve and is symmetrical.
give away the aims. This could cause participants to change
their behaviour and hence reduce the validity of the study. Bar charts are graphs used for data in discrete categories
and total or average scores. There are gaps between the
Objectivity is an unbiased viewpoint that is not affected by columns as the data is not related linearly.
an individual’s feelings, beliefs or experiences, so should be
A histogram is used to illustrate continuous data.
consistent between different researchers. This would
increase the validity of the study. A scatter graph is a way to display data from a correlational
analysis.
Subjectivity is a personal viewpoint which may be biased by
one’s feelings, beliefs or experiences and may differ
between researchers. Since this is not consistent, it may
reduce the validity of the study.

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CAIE AS LEVEL
PSYCHOLOGY (9990)
THEORY

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