A STUDY ON CERTAIN HEAT

TRANSFER PROBLEMS
INVOLVING STRATIFICATION
AND CHEMICAL REACTION

Digbash Sahu
Enrolment No. : Math/06/2021
Registration No. : 17083756 of 2021-2022
Date of Admission : 02/02/2022

Department of Mathematics
Gauhati University

This thesis is submitted to

Gauhati University as requirement for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy

Faculty of Science August 2025

Dedicated to my parents, Satya Prasad Sahu and Saroda Sahu, for their love and
support
 Declaration

I hereby declare that the thesis titled “A Study on Certain Heat Transfer
Problems Involving Stratification and Chemical Reaction” is the result of my
own research work which has been carried out under the guidance of Prof. Rudra
Kanta Deka, Professor, Department of Mathematics, Gauhati University. I further
declare that this thesis as a whole or any part thereof has not been submitted to any
university (or institute) for the award of any degree or diploma.
This thesis contains less than 90,000 (ninety thousand) words excluding bibliography
and captions.

Digbash Sahu
August 2025
 Certificate

This is to certify that the thesis titled “A Study on Certain Heat Transfer
Problems Involving Stratification and Chemical Reaction” is the result of
research work of Digbash Sahu, carried under my supervision, submitted to Gauhati
University for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Mathematics.
This thesis conforms to the standard of PhD Thesis under Gauhati University
including the standard related to plagiarism and has a similarity index not more than
10% (ten percent), excluding the bibliography.

Prof. Rudra Kanta Deka

August 2025
 Acknowledgements

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Rudra Kanta

Deka, for his invaluable guidance, feedback, and support throughout my research. His
extensive knowledge and experience were instrumental in the completion of this thesis.

I am also profoundly grateful to Prof. Hemanta Kumar Sarmah, Head of the

Mathematics Department at Gauhati University, as well as the members of the Research
Advisory Committee, Prof. Bipan Hazarika and Dr. Utpal Jyoti Das, for their
insightful suggestions. I sincerely appreciate the encouragement provided by all the
faculty members of the Mathematics Department of Gauhati University, which played
a significant role in the progress of my research.

I extend my heartfelt thanks to Dr. Rupam Shankar Nath and my fellow research
scholars—Pappu Das, Rakesh Rabha, and Nitul Kalita—for their collaborative ideas
and intellectual contributions, which greatly enriched my work.

My sincere appreciation goes to Uttam Karmakar, Jitumoni Das, Nityaranjan Nath,

and all the residents of the Babu Jagjivan Ram Research Scholar Hostel at Gauhati
University for their unwavering support and camaraderie throughout this journey.

Lastly, I would be remiss in not mentioning my family, especially my parents,

brother and sister-in-law, and uncle. Their belief in me has kept my spirits and
motivation high during this process. I would also like to thank my friend, Dr. Hiya
Saharia for the constant support and companionship throughout this journey.

Digbash Sahu
Gauhati University, Jalukbari
August 2025
 Abstract

This thesis investigates the influence of stratification on viscous, incompressible fluids

under diverse physical and geometrical conditions. Structured into eight chapters,
it begins with an introduction, followed by six chapters focused on the theoretical
analysis of distinct heat and mass transfer problems. Chapters 2 through 5 utilize the
Laplace transform technique for analytical solutions, while Chapters 6 and 7 employ
MATLAB’s Bvp4c solver for numerical analysis. Chapter 8 outlines future research
directions, aiming to expand the scope and applications of the study.

Chapter 1 presents a comprehensive introduction to the core concepts and termi-

nologies essential to this thesis. It lays the foundation for understanding key principles
of fluid dynamics, which are applied throughout the research. The chapter provides an
overview of stratification effects, exploring their potential applications in various fields.
Additionally, it covers the fundamentals of heat and mass transfer, offering insight into
their significance in fluid flow analysis. These concepts serve as the theoretical frame-
work for the subsequent chapters, ensuring a cohesive and well-structured progression
of ideas.

In Chapter 2, we examined the effects of thermal and mass stratification on

magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) flow along a vertically accelerating plate with variable
temperature and exponential mass diffusion in a porous medium. The Laplace transform
technique is utilized to solve the governing equations related to flow, energy, and mass
diffusion. Subsequently, the impact of stratification on the flow field, temperature, and
mass diffusion is examined. The study indicates that thermal and mass stratification
significantly affect the profiles of velocity, temperature, and mass diffusion. Furthermore,
it has been observed that velocity stabilizes as both stratification parameters increase,
while temperature reaches a stable state with heightened thermal stratification, and
concentration stabilizes with increased mass stratification.
xii

In Chapter 3 we studied the effect of unsteady MHD parabolic flow along an

infinite vertical plate, focusing on the effects of thermal and mass stratification in a
porous medium under periodic temperature variations and variable mass diffusion.
Using the Laplace transform technique to derive exact solutions, the research integrates
both stratification effects without approximations. The goal is to assess how these
stratifications influence flow dynamics, temperature, and concentration profiles in
environments with varying magnetic fields and porous media properties. Results
show that thermal and mass stratifications reduce velocity and stabilize temperature
profiles, damping fluid motion while enhancing heat and mass transfer efficiency, as
indicated by higher Nusselt and Sherwood numbers. In comparison, non-stratified
cases exhibit higher velocities and less stable profiles. These findings highlight the
significant role of stratification in optimizing fluid behavior and improving transfer
processes for engineering and environmental applications. The novelty of the research
lies in being the first to apply the Laplace transform to obtain exact solutions for
combined thermal and mass stratification in MHD flows, improving prediction accuracy
and process control.

In Chapter 4, we investigated the impact of thermal stratification on unsteady

MHD flow along an infinite vertical plate in a porous medium, incorporating chemical
reaction, radiation, and heat sources. Using the Laplace transform method, exact
solutions for velocity, temperature, and concentration profiles were derived, offering
a novel approach without approximations. Results show that increased stratification
significantly reduces velocity and temperature profiles, with peak velocity decreasing
by approximately 35% compared to the non-stratified case (γ = 0). Higher radiation
and Darcy number enhances heat transfer, as reflected in an increased Nusselt number.
These findings offer critical insights for optimizing thermal and mass transfer systems
in industrial applications, such as cooling processes, energy optimization, and pollution
control.

In Chapter 5, we examined the impacts of thermal stratification and chemical

reaction on Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) free convective flow along an accelerated
vertical plate with variable temperature and exponential mass diffusion, set within
a porous medium. Analytical solutions are obtained through the Laplace transform
technique to accurately represent the flow’s physical mechanism. The research employs
advanced mathematical models to analyze the intricate interplay between MHD and
convective processes under varying thermal and exponential mass diffusion conditions,
offering insights into fluid dynamics that closely simulate real-world conditions. The
 xiii

study draws a significant conclusion by contrasting the effects of thermal stratification

with a non-stratified environment. It has been noted that when stratification is applied
to the flow, the steady state is achieved more quickly. The study reveals that thermal
stratification reduces fluid velocity and temperature but increases skin friction and
the Nusselt number, diverging from non-stratified conditions. It also shows that
parameters like Gr, Gc, Sc, M, Da, and Kc significantly influence velocity, temperature,
and concentration in fluid dynamics. This research could be driven by a need to enhance
the understanding of fluid flow in various engineering and environmental contexts,
where such conditions are prevalent, including geothermal energy extraction, thermal
management, chemical processing industries, and environmental control technologies.
This novel approach enhances understanding of flow processes in both natural and
engineered porous environments.

In Chapter 6, we explored the impact of thermal stratification on the magne-

tohydrodynamic flow of ethylene glycol and water-based nano, hybrid, and ternary
nanofluids past a vertically stretching cylinder beneath a porous medium. Composed of
silver (Ag), cobalt ferrite (CoF e2 O4 ), and zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles suspended
in a mixture of ethylene glycol (C2 H6 O2 ) and water (H2 O), the ternary nanofluid is
examined. The governing boundary layer equations are transformed into nonlinear
ordinary differential equations using similarity variables and solved using the 3-stage
Lobatto IIIa method via the bvp4c solver in MATLAB. The study assesses the effects of
dimensionless parameters such as Prandtl number, heat source/sink, magnetic, porosity,
curvature, thermal stratification, and thermal buoyancy on velocity and temperature
profiles, skin friction coefficient, and local Nusselt number. Results indicate that
velocity decreases with increases in δ, M , and K, and increases with λ. Temperature
decreases with increases in δ and P r, yet rises with Q. Skin friction is boosted by λ, and
Q, but reduced by δ, M , K, P r, and γ. The local Nusselt number increases with λ, P r,
and γ, but decreases with δ, M , K, and Q. The ternary nanofluid displays enhanced
heat transfer rates and greater absolute skin friction compared to both hybrid and
conventional nanofluids, highlighting the significant influence of thermal stratification
on MHD ternary nanofluid flow.

In Chapter 7, we explored the impact of thermal stratification on the magne-

tohydrodynamic flow of ethylene glycol and water-based nano, hybrid, and ternary
nanofluids past a vertically stretching cylinder within a porous medium. The ternary
nanofluid, composed of silver (Ag), cobalt ferrite (CoF e2 O4 ), and zinc oxide (ZnO)
nanoparticles, demonstrates superior thermal conductivity, heat transfer efficiency, and
xiv

stability compared to conventional and hybrid nanofluids. Governing equations are

transformed into nonlinear ordinary differential equations using similarity variables
and solved numerically via the 3-stage Lobatto IIIa method in MATLAB. The novelty
of this work lies in its focus on the combined influence of stratification, radiation, and
natural convection on the flow characteristics of a ternary nanofluid in a porous medium.
The study reveals enhanced heat transfer rates and higher absolute skin friction for
the ternary nanofluid, showcasing its potential for advanced thermal management
applications. These findings offer valuable insights for optimizing cooling systems,
electronic devices, and other technologies reliant on efficient heat dissipation.

In Chapter 8, future research directions are outlined to advance heat and mass
transfer in stratified fluids under MHD and porous media effects. Key areas include
generalized analytical solutions, non-linear stratification, variable magnetic fields,
heterogeneous porous media, advanced nanofluids, higher-order chemical reaction,
experimental validation, environmental applications, CFD simulations, multi-physics
coupling, optimization strategies, and data-driven modeling. These efforts aim to
deepen understanding and optimize engineering and environmental systems.
 List of Publications

1. Digbash Sahu and Rudra Kanta Deka, “Thermal and Mass Stratification Effects
on MHD Flow Past an Accelerated Vertical Plate with Variable Temperature and
Exponential Mass Diffusion Embedded in a Porous Medium”, East European
Journal of Physics, 2 (2024), 161-171, E-ISSN: 2312-4539, ISSN: 2312-4334,
[Link] (SCOPUS, ESCI)

2. Digbash Sahu and Rudra Kanta Deka, “Dynamic interaction of stratifications in

a MHD parabolic flow with periodic temperature variation and variable mass
diffusion in a porous medium”, International Communications in Heat and
Mass Transfer, (2024), 159, 108203., E-ISSN: 1879-0178, ISSN: 0735-1933,
[Link] (SCIE, SCOPUS).

3. Digbash Sahu, Rudra Kanta Deka, Pappu Das and Rakesh Rabha, “The Com-
prehensive Analysis of Stratification and Chemical Reaction on MHD Flow along
an Impulsively Started Infinite Vertical Plate in Presence of Radiation and Heat
Source Through a Porous Medium”, Heat Transfer, (2025), E-ISSN: 2688-4542,
ISSN: 2688-4534, [Link] (SCOPUS, ESCI).

4. Digbash Sahu and Rudra Kanta Deka, “Influences of Thermal Stratification and
Chemical Reaction on MHD free Convective Flow along an Accelerated Vertical
Plate with Variable Temperature and Exponential Mass Diffusion in a Porous
Medium”, Heat Transfer, 53(7) (2024), 3643-3666, E-ISSN: 2688-4542, ISSN:
2688-4534, [Link] (SCOPUS, ESCI).

5. Digbash Sahu and Rudra Kanta Deka, “Numerical study of MHD Ternary
Hybrid Nanofluid (Ag − CoF e2 O4 − ZnO/C2 H6 O2 + H2 O): Effects of Thermal
Stratification on a Vertically Stretching Cylinder in a Porous Environment”,
Biointerface Research in Applied Chemistry, 14, 6 (2024), ISSN: 2069-5837,
[Link] (SCOPUS)
xvi

6. Digbash Sahu and Rudra Kanta Deka, “MHD Natural Convection of Ternary
Nanofluid in a Porous Medium Incorporating Stratification and Radiation”,
ZAMM - Journal of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics, 105(5), e70036, (2025),
E-ISSN: 1521-4001, ISSN: 0044-2267, [Link] (SCIE,
SCOPUS).
 List of Conferences Presented/Attended

1. “National Conference on Advances in Mathematical Sciences (NCAMS-2022),

Gauhati University” (December 22-23, 2022). Assam, India.

2. “International Conference on Advancements in Mathematics (ICAM-2023), Tha-

par Institute of Engineering and Technology” (September 28-30, 2023), Presented
a paper entitled “Magneto-Hydrodynamic (MHD) flow past an accelerated plate
with variable temperature immersed in a stably stratified fluid” (Punjab, India).

3. “International Conference on Mathematical Modelling Analysis and Computing

(MMAC-2023), Holy Cross Arts and Science College” (October 21-22, 2023),
Presented a paper entitled “Thermal Stratification Effect on MHD Free Convective
Flow Past an Accelerated Vertical Plate Through Porous Medium” (Tamilnadu,
India).

4. “International Conference on Recent Trends in Mathematics, Statistics, and En-

gineering, School of Technology Management and Engineering SVKM’s NMIMS”
(December 22– 23, 2023), Presented a paper entitled “Thermal Stratification Ef-
fect on Hybrid Nanofluid with Viscous Dissipation Past Stretching and Shrinking
Surface” (Madhya Pradesh, India).

5. “2nd International Conference on Evolution in Pure & Applied Mathematics

(ICEPAM-2024), Akal University” (November 20-22, 2024), Presented a paper
entitled “Unsteady MHD Parabolic Flow Along an Infinite Vertical Plate with
Periodic Temperature Variation and Exponential Mass Diffusion Subject to
Thermal and Mass Stratification Effects”. (Punjab, India).

6. “18th International Online Conference MSAST 2024” (December 21-23, 2024),

Presented a paper entitled “Theoretical Investigation of Thermal and Mass
Stratification Effects in Unsteady Flow over an Accelerated Vertical Plate with
Variable Temperature and Exponential Mass Diffusion in a Porous Medium”.
(Kolkata, India).
 Table of contents

List of figures xxiii

List of tables xxix

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Basic Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Classification of Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Compressible and Incompressible fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Ideal and Real fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.3 Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Types of Flows of Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.1 Laminar and Turbulent flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.2 Steady and Unsteady Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.3 Uniform and Non-Uniform Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.4 Rotational and Irrotational Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Basic Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.1 Fluid pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.2 Fluid density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.3 Fluid Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4.4 Thermal Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4.5 Specific Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4.6 Kinematic Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Stratification Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5.1 Thermal Stratification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5.2 Mass Stratification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6 Magnetohydrodynamics(MHD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.7 Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
xx Table of contents

1.8 Heat source/sink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.9 Chemical Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.10 Boundary layer theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.10.1 Velocity boundary layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.10.2 Thermal boundary layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.10.3 Concentration boundary layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.11 Nanofluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.12 Heat Transfer in Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.12.1 Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.12.2 Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.12.3 Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.13 Mass Transfer in Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.13.1 Mass Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.13.2 Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.14 Non-Dimensional Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.14.1 Prandtl Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.14.2 Schmidt Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.14.3 Thermal Grashof Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.14.4 Mass Grashof Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.14.5 Darcy Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.14.6 Magnetic Parameter (Hartmann Number) . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.15 Non-Dimensional Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.15.1 Skin-Friction Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.15.2 Nusselt Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.15.3 Sherwood Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.16 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.16.1 Laplace Transform Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.16.2 Bvp4c Solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.17 Review of the Relevant Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.18 Comparison of Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2 Thermal and Mass Stratification Effects on MHD flow past an Ac-

celerated Vertical Plate with Variable Temperature and Exponential
Mass Diffusion Embedded in a Porous Medium 25
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2 Mathematical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3 Method of Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Table of contents xxi

2.3.1 Classical Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.3.2 Skin-Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.3 Nusselt Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3.4 Sherwood Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3 Dynamic Interaction of Stratifications in a MHD Parabolic Flow with

Periodic Temperature Variation and Variable Mass Diffusion in a
Porous Medium 45
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3 Mathematical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.4 Method of Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.4.1 Classical Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.4.2 Skin-Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.4.3 Nusselt Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.4.4 Sherwood Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.5 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

4 The Comprehensive Analysis of Stratification and Chemical Reaction

on MHD Flow along an Impulsively Started Infinite Vertical Plate in
Presence of Radiation and Heat Source Through Porous Medium 71
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.2 Mathematical Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.3 Solution Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.3.1 Classical Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.3.2 Skin-Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.3.3 Nusselt Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.3.4 Sherwood Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.4 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

5 Influences of Thermal Stratification and Chemical Reaction on MHD

Free Convective Flow Along an Accelerated Vertical Plate with
xxii Table of contents

Variable Temperature and Exponential Mass Diffusion in a Porous

Medium 93
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.2 Mathematical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.3 Method of Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.3.1 Classical Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.3.2 Skin-Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.3.3 Nusselt Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.3.4 Sherwood Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.4 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

6 Numerical study of MHD Ternary Nanofluid (Ag−CoF e2 O4 −ZnO/C2 H6 O2 +

H2 O) Effects of Thermal Stratification on a Vertically Stretching Cylin-
der in a Porous Environment 119
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.2 Mathematical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
6.3 Method of Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6.4 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

7 MHD Natural Convection of Ternary Nanofluid in a Porous Medium

Incorporating Stratification and Radiation 135
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.2 Mathematical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.3 Method of Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
7.4 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

8 Future Work 153

References 159
 List of figures

1.1 Seasonal cycle of thermal stratification with two periods of mixing in

spring and autumn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Porous medium effects in river dams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.1 Physical Model and coordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2.2 Effects of γ and ξ on Velocity Profile for Gr = 5, Gc = 5, M = 2, Da =
0.5, t = 1.5, a = 0.2, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3 Effects of Gr and Gc on Velocity Profile for γ = 0.5, ξ = 0.4, M =
2, Da = 0.5, t = 1.5, a = 0.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.4 Effects of M on Velocity Profile for Gr = 5, Gc = 5, γ = 0.5, ξ =
0.4, Da = 0.5, t = 1.5, a = 0.2, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.5 Effects of Da on Velocity Profile for Gr = 5, Gc = 5, γ = 0.5, ξ =
0.4, M = 2, t = 1.5, a = 0.2, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.6 Effects of γ and ξ on Temperature Profile for Gr = 5, Gc = 5, M =
2, Da = 0.5, t = 1.5, a = 0.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.7 Effects of Gr and Gc on Temperature Profile for γ = 0.5, ξ = 0.4, t =
1.5, M = 2, Da = 0.5, a = 0.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.8 Effects of M on Temperature Profile for Gr = 5, Gc = 5, γ = 0.5, ξ =
0.4, t = 1.5, Da = 0.5, a = 0.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.9 Effects of Da on Temperature Profile for Gr = 5, Gc = 5, γ = 0.5, ξ =
0.4, t = 1.5, M = 2, a = 0.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.10 Effects of γ and ξ on Concentration Profile for Gr = 5, Gc = 5, Da =
0.5, t = 1.5, M = 2, a = 0.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.11 Effects of Gr and Gc on Concentration Profile for γ = 0.5, ξ = 0.4, t =
1.5, M = 2, Da = 0.5, a = 0.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.12 Effects of Da on Concentration Profile for Gr = 5, Gc = 5, γ = 0.5, ξ =
0.4, t = 1.5, M = 2, a = 0.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
xxiv List of figures

2.13 Effects of M on Concentration Profile for Gr = 5, Gc = 5, γ = 0.5, ξ =

0.4, t = 1.5, Da = 0.5, a = 0.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.14 Effects of γ and ξ on Velocity Profile against time for Gr = 5, Gc =
5, M = 2, Da = 0.5, a = 0.2, y = 1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.15 Effects of γ and ξ on Temperature Profile against time for Gr = 5, Gc =
5, M = 2, Da = 0.5, a = 0.2, y = 1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.16 Effects of γ and ξ on Concentration Profile against time for Gr = 5, Gc =
5, M = 2, Da = 0.5, a = 0.2, y = 1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.17 Effects of γ and ξ on Skin friction for Gr = 5, Gc = 5, M = 2, Da =
0.5, a = 0.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.18 Effects of Gr and Gc on Skin friction for γ = 0.5, ξ = 0.4, M = 2, Da =
0.5, a = 0.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.19 Effects of γ and ξ on Nusselt Number for Gr = 5, Gc = 5, M = 2, Da =
0.5, a = 0.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.20 Effects of Gr and Gc on Nusselt Number for γ = 0.5, ξ = 0.4, M =
2, Da = 0.5, a = 0.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.21 Effects of γ and ξ on Sherwood Number for Gr = 5, Gc = 5, M =
2, Da = 0.5, a = 0.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.22 Effects of Gr and Gc on Sherwood Number for γ = 0.5, ξ = 0.4, M =
2, Da = 0.5, a = 0.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3.1 Physical Model and coordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

3.2 Comparison of velocity in absence of γ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.3 Effects of γ and ξ on velocity profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.4 Effects of Gr and Gc on velocity profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.5 Effects of M on velocity profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.6 Effects of Da on velocity profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.7 Effects of γ and ξ on velocity Profile against time . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.8 Effects of γ and ξ on Temperature profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.9 Effects of Gr and Gc on Temperature profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.10 Effects of M on Temperature profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.11 Effects of Da on Temperature profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.12 Effects of γ and ξ on Temperature profile over time . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.13 Effects of γ and ξ on Concentration profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.14 Effects of Gr and Gc on Concentration profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.15 Effects of M on Concentration profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.16 Effects of Da on Concentration profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
List of figures xxv

3.17 Effects of γ and ξ on Concentration profile over time . . . . . . . . . . 67

3.18 Effects of γ and ξ on Skin Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.19 Effects of γ and ξ on Nusselt Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.20 Effects of γ and ξ on Sherwood Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

4.1 Physical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

4.2 Comparison of concentration profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.3 Effects of γ on velocity profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.4 Effects of K on velocity profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.5 Effects of Gr and Gc on velocity profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.6 Effects of M on velocity profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.7 Effects of Da on velocity profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.8 Effects of R on velocity profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.9 Effects of ϕ on velocity profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.10 Effects of Sc on velocity profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.11 Effects of γ on temperature profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.12 Effects of K on temperature profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.13 Effects of γ on Skin Friction profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.14 Effects of γ on nusselt number Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

5.1 Physical Representation and Coordinate Framework . . . . . . . . . . . 97

5.2 Comparison of velocity profile in absence of γ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.3 Comparison of temperature profile in absence of γ. . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.4 Influences of γ on velocity profile for ϕ = 3, t = 1, a = 0.2, Gr = 5, Gc =
5, M = 1, Da = 0.5, Kc = 10, Sc = 0.22 (Elapsed time is 0.778004
seconds.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.5 Influences of Gr and Gc on velocity profile for ϕ = 3, t = 1, a = 0.2, γ =
1, M = 1, Da = 0.5, Kc = 10, Sc = 0.22(Elapsed time is 0.760535 seconds.)106
5.6 Influences of M on velocity profile for ϕ = 3, t = 1, a = 0.2, Gr = 5, Gc =
5, γ = 1, Da = 0.5, Kc = 10, Sc = 0.22 (Elapsed time is 0.960286 seconds.)107
5.7 Influences of Kc on velocity profile for ϕ = 3, t = 1, a = 0.2, Gr =
5, Gc = 5, M = 1, Da = 0.5, Sc = 0.22, γ = 1 (Elapsed time is 0.951089
seconds.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.8 Influences of Sc on velocity profile for ϕ = 3, t = 1, a = 0.2, Gr =
5, Gc = 5, M = 1, Da = 0.5, Kc = 10, γ = 1 (Elapsed time is 0.793939
seconds.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
xxvi List of figures

5.9 Influences of Da on velocity profile for ϕ = 3, t = 1, a = 0.2, Gr =

5, Gc = 5, M = 1, Kc = 10, Sc = 0.22, γ = 1 (Elapsed time is 0.939195
seconds.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.10 Influences of γ on Temperature profile for ϕ = 3, t = 1.4, a = 0.2, Gr =
5, Gc = 5, M = 1, Da = 0.5, Kc = 10, Sc = 0.22 (Elapsed time is
0.831028 seconds.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.11 Influences of ϕ on Temperature profile for t = 1.4, a = 0.2, γ = 1, Gr =
5, Gc = 5, M = 1, Da = 0.5, Kc = 10, Sc = 0.22 (Elapsed time is
0.923230 seconds.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.12 Influences of Gr and Gc on Temperature profile for ϕ = 3, t = 1.4, a =
0.2, γ = 1, M = 1, Da = 0.5, Kc = 10, Sc = 0.22 (Elapsed time is
0.832565 seconds.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.13 Influences of Kc and Sc on Temperature profile for ϕ = 3, t = 1.4, a =
0.2, Gr = 5, Gc = 5, M = 1, Da = 0.5, γ = 1 (Elapsed time is 0.752004
seconds.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.14 Influences of M on Temperature profile for ϕ = 3, t = 1.4, a = 0.2, Gr =
5, Gc = 5, Kc = 10, Sc = 0.22, Da = 0.5, γ = 1 (Elapsed time is 0.960517
seconds.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.15 Influences of Da on temperature profile for ϕ = 3, t = 1.4, a = 0.2, Gr =
5, Gc = 5, M = 1, Kc = 10, Sc = 0.22, γ = 1 (Elapsed time is 0.946695
seconds.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.16 Influences of γ on velocity profile against time for ϕ = 3, y = 1, a =
0.2, Gr = 5, Gc = 5, M = 1, Da = 0.5, Kc = 10, Sc = 0.22 (Elapsed time
is 0.766638 seconds.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.17 Influences of Gr and Gc on velocity profile against time for ϕ = 3, a =
0.2, γ = 1, M = 1, Da = 0.5, Kc = 10, Sc = 0.22 (Elapsed time is
0.930277 seconds.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.18 Influences of γ on Temperature profile against time for ϕ = 3, a =
0.2, Gr = 5, Gc = 5, M = 1, Da = 0.5, Kc = 10, Sc = 0.22 (Elapsed time
is 0.836585 seconds.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.19 Influences of Gr and Gc on Temperature profile against time for ϕ =
3, a = 0.2, γ = 1, M = 1, Da = 0.5, Kc = 10, Sc = 0.22 (Elapsed time is
0.866011 seconds.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.20 Influences of Kc and Sc on Concentration profile for t = 0.7, a = 0.2
(Elapsed time is 0.707158 seconds.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
List of figures xxvii

5.21 Influences of γ on Skin friction for ϕ = 3, a = 0.2, Gr = 5, Gc = 5, M =

1, Da = 0.5, Kc = 10, Sc = 0.22 (Elapsed time is 0.843836 seconds.) . . 115
5.22 Influences of γ on Nusselt number for ϕ = 3, a = 0.2, Gr = 5, Gc =
5, M = 1, Da = 0.5, Kc = 10, Sc = 0.22 (Elapsed time is 0.844541
seconds.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.23 Influences of Kc and Sc on Sherwood number for a = 0.2 (Elapsed time
is 0.727446 seconds.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

6.1 Physical Model and coordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

6.2 Effects of δ on Velocity Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.3 Effects of M on Velocity Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.4 Effects of K on Velocity Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.5 Effects of R on Velocity Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.6 Effects of λ on Velocity Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.7 Effects of δ on Temperature Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.8 Effects of R on Temperature Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.9 Effects of Q on Temperature Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.10 Effects of P r on Temperature Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.11 Effects of ϕ1 on Temperature Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.12 Effects of ϕ2 on Temperature Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.13 Effects of ϕ3 on Temperature Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

7.1 Physical Model and coordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

7.2 Effects of δ on Velocity Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
7.3 Effects of M on Velocity Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
7.4 Effects of K on Velocity Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
7.5 Effects of R on Velocity Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.6 Effects of λ on Velocity Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.7 Effects of δ on Temperature Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
7.8 Effects of R on Temperature Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
7.9 Effects of Q on Temperature Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.10 Effects of P r on Temperature Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.11 Effects of ϕ1 on Temperature Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
7.12 Effects of ϕ2 on Temperature Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
7.13 Effects of ϕ3 on Temperature Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
 List of tables

3.1 The impact of different parameters on Skin Friction, Nusselt number

and Sherwood number coefficients with . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

4.1 Comparison of Sherwood number for K=0.6 and Sc=0.78 . . . . . . . . 82

4.2 The influence of various parameters on the temperature profile . . . . 89
4.3 The influence of various parameters on Skin Friction and the Nusselt
number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.4 The influence of various parameters on Sherwood number . . . . . . . . 92

6.1 Thermal and Physical Properties of Ethylene glycol+ water and nanopar-
ticles (Paul et al. [1, 2]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6.2 Comparable values of −θ′ (0) with δ = γ = M = K = Q = λ = ϕ1 =
ϕ2 = ϕ3 = 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.3 Skin friction Coefficient and Local Nusselt number for different values
of δ, M, K, λ, P r, Q, γ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.4 Comparison of −Cf Re1/2 x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.5 Comparison of Local Nusselt Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

7.1 Thermal and Physical Properties of Ethylene glycol+ water and nanopar-
ticles (Paul et al. [1, 2], and Ghadikolaei et al. [3, 4]) . . . . . . . . . . 141
7.2 Comparable values of −θ′ (0) with δ = γ = M = K = R = Q = λ =
ϕ1 = ϕ2 = ϕ3 = 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.3 Cf Re1/2
x and N ux Re−1/2
x for different values of δ, M, K, λ, P r, R, Q, γ . . 150
7.4 Comparison of −Cf Rex 1/2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.5 Comparison of N ux Rex −1/2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
 Introduction
“Research is seeing what everybody else has seen and thinking what
1
nobody else has thought” -Albert Szent-Györgyi

1.1 Basic Overview

Fluid dynamics, a captivating branch of fluid mechanics, investigates the behavior and
motion of liquids and gases as they flow through space. This discipline is essential for
unraveling natural phenomena and enhancing engineering systems by offering valuable
insights into how fluids respond to forces and interact with their environments.
The field is divided into two primary areas: aerodynamics and hydrodynamics.
Aerodynamics examines the movement of air and other gases, with applications span-
ning from understanding aircraft flight mechanics to analyzing atmospheric patterns
and weather phenomena. Conversely, hydrodynamics focuses on liquid motion, pro-
viding critical understanding of water flow in rivers, ocean currents, and industrial
processes. Both domains address pressing challenges, from advancing transportation
systems to tackling environmental issues like water management and renewable energy
development.
Fluid dynamics finds application across various scientific and engineering fields. In
aviation, it enables precise calculation of forces and moments, ensuring aircraft safety
and efficiency through optimized aerodynamic designs. In the petroleum industry, it
governs oil flow in pipelines, enhancing transport and processing efficiency. Additionally,
it is indispensable in weather prediction, facilitating the study of atmospheric circulation
and air mass behavior.
2 Introduction

Rooted in classical mechanics, fluid dynamics relies on foundational principles. The

conservation of mass ensures fluid mass consistency within a system. The conservation
of linear momentum accounts for the effects of forces on motion. The First Law
of Thermodynamics ensures energy is conserved and accounted for as heat, work,
or internal energy. The continuum assumption treats fluids as continuous entities,
simplifying complex molecular interactions.
Ultimately, fluid dynamics provides a robust framework for solving real-world
problems, such as improving aircraft performance and managing riverine flood risks.
Its synergy between theoretical principles and practical applications underscores its
importance in both natural and engineered systems.

1.2 Classification of Fluids

Fluids are categorized based on their material properties, particularly density and
viscosity.

1.2.1 Compressible and Incompressible fluids

A fluid is considered compressible if its density changes significantly due to variations
in temperature and pressure. This characteristic is commonly observed in gases, which
can easily be compressed under varying conditions. On the other hand, incompressible
fluids, such as liquids, exhibit minimal changes in density even when subjected to
substantial pressure differences, making them resistant to compression. While gases
readily adapt their density to changes in environmental conditions, liquids typically
require extreme pressure to achieve noticeable density variation. Understanding these
distinctions is fundamental in fluid mechanics, as it influences the behavior of fluids in
various natural and industrial applications.

1.2.2 Ideal and Real fluids

An ideal fluid is defined as a theoretical concept of a fluid that is incompressible,
lacks viscosity, and has no surface tension. Such fluids do not exist in the natural
world; however, the assumption of an ideal fluid is often used in fluid dynamics to
simplify mathematical models and analyses. In certain scenarios, fluids with very low
viscosity, such as air and water, may approximate the behavior of ideal fluids, enabling
streamlined calculations and predictions. In contrast, real fluids, which are found
in nature, possess properties such as viscosity, surface tension, compressibility, and
density. These characteristics significantly influence their behavior and interactions,
making the study of real fluids essential for accurately addressing practical problems
in engineering and natural sciences.
1.3 Types of Flows of Fluid 3

1.2.3 Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids

The concept of viscosity was mathematically introduced by Sir Isaac Newton, based
on the assumption that a fluid adheres to the surface it contacts. According to this
principle, the shear stress, denoted as τ , exerted on the fluid is directly proportional to
the velocity gradient, represented as dudy
. This relationship is known as Newton’s Law
of Viscosity and can be expressed mathematically as:
du
τ ∝
dy
du
⇒τ = µ
dy
Here, µ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, which quantifies the fluid’s resistance
to shear deformation. Fluids that adhere to Newton’s Law of Viscosity are classified as
Newtonian fluids. Common examples include water, air, kerosene, and thin lubricating
oil. In contrast, non-Newtonian fluids do not follow Newton’s Law of Viscosity, meaning
the relationship between shear stress and the velocity gradient varies. Examples of
non-Newtonian fluids include ketchup, paint, shampoo, polymer solutions, and printer
ink.

1.3 Types of Flows of Fluid

The classification of fluid flow, based on the fluid’s physical properties, are as follows

1.3.1 Laminar and Turbulent flows

In fluid dynamics, laminar flow refers to a smooth and orderly state of fluid motion
where fluid particles move in parallel layers with minimal mixing or disturbance between
them. This type of flow is characterized by well-defined velocity profiles and highly
predictable movement, making it easier to analyze mathematically. A simple analogy
would be water flowing in distinct layers over one another at varying velocities, with
little to no intermingling between the layers. The motion of fluid particles in laminar
flow follows clear, distinct paths known as streamlines, which illustrate the flow’s
structured behavior. Often referred to as streamline or viscous flow, laminar flow
is typically observed in fluids with high viscosity, where the influence of viscosity
dominates, ensuring minimal disruption in motion.
In contrast, turbulent flow is marked by chaotic and irregular fluid movement.
Unlike laminar flow, turbulent flow lacks clear layers and is characterized by erratic
and non-uniform particle trajectories. This type of flow exhibits a high degree of
mixing and unpredictability, with no consistent frequency, as seen in wave motion.
Common examples of turbulent flow include the rapid descent of water in a waterfall,
air turbulence during storms, and smoke rising from a fire. Turbulent flow is dynamic
and less predictable than laminar flow, often resulting in increased energy dissipation
4 Introduction

and mixing within the fluid. Understanding these two types of flow is crucial in
fluid dynamics, as they play a significant role in applications ranging from industrial
processes to environmental studies.

1.3.2 Steady and Unsteady Flows

A steady flow is defined as a flow state in which parameters such as velocity, pressure,
and cross-sectional area may vary from one point to another but remain constant over
time at any specific point. In such flows, the conditions at a given location do not
change as time progresses. While perfectly steady flows, where these parameters remain
entirely unchanged, are rare in real-world situations, many flows are considered steady
because their variations fall within a narrow range. This consistency allows for an
average value of a parameter, such as velocity or pressure, to remain predictable over a
specified period. A common example is the flow of water through a pipeline, where
velocity and pressure typically maintain a steady pattern despite minor deviations,
ensuring reliable performance.
On the other hand, unsteady flow is characterized by time-dependent changes
in the fluid’s properties at any given point. In unsteady flows, parameters such as
velocity and pressure fluctuate significantly over time, making the flow more complex
and less predictable. However, if these variations are minimal and the average values
remain stable, the flow might still be classified as steady. When these average values
undergo substantial changes, the flow becomes distinctly unsteady. Examples include
the sudden rise in water volume in a river during heavy rainfall or the turbulent airflow
experienced by an aircraft during takeoff and landing. Understanding steady and
unsteady flows is critical for addressing real-world fluid dynamics challenges across
engineering and natural systems.

1.3.3 Uniform and Non-Uniform Flows

Uniform flow occurs when the velocity of a fluid remains constant in both magnitude
and direction at all points along its flow path at any given moment. In this type of flow,
fluid particles move in parallel, following straight-line trajectories without deviations.
Uniform flow is characterized by a steady and predictable motion, making it ideal for
analysis in fluid mechanics. An example of uniform flow can be observed when a fluid
travels through a pipeline with a constant diameter, maintaining a uniform velocity
and consistent flow rate throughout its length.
In contrast, non-uniform flow is marked by variations in velocity and other flow
characteristics, such as pressure, across different points along the flow path at a specific
moment. Unlike uniform flow, the motion of fluid particles in non-uniform flow is
more complex, often following curved trajectories with changing speeds. This type of
flow commonly occurs in scenarios where the geometry of the flow path changes, such
as in pipelines with varying diameters or in natural settings like rivers with uneven
beds. For instance, when fluid passes through a pipeline with sections of differing
diameters, the velocity and pressure vary along the path, resulting in non-uniform flow.
1.4 Basic Definitions 5

Understanding these flow types is critical for designing and analyzing systems in fluid
dynamics and engineering applications.

1.3.4 Rotational and Irrotational Flows

Rotational flow refers to the motion of fluid particles characterized by the presence
of vortices or whirling patterns. In this type of flow, the particles exhibit rotational
movement about their own axes as they travel along the flow path, creating complex and
dynamic flow patterns. These vortices can lead to turbulence, energy dissipation, and
fluctuating velocities within the fluid. Rotational flow is commonly observed in natural
and industrial scenarios, with examples including whirlpools in water bodies, tornadoes
in the atmosphere, or swirling motion in stirred liquids. The intricate behavior of
rotational flow often poses challenges in analysis but is crucial in understanding fluid
behavior in turbulent conditions.
In contrast, irrotational flow is characterized by the absence of rotation in the
motion of fluid particles. The particles move smoothly and predictably, maintaining
their orientation throughout the flow path. Irrotational flow exhibits regular patterns,
often simplifying analysis in fluid dynamics. Examples of irrotational flow include the
movement of water in a calm stream or the steady flow of a serene river. Such flows are
typically associated with low-energy systems where external forces and disturbances
are minimal. Understanding the distinction between rotational and irrotational flow
is essential in fluid mechanics, as it provides insights into phenomena ranging from
natural events to engineered systems.

1.4 Basic Definitions

1.4.1 Fluid pressure
The force per unit area that a fluid (liquid or gas) exerts at a specific point is referred
to as fluid pressure. It is caused by the weight of the fluid over that point. The pressure
p exerted at a particular point can be mathematically represented as
δF
p = lim
δS→0 δS

where, δS is an elementary area surrounding the given point and δF is the normal force
exerted by the fluid on δS. The S.I. unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa) or Newton/m2 .

1.4.2 Fluid density

The mass per unit volume is the definition of density for a fluid. Mathematically, the
density ρ at a point can defined as
δm
ρ = lim
δv→0 δv
6 Introduction

where, δv represents the volume element around a point and δm is the fluid mass
within δv. The S.I. unit of density is Kg/m3 .

1.4.3 Fluid Temperature

The degree of hotness or coldness of a fluid is defined as the fluid temperature. The
S.I. unit of temperature is Kelvin (K).

1.4.4 Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity is the proportional constant of the heat flux q, where both are
directly proportional to the rate at which temperature decreases per unit distance in
the direction normal to the area through which heat flows. Mathematically,
∂T
q ∝ −
∂n
∂T
⇒ q = −k
∂n
where, k is the thermal conductivity. The S.I. unit of thermal conductivity is W/mK

1.4.5 Specific Heat

The amount of heat required to increase the temperature of a unit mass of the fluid by
one degree is denoted as its specific heat C. Mathematically, it is written as C = ∂Q ∂T
where, ∂Q is the amount of heat added to increase the temperature
h i by ∂T . h Thei
specific heat capacity at constant volume and pressure are Cv = ∂Q∂T
and C p = ∂Q
∂T
v p
respectively. The S.I. unit of specific heat is Jkg −1 K −1

1.4.6 Kinematic Viscosity

Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity (also known as absolute
viscosity) to the fluid’s density. It measures the intrinsic resistance of a fluid to flow in
the absence of any external forces. Mathematically, it is denoted as ν = µρ . The S.I.
unit of kinematic viscosity is m2 /s

1.5 Stratification Effect

In fluid dynamics, stratification refers to the variation in fluid density as a function of
vertical distance. This phenomenon occurs due to differences in temperature, salinity,
or composition and is frequently observed in natural systems such as the Earth’s
atmosphere, oceans, and lakes. A stratified fluid is characterized by distinct vertical
density layers, where denser fluid resides below lighter fluid. This layering is a common
feature in air and water systems, making it a key concept in understanding fluid
1.5 Stratification Effect 7

behavior. Density stratification significantly influences fluid motion and the deposition
of sediments. For instance, the flow and settling behavior of particles, droplets, bubbles,
and even microscopic organisms are governed by the density gradients present in
the fluid. This phenomenon is critical in numerous fields. Meteorologists rely on an
understanding of stratified flows to predict weather patterns and analyze atmospheric
phenomena, such as the formation of clouds, storms, and temperature inversions.
Similarly, engineers consider density stratification when designing and constructing
structures like dams and coastal defenses to ensure stability and performance under
varying conditions. Stratification has far-reaching implications for environmental,
ecological, and geophysical phenomena. A prime example of natural stratification is
illustrated in Fig. 1.1. In natural water bodies, thermal stratification occurs during the
summer, with warmer, less dense water forming a distinct layer above cooler, denser
water. Conversely, during winter, inverse stratification arises when surface cooling
results in a denser upper layer. These seasonal patterns profoundly affect aquatic
ecosystems and sediment transport dynamics. Consequently, the study of stratification
in fluid dynamics is essential for understanding its pivotal role in influencing natural
processes and the design of human-engineered environments.

Fig. 1.1 Seasonal cycle of thermal stratification with two periods of

mixing in spring and autumn
8 Introduction

1.5.1 Thermal Stratification

Thermal stratification is a phenomenon that arises when different layers of water
inside a given body of water exhibit different temperatures. In the context of lakes,
thermal stratification pertains to the variation in temperature over distinct depths.
It arises as a result of fluctuations in water density in relation to temperature. The
comprehension of thermal stratification plays a crucial role in the management of lake
ecosystems and the detection of algal blooms. The phenomenon has implications for
heat exchange, carbon cycling, and the amounts of dissolved oxygen. When developing
water management systems, engineers take into account the concept of stratification.
Shapiro and Fedorovich [5] defined the dimensional thermal stratification parameter as
′
dT∞
γ′ = (Boussinesq flow of liquid or gases)
dx′
′
dT∞ g
and γ =′
′
+ (for perfect fluid when pressure work is retained)
dx Cp
where temperature T∞ ′
is the function of height x′ . The environment is statically stable
if γ ′ > 0, neutral if γ ′ = 0 and unstable if γ ′ < 0. We denote the non-dimensional form
of the stratification parameter as γ and express it as:

γ ′ν
γ=
u0 (Tw′ − T∞
′ )

1.5.2 Mass Stratification

Mass stratification is a natural phenomenon characterised by the layering or division
of a substance according to its mass or density. Mass stratification in oceanography
and hydrodynamics arises from the disparities in water density as a function of depth.
It results in the creation of separate layers inside a body of water. The phenomenon
of mass stratification has an impact on the process of heat exchange, distribution of
nutrients, and the vertical mixing of water. Ocean currents, marine habitats, and
climate dynamics are influenced by it. The dimensional mass stratification parameter,
similar to thermal stratification, is defined by Shapiro and Fedorovich [5] as
′
dC∞
ξ′ = (Boussinesq flow of liquid or gases)
dx′
where concentration C∞′
is the function of height x′ .
We denote the non-dimensional form of the stratification parameter as ξ and express
it as:
ξ′ν
ξ=
u0 (Cw′ − C∞
′ )
1.6 Magnetohydrodynamics(MHD) 9

1.6 Magnetohydrodynamics(MHD)
Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) is the study of electrically conducting fluid motion
in the presence of a magnetic field, encompassing examples like plasma, electrolytes,
liquid metals, and salt water. This concept highlights the ability of magnetic fields
to induce electric currents within moving fluids, which in turn generate forces that
oppose the fluid’s motion and modify the magnetic field. Pioneered by Hannes Alfvén,
who received the Nobel Prize in 1970 for his contributions, MHD has gained significant
attention for its wide range of applications across scientific disciplines. The field is
grounded in two fundamental principles:
(i) electric currents produce an induced magnetic field that alters the original
magnetic field. (ii) an electromagnetic force arises from the interaction between the
current and the magnetic field perturbs the fluid’s motion.
MHD fluid flow studies are invaluable in various domains, including engineering,
mechanics, and applied sciences such as astrophysics and geophysics.

1.7 Porous Medium

A porous medium refers to a material that contains empty spaces or pores within its
structure. These pores can accommodate either a liquid or a gas, depending on the
surrounding conditions. The solid portion of the material, which provides structural
support, is commonly referred to as the matrix or frame. Porous media are found
abundantly in both natural and artificial environments. Examples include rocks, soil,
and biological tissues such as bones and wood in nature, as well as man-made materials
like cements, ceramics, and sponges. These materials play a critical role in numerous
scientific and engineering fields, including filtration, geosciences, material science,
and mechanics. They are particularly vital in applications such as energy storage,
energy conversion, and water filtration, where their unique structure is leveraged for
functionality. For instance, the intricate network of pores in sponges aids in liquid
absorption, while the movement of water through underground aquifers demonstrates
the significance of porous media in hydrology.
The porosity of a medium is a measure of its pore space and is calculated as the
ratio of the volume of void space to the total volume of the medium. For isotropic
media, the porosity can also be expressed as surface porosity, which is determined by
dividing the total void area of a cross-section by the area of that cross-section. In cases
where not all void spaces are interconnected, a parameter known as effective porosity is
used. Effective porosity represents the proportion of the volume of interconnected voids
to the total volume of the medium, making it a crucial parameter in studying fluid
flow through porous materials. Non-uniform grain sizes within a medium often lead to
a reduction in porosity. Porosity values range from 0 to 1, with naturally occurring
porous media typically exhibiting porosity limits around 0.6. However, some materials,
such as metallic foams, have exceptionally high porosity, often nearing 1. These highly
porous materials are valuable in advanced applications, including lightweight structures
10 Introduction

Fig. 1.2 Porous medium effects in

river dams

and heat exchange systems. The study of porous media is essential for understanding
and optimizing their role in various natural and engineered processes.
In Fig 1.2 porous media play a critical role in dam functionality and safety by
controlling seepage through the foundation and surrounding areas, using materials
like sand or gravel to filter and channel water safely. They are integral to drainage
systems and embankment dams, where porous layers reduce pressure and prevent
erosion. Additionally, they influence water infiltration and groundwater recharge in the
reservoir and floodplain, helping manage water resources effectively. Engineers analyze
the permeability of porous materials to ensure structural stability and prevent issues
like waterlogging or failure.

1.8 Heat source/sink

The concepts of heat source and heat sink are fundamental in fluid dynamics, playing
a crucial role in understanding heat transfer and energy exchange within fluid systems.
1.9 Chemical Reaction 11

A heat source is a specific region or component within a system that generates or

introduces thermal energy, releasing heat into the surrounding fluid. Common examples
include combustion chambers, electrical devices such as resistors, transistors, and
integrated circuits, as well as solar radiation and chemical reaction.
Conversely, a heat sink is a region or element that absorbs or dissipates thermal
energy from its surroundings, maintaining a relatively stable temperature by acting as
a thermal reservoir. Examples of heat sinks include insulators, heat exchangers, ocean
currents, and cooling fins, which help regulate heat dissipation in various applications.
Understanding the dynamic interaction between heat sources and heat sinks is
essential for designing efficient thermal systems, optimizing energy consumption, and
ensuring effective temperature control across a wide range of engineering and environ-
mental applications.

1.9 Chemical Reaction

A chemical reaction refers to the transformation of one set of chemical compounds into
another. The classification of a reaction as spontaneous or non-spontaneous depends
on whether it proceeds independently or requires an external energy source such as
heat, light, or electricity. In a chemical reaction, substances undergo transformation
through electron exchange, leading to the breaking and formation of chemical bonds,
during which energy is either absorbed or released.
Based on the physical state of the reacting components, chemical reaction are broadly
categorized as homogeneous or heterogeneous. A homogeneous reaction occurs within a
single phase—gas, liquid, or solid—where the reactants are uniformly distributed. The
nature of the interactions between the substances determines the reaction’s occurrence.
Examples include gaseous reactions, such as the combustion of LPG with oxygen,
producing a flame upon heating. Similarly, liquid-phase reactions, such as acid-base
neutralization in aqueous solutions, exemplify homogeneous chemical processes.
In contrast, a heterogeneous reaction involves reactants in multiple phases, such
as gas-solid, liquid-gas, or liquid-solid interactions. These reactions commonly occur
in processes like electrochemical reaction in batteries, electrolysis in electrolytic cells,
and metal-acid reactions that produce gas bubbles. Understanding the differences
between homogeneous and heterogeneous reactions is essential in fields such as industrial
chemistry, energy storage, and material science.

1.10 Boundary layer theory

A comprehensive solution to the Navier-Stokes equations has yet to be achieved,
particularly in cases where viscous and inertia forces are of comparable magnitude
throughout the entire flow region, making it impossible to neglect either component.
However, for certain flow problems, exact solutions can be derived by simplifying the
equations through linearization and assuming an incompressible fluid with a relatively
12 Introduction

simple flow geometry. In cases involving low Reynolds number—where viscosity

dominates—the inertia forces can be entirely disregarded, allowing for an approximate
solution to the Navier-Stokes equations.
In 1904, Ludwig Prandtl introduced the boundary layer theory for fluid flow at high
Reynolds numbers (low viscosity). His work demonstrated the profound influence of
viscosity in such flows by effectively simplifying the Navier-Stokes equations, enabling
the derivation of approximate solutions that overcome the constraints of ideal (inviscid)
fluid theory.
Fluid dynamics recognizes three primary types of boundary layers:
• Velocity boundary layer, which governs the variation of velocity near a solid
surface.
• Thermal boundary layer, which describes temperature gradients in a fluid due to
heat transfer.
• Concentration boundary layer, which represents variations in species concentra-
tion within a fluid.
Prandtl’s contributions laid the foundation for modern aerodynamics and hydrody-
namics, significantly advancing the study of viscous fluid flow.

1.10.1 Velocity boundary layer

The velocity boundary layer is a thin region of fluid flow that develops near a surface
when a fluid moves over it. When flowing past a stationary surface—such as a flat
plate, riverbed, or pipe wall—the shear stress at the wall forces the adjacent fluid to
come to rest due to the no-slip condition. Within this boundary layer, the velocity
transitions from zero at the wall to the free-stream velocity of the flow. This region
exhibits a distinct velocity gradient near the surface, primarily governed by viscous
effects, which contribute to skin friction drag and other associated phenomena. As the
distance from the wall increases, the velocity progressively rises until it reaches the
maximum free-stream velocity. Understanding velocity boundary layers is crucial in
aerodynamics, hydrodynamics, and engineering applications involving fluid-structure
interactions.

1.10.2 Thermal boundary layer

The thermal boundary layer refers to the region in a fluid flow over a surface where
temperature gradients develop due to differences between the surface temperature and
the bulk temperature of the fluid. Its thickness is typically defined as the maximum
distance from the surface where the temperature reaches 99% of the value predicted in
an inviscid solution. The Prandtl number (Pr) plays a crucial role in characterizing the
relationship between the velocity and thermal boundary layer thicknesses by comparing
momentum diffusivity to thermal diffusivity. This relationship is essential in heat
transfer analysis, influencing convection processes.
1.11 Nanofluid 13

1.10.3 Concentration boundary layer

The concentration boundary layer is the region between a surface and the free stream
where a significant concentration gradient exists within the fluid. Assuming Cw repre-
sents the species concentration at the surface and C∞ denotes the species concentration
in the free stream, a concentration boundary layer forms due to chemical species
diffusion when Cw > C∞ . This diffusion process results from the mass transfer of
species from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration, playing
a critical role in various phenomena such as mass transport, chemical reaction, and
pollutant dispersion in fluid systems.

1.11 Nanofluid
A nanofluid is a suspension of nanoparticles that demonstrates significant potential
as a heat transfer fluid, primarily due to its exceptional thermal conductivity and
superior rheological properties, making it highly effective across various applications.
The term "nanofluid" was first introduced by Stephen U. S. Choi in his pioneering work
presented at the Winter Annual Conference of the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME) in 1995 [6]. Nanofluids have been explored for numerous applications,
including heat exchangers, transportation cooling, refrigeration, electronic equipment
cooling, transformer oil, industrial cooling, nuclear systems, machining operations,
solar energy utilization, desalination, and defense technologies. Their enhanced heat
transfer characteristics and stability make them a promising solution for improving
thermal performance in both industrial and scientific domains.

1.12 Heat Transfer in Fluid

Heat transfer refers to the process by which thermal energy is transferred from a hot
body to a cold body due to a temperature gradient. This phenomenon is fundamental
to various engineering and industrial applications, including heat exchangers, refriger-
ators, boilers, heaters, radiators, and nuclear reactors. Understanding heat transfer
mechanisms is crucial for optimizing energy efficiency in these systems. The three
primary modes of heat transfer are conduction, convection, and radiation, each playing
a distinct role in different thermal environments.

1.12.1 Conduction
Conduction is the process by which heat is transferred from the hot end to the cool
end of a body through the movement of particles, without any physical displacement
of the particles. It takes place in solid.
14 Introduction

1.12.2 Convection
It is that mode of transmission of heat in which heat flows from the hot region to the
cold region of the medium from particle to particle due to the actual displacement of
the particles of the medium. The phenomenon occurs within a fluid medium. It can
be categorized as follows:

Forced Convection
Forced convection is an interesting process of heat transmission in which there is
an external force, such as a fan, pump, or suction device, that causes fluid motion.
In everyday life and numerous engineering scenarios, forced convection is frequently
encountered. Examples of such scenarios are central heating, air conditioning, steam
turbines, heat exchangers, pipe flow, and flow over a plate.

Natural Convection
Natural convection, sometimes called free convection, is an important process of heat
and mass transport that happens in fluids (gases, liquids, etc.) as a result of density
variations caused by temperature gradients. Natural convection occurs naturally, unlike
forced convection which depends on external sources such as pumps or fans. This
type of convection is commonly observed in various everyday situations, including the
upward movement of hot air near a radiator or heater, the circulation of air within a
room resulting from temperature differences, and the upward flow of heated water in a
pot.

Mixed Convection
In fluid dynamics, mixed convection, also called combined convection, is an interesting
process where heat movement is affected by both forced convection and natural
convection at the same time. It can be observed in many different engineering equipment,
particularly when heating or cooling channel walls at low fluid velocities.

1.12.3 Radiation
Radiation is a mode of heat transfer in which thermal energy moves from a hot body to
a cold body without requiring an intervening medium. A classic example is the transfer
of heat from the Sun to the Earth, where energy travels through the vacuum of space
as electromagnetic waves. Thermal radiation occurs when a body’s thermal energy
is converted into electromagnetic energy, exhibiting wave-particle duality, meaning it
possesses both wave-like and particle-like characteristics. The significance of radiative
heat transfer increases at higher temperatures, often surpassing the effects of conduction
and convection in extreme thermal environments. This phenomenon is essential in
numerous combustion applications, including fires, furnaces, engines, and rocket nozzles.
Additionally, thermal radiation plays a critical role in nuclear reactions, such as those
1.13 Mass Transfer in Fluids 15

in the Sun, fusion reactors, and nuclear weapons, where immense energy release occurs
through radiative processes.

1.13 Mass Transfer in Fluids

Mass transfer is the phenomenon in which a chemical species moves from a high
concentration region to a low concentration region, driven by variations in chemical
potential within a system. It plays a crucial role in numerous chemical engineering
processes, including heat transfer, separation techniques, and reaction engineering.
Mass transfer occurs in various real-world scenarios, such as distillation of alcohol,
blood purification in the kidneys and liver, and the separation of chemical components
in industrial operations. This process is broadly classified into two distinct types, each
governing the movement of species under different conditions and mechanisms:

1.13.1 Mass Diffusion

Mass diffusion is one of the most important ideas in fluid dynamics. It means that
molecules or particles move from areas with higher concentrations to areas with lower
concentrations within a fluid or across the boundaries of different materials.

1.13.2 Convection
Mass transfer through convection occurs as a result of the overall motion of fluid.
The subject matter pertains to the exchange of mass between two fluids that are
substantially immersible in motion, or between a fluid in motion and a surface. The
process of alcohol evaporation involves the transfer of mass through free convection.
The process by which water vapour evaporates from an ocean or big reservoir as a result
of airflow over it can be described as a mass transfer facilitated by forced convection.
The compelled movement of the fluid mass results in the transfer of mass through
forced convection. Convective mass transfer and convective heat transfer work in very
similar ways.

1.14 Non-Dimensional Quantities

1.14.1 Prandtl Number
The Prandtl number, named after Ludwig Prandtl, a renowned German scientist,
is a dimensionless parameter that describes the dynamics of heat transfer and fluid
movement in various materials. In fluid dynamics, it defines the ratio of momentum
diffusivity to thermal diffusivity. The mathematical expression representing the Prandtl
number is as follows:
ν µCp
Pr = =
α k
16 Introduction

where, α, ν, µ, k and Cp are the thermal diffusivity, momentum diffusivity or kinematic

viscosity, dynamic viscosity, thermal conductivity and specific heat at constant pressure
respectively. The value of P r = 0.7 is associated with air, while P r = 7.0 is associated
with water at conditions of 20◦ C and one atmospheric pressure.

1.14.2 Schmidt Number

In fluid dynamics, the Schmidt number (Sc) is a dimensionless quantity that describes
fluid flows in which both momentum and mass diffusion convection processes take place
simultaneously. It is named after Ernst Heinrich Wilhelm Schmidt, a German engineer.
It is the ratio of momentum diffusivity (kinematic viscosity) to mass diffusivity that
defines the Schmidt number. Mathematically,
ν
Sc =
D

1.14.3 Thermal Grashof Number

The thermal grashof number, commonly represented as Gr, is a dimensionless quantity
used in the fields of fluid dynamics and heat transfer. The term refers to the ratio of
the thermal buoyancy force and the viscous force exerted on a fluid. Mathematically,
it is defined as
gβL3 (Tw − T∞ )
Gr =
ν2
where, g, β, ν, L, Tw , T∞ are the acceleration due to gravity, volumetric coefficient
of thermal expansion, kinematic viscosity, characteristic length, wall temperature and
temperature far away from the wall respectively.
The boundary layer is turbulent when the Grashof number is high and laminar
when the Grashof number is low.

1.14.4 Mass Grashof Number

The mass grashof number (Gm) refers to the ratio of mass buoyant force to viscous
force in fluids. In free convection mass transfer, Gm works the same way that Gr does
for free convection heat transfer. Mathematically, Gm can be defined as

gβ ∗ L3 (Cw − C∞ )
Gm =
ν2
where, g, β ∗ , ν, L, Cw , C∞ is the acceleration due to gravity, volumetric coefficient
of species concentration, kinematic viscosity, characteristic length, concentration at
wall and far away from the wall respectively.
1.15 Non-Dimensional Coefficient 17

1.14.5 Darcy Number

The Darcy number(Da) is a dimensionless number that was named after Henry Darcy,
a renowned French engineer who is also credited with establishing the widely recognised
Darcy law. The concept is utilised in the study of fluid dynamics inside porous media,
whereby it is defined as the product of fluid velocity and flow path, divided by the
permeability of the medium. Mathematically,

K ∗ u20
Da =
ν2
where, K ∗ is the permeability of the medium.

1.14.6 Magnetic Parameter (Hartmann Number)

The Hartmann number is defined as the ratio of the magnetic viscosity and the ordinary
viscosity. The name of this phenomenon is attributed to Franz Hartmann, a German
physicist who conducted the initial theoretical and practical investigations on the flow
of an incompressible fluid across parallel surfaces. This was achieved by applying a
transverse magnetic field. Mathematically, it is defined as

νσB02
M=
ρ∞ u20
The Hartmann number provides a quantitative assessment of the relative significance
of drag forces arising from magnetic induction and viscous forces in Hartmann flow,
hence establishing the velocity profile associated with this particular flow.

1.15 Non-Dimensional Coefficient

1.15.1 Skin-Friction Coefficient
The dimensionless shear stress at the surface exposed to the flow stream is known as
the skin friction coefficient. It is the ratio of the raw shear stress to the free stream’s
dynamic pressure. The skin friction coefficient can be expressed mathematically as
follows:
2τw
Cf = 2
ρ∞ U∞
where, τw , ρ∞ and U∞ are the shear stress on surface, fluid density of free stream and
free stream velocity respectively.

1.15.2 Nusselt Number

The Nusselt number, named after the German engineer Wilhelm Nusselt, is a dimen-
sionless parameter that determines the increase in heat transfer across a fluid layer
18 Introduction

resulting from convection in comparison to conduction. A fluid layer with a value

of N u = 1 indicates heat transmission through pure conduction, while a value of
N u >> 1 indicates more efficient convection. The Nusselt number is commonly used
by engineers for the purpose of inspecting heat transfer in diverse systems, including
cooling systems, heat exchangers, and boundary layers.

1.15.3 Sherwood Number

The dimensionless number known as the Sherwood number (Sh) is employed in mass-
transfer processes. The term refers to the proportion of the overall rate at which mass is
transferred (including convection and diffusion) to the rate at which mass is transported
through diffusion. In the context of heat transmission, the Sherwood number can be
considered equivalent to the Nusselt number, as it quantifies the efficiency of mass
convection occurring at the surface.

1.16 Methodology
1.16.1 Laplace Transform Method
The Laplace transform was named after the French mathematician Pierre Simon De
Laplace (1749-1827). The process involves transforming a function representing a
real variable, typically in the time domain, into a function representing a complex
variable, typically in the complex-valued frequency domain, also referred to as the
s-domain or s-plane. The application of the Laplace transform facilitates the resolution
of differential equations by converting them into algebraic mathematical problems. It
has an important effect on the field of control system engineering and the study of
dynamic control systems.
Given, a function F (t) of t for t > 0. Then, the Laplace transformation of F (t),
denoted by L{F (t)} or f (s) is defined as follows
ˆ ∞
L{F (t)} = f (s) = e−st F (t) dt
0

The inverse Laplace transformation of f (s) is defined as

L−1 {f (s)} = F (t)

Here, L and L−1 are Laplace transform operator and inverse Laplace transform operator,
respectively.

1.16.2 Bvp4c Solver

The bvp4c function in MATLAB is an efficient tool that allows the solution of boundary
value problems (BVPs) pertaining to ordinary differential equations. The abbreviation
1.17 Review of the Relevant Literature 19

bvp4c represents “boundary value problem solver using the fourth-order method.” This
method is used to solve systems of differential equations of the form y ′ = f (x, y).
The solver incorporates the boundary conditions as specified by a function (bcfun)
and generates an initial solution estimate (solinit). The integration settings can be
customised by utilising an options argument that is generated through the bvpset
function. The bvp4c algorithm utilises a finite difference technique that depends on
the three-stage Lobatto IIIa formula. The collocation formula presented above yields a
C 1 continuous solution that exhibits uniform fourth-order accuracy within the interval
[a, b].

1.17 Review of the Relevant Literature

In recent years, convective heat transfer problems involving vertical plates and cylindri-
cal bodies have garnered significant research interest due to their extensive applications
in science and technology. Simultaneously, nanofluids have attracted considerable
attention across various fields, owing to their remarkable thermal properties and versa-
tility in heat transfer systems. Researchers have extensively studied heat and mass
transfer phenomena in fluid dynamics, examining both nanofluids and conventional
fluids flowing over vertical and cylindrical structures. These studies have employed
both analytical and numerical approaches to explore different aspects of heat transfer.
Several investigations, particularly those relevant to this thesis, are briefly discussed in
this section.

The study of transient and steady-state free convection flows over vertical surfaces
has remained a key area of research due to its significance in fluid dynamics and heat
transfer applications. Early studies laid the foundation for understanding thermal and
buoyancy-driven flows under different conditions. Siegel [7] provided an analytical
solution for transient free convection from a vertical flat plate, establishing fundamental
principles governing thermal boundary layers. Later, Menold and Yang [8] developed
asymptotic solutions for unsteady laminar free convection over vertical plates, refining
insights into transient boundary layer behavior, while Schetz and Eichhorn [9] examined
unsteady natural convection near an infinitely long vertical plate, offering valuable
findings on large-scale heat transfer. Hossain and Takhar [10] investigated thermal
radiation effects on mixed convection along a vertical plate with uniform surface
temperature, highlighting its role in high-temperature applications. Das et al. [11]
analyzed transient free convection flow past an infinite vertical plate with periodic
temperature variations, emphasizing the influence of thermal oscillations, while Hossain
et al. [12] extended this to porous vertical plates, further elucidating thermal energy
exchange in porous media. Park and Hyun [13] examined the transient behavior
of buoyancy layers in stratified fluids, which Park [14] later expanded to buoyant
flows in vertical channels. Das et al. [15] formulated an analytical solution for
chemically affected fluid flow past an infinite vertical plate, providing a basis for
chemically reactive flow studies. Subsequent studies by Shapiro and Fedorovich [5],
20 Introduction

Magyari et al. [16], and Bhattacharya and Deka [17] explored unsteady flows in
stably stratified fluids over infinite plates, enhancing the understanding of stratification
effects. Rajesh and coworkers [18, 19] and Ramakrishna et al. [20] investigated fluid
motion over exponentially accelerated vertical plates, analyzing different influencing
factors. Research on Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) parabolic flow was conducted by
Muthucumaraswamy and Sivakumar [21] and Selvaraj et al. [22], focusing on infinite
and accelerating vertical plates under varying conditions. Vemula et al. [23] performed
an analytical study on MHD nanofluids flowing past an exponentially accelerating
vertical plate with variable temperature, while Jeevandhar et al. [24] extended this
analysis to MHD boundary layer nanofluid flow, incorporating the effects of thermal
radiation.

The study of heat transfer through vertical cylinders was first explored by Sparrow
and Gregg [25], laying the foundation for further investigations into convective heat
transfer in cylindrical geometries. Later, Yang [26] examined the potential similarity
solution for laminar free convection on vertical cylinders, providing deeper insights
into the governing equations. Goldstein and Briggs [27] extended this research by
analyzing transient free convective flow past a vertical flat plate and circular cylinder
using the Laplace transform technique, offering a mathematical framework for unsteady
flow problems. Subsequent numerical studies on unsteady natural convection past
a semi-infinite vertical cylinder, incorporating heat and mass transfer under various
physical conditions, were conducted by Ganesan and Loganathan [28–30] and Takhar
et al. [31]. Further, Rani [32] carried out a numerical investigation on transient
natural convection along a vertical cylinder, considering the effects of variable surface
temperature and mass diffusion. The impact of thermal and mass stratification on
infinite vertical cylinders was later examined by Deka and Paul [33] and Paul and Deka
[34], providing crucial insights into stratification effects in convective heat transfer.

The study of stratification effects in fluid mechanics and heat transfer is crucial due
to the prevalence of stratified fluids in both environmental and engineering applications.
Early experimental studies by Hyun [35] and Lin and Armfield [36] demonstrated that
self-stratification can arise from initially unstratified convective motion, highlighting
the complex nature of stratified flows. Further investigations by Kandasamy et al. [37]
and Mansour et al. [38] analyzed the combined effects of chemical reaction and thermal
stratification on MHD flow over vertically stretching surfaces. In another study, Cheng
[39, 40] examined thermal and mass stratification over a vertical wavy truncated cone
and a wavy surface, respectively, providing insights into the influence of geometric
variations on convective heat and mass transfer. Extending this research, Deka and
Paul [33] and Paul and Deka [34] investigated the thermal and mass stratification
effects on infinite vertical cylinders, further contributing to the understanding of
stratified convection in cylindrical geometries. Srinivasacharya and Surender [41–43]
explored mixed convection heat and mass transfer along a vertical plate in a doubly
stratified, non-Darcy porous medium, considering various flow conditions. Additionally,
1.17 Review of the Relevant Literature 21

Srinivasacharya et al. [44, 45] derived numerical solutions for free convection boundary
layer flow past a semi-infinite vertical plate in a stratified porous medium. Their work
was extended to nanofluid-saturated porous media, where Srinivasacharya and Surender
[46, 47] analyzed thermal and mass stratification effects on mixed and natural convection
boundary layer flows over a vertical flat plate. Moreover, Srinivasacharya and Surender
[48] obtained non-similarity solutions for natural convection heat and mass transport
along a vertical plate with uniform wall temperature and concentration, further refining
the theoretical framework for stratified porous media flows. Recent advancements in
hybrid nanofluid flows have introduced new dimensions to stratified convection research.
Paul et al. [49] investigated the thermal stratification effects of a hybrid nanofluid
(Cu − Al2 O3 /H2 O) in a porous medium, focusing on a vertically stretched cylinder
with heat source/sink effects. Sarma and Paul [50] extended this analysis by examining
the thermophoresis and Brownian motion effects on bioconvective cylindrical-shaped
Ag − CuO/H2 O Ellis hybrid nanofluid flow along a radiative stretched tube under
an inclined magnetic field, shedding light on bioconvective nanofluid interactions.
Expanding on hybrid nanofluid flows, Paul et al. [1] analyzed the Darcy–Forchheimer
flow of Ag − ZnO − CoF e2 O4 /H2 O Casson ternary hybrid nanofluid, induced by a
rotating disk under electro-magnetohydrodynamics (EMHD), revealing the impact of
porosity and external forces in advanced nanofluid applications. Similarly, Paul et al.
[51] explored Casson ternary hybrid nanofluid flow in transformer oil, considering the
effects of a porous rotating disk and Hall current, addressing thermal and electrical
performance improvements in energy systems. Additionally, Paul et al. [52] examined
the mixed convective flow of an engine oil-based non-Newtonian tri-hybrid nanofluid
across a porous rotating disk, expanding knowledge in lubrication, industrial cooling,
and thermal management applications.

Chambre and Young [53] conducted a comprehensive analysis of a first-order

chemical reaction occurring in the vicinity of a horizontal plate, laying the foundation
for subsequent studies on chemically reactive flows. Building on this, Das et al.
[15] performed an analytical investigation into the effects of a homogeneous first-
order chemical reaction on the flow characteristics of an impulsively started infinite
vertical plate. Their study employed the Laplace transform technique, considering
uniform heat flux and mass transfer to analyze the transient behavior of the flow.
Further expanding on chemically reactive flows, Muthucumaraswamy and Ganesan
[54] explored the influence of a first-order chemical reaction on the flow past an
impulsively started vertical plate with uniform heat and mass flux. Their study utilized
an implicit finite-difference scheme of the Crank-Nicolson type, enhancing the accuracy
of numerical solutions. Additionally, Fayza [55] and Reddy and Peter [56] examined
the impact of chemical reaction on an infinite vertical plate under various physical
conditions, providing further insights into chemically reactive boundary layer flows. The
effects of thermal radiation and chemical reaction on MHD flow were investigated by
Muthucumaraswamy and Sivakumar [57], focusing on a parabolic flow past an infinite
isothermal vertical plate. Extending this, Reddy [58] analyzed the combined influence of
22 Introduction

radiation and chemical reaction on the unsteady MHD flow of a viscous, incompressible
fluid, considering a parabolic starting velocity over an infinite, isothermal, vertical
porous plate.

Choi and Eastman [6] were pioneers in introducing the concept of nanofluids,
proposing that suspending metallic nanoparticles in conventional heat transfer fluids
could lead to a revolutionary class of enhanced heat transfer fluids. Subsequent studies
explored the impact of various nanoparticles on heat transfer and fluid flow character-
istics. Oztop [59] conducted a numerical analysis of different types of nanoparticles
in a partially heated rectangular enclosure, investigating their influence on thermal
behavior. Das and Jana [60, 61] examined natural convective flow of nanofluids with
radiation effects, considering moving vertical plates and vertical channels, respectively.
Abolbashari et al. [62] employed the Homotopy Analysis Method (HAM) to evaluate
the entropy generation of nanofluids composed of water as the base fluid and four types
of nanoparticles (T iO2 , Al2 O3 , Cu, and CuO) flowing over a stretchable permeable
surface. Further investigations into heat and mass transfer in nanofluids were conducted
by Reddy et al. [63] and Mahanthesh et al. [64], who explored the effects of heat
sources and chemical reaction on nanofluids passing a moving or fixed vertical plate.
Rashid et al. [65] analyzed the magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) behavior of Al2 O3 -Cu
hybrid nanofluids in porous media, emphasizing the impact of nanoparticle shape on
flow dynamics. Wang et al. [66] studied the thermal behavior and natural convection
of MWCNT-water nanofluid flow inside a hexagonal cavity under a magnetic field,
furthering the understanding of MHD-driven nanofluid convection. Similarly, Kumar
Rawat et al. [67] investigated the flow of a T iO2 /EG nanofluid over a wedge, offering
insights into nanoparticle-fluid interactions in boundary layer flows. Yaseen et al. [68]
examined the combined effects of buoyancy forces and Hall currents on the stagnation
point flow of Ag − T iO2 /water hybrid nanofluids over a rotating disc, highlighting
the time-dependent flow characteristics. Additionally, Yaseen et al. [69] obtained
numerical solutions for a wall jet flow problem involving MHD in an Eyring-Powell
hybrid nanofluid composed of water, CoF e2 O4 , and T iO2 nanoparticles. Finally, Riaz
et al. [70] discovered new analytical solutions for the fractional Maxwell fluid contain-
ing ternary-hybrid nanoparticles flowing over an infinitely tall vertical heated wall,
contributing to the growing body of research on advanced hybrid nanofluid applications.

1.18 Comparison of Findings

This thesis extends the existing literature by providing a comparative analysis against
foundational and contemporary studies. While the work of Shapiro and Fedorovich [5]
established that thermal stratification reduces fluid velocity, this research demonstrates
that mass stratification exerts a similar, and at times more pronounced, dampening
effect on the flow.
A key distinction of this work is the use of the Laplace transform to derive exact
solutions for MHD flows under the combined influence of thermal and mass stratifica-
1.18 Comparison of Findings 23

tion. This contrasts with many earlier studies that relied on approximate or purely
numerical schemes. For instance, the findings align with the velocity trends reported
by Muralidharn et al. [71] in the absence of stratification, but the introduction of
stratification parameters in this thesis reveals a stabilizing effect that leads to lower
peak velocities and a more stable flow regime.
Furthermore, unlike studies that focused solely on thermal effects, this research
integrates mass stratification and chemical reactions, offering a more comprehensive
model. The results indicate that the interplay between these factors significantly alters
heat and mass transfer coefficients, leading to higher Nusselt and Sherwood numbers
than predicted in studies considering these effects in isolation. This highlights the
novelty of the current approach in providing a more accurate and holistic understanding
of stratified flows in complex environments.
 Thermal and Mass Stratification
Effects on MHD flow past an
2
Accelerated Vertical Plate with
Variable Temperature and
Exponential Mass Diffusion
Embedded in a Porous Medium
Published in East European Journal of Physics, 2, 2024, pp. 161-171,
ISSN: 2312-4334. (SCOPUS, ESCI)

2.1 Introduction
The investigation of heat transfer holds importance across various engineering fields,
such as in the cooling of electronic devices, nuclear reactors, and gas turbines. Similarly,
a grasp of mass transfer is crucial for several chemical engineering applications, like
separation processes, distillation, and absorption. This study aims to explore the
combined effects of thermal and mass stratification on the behavior of MHD unsteady
flow along an accelerated vertical plate, considering variations in mass diffusion and a
variable temperature. The influence of thermal and mass stratifications on the behavior
of MHD unsteady flows in fluids is significant, and this research seeks to analyze the
interaction of these stratifications.
26 Thermal and Mass Stratification Effects on MHD flow past an Accelerated...

Early work by Siegel [7] and Menold and Yang [8] laid the groundwork for un-
derstanding transient free convection from vertical flat plates. Schetz and Eichhorn
[9] extended this by investigating unsteady natural convection near doubly infinite
vertical plates. Later studies explored diverse aspects of this phenomenon. Das et al.
[11] and Park et al. [13, 14] investigated transient buoyant flows in stratified fluids,
while Shapiro and Fedorovich [5] explored convectively driven flows in stably stratified
fluids. Porous media were explored in greater detail. Magyari et al. [16] investigated
unsteady free convection in a fluid-saturated porous medium, and Chaudhary and
Jain [72] considered heat and mass diffusion flow by natural convection in a porous
medium. The influence of radiation and magnetic fields was also examined. The
surveyed literature investigates various aspects of magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) and
porous medium flow. Reddy et al. [73] analyzed MHD boundary layer flow along
vertical plates with ramped temperature. Selvaraj and Jothi [74] study heat sources
in MHD flow past an accelerated plate with variable temperature and mass diffusion.
Sarma and Nazibuddin [75] explore thermal diffusion in unsteady MHD convective flow.
Krishna et al. [76–79] and [80] examine effects like Hall and ion slip, elastico-viscous
fluid behavior, and nanofluid flow dynamics in different MHD contexts, emphasizing
the influence of porous mediums and thermal conditions on flow properties and heat
transfer. More recent research has delved into the effects of chemical reaction in these
flows. Kalita et al. [81] and Nath et al. [82, 83] studied unsteady flow past vertical
plates with chemical reaction in the presence of thermal stratification. Lastly, Kumar
and Deka [84] extended this to porous media, considering mass diffusion, showcasing
the breadth and depth of research in this field.
In this study, we present novel contributions by deriving the exact solution through
the Laplace transform technique, achieving this with perfect accuracy, which proves
to be an extremely effective strategy for obtaining precise solutions. Prior to this
work, there has been no exploration of the combined influences of thermal and mass
stratification on the behavior of MHD unsteady flow past a vertically accelerating
plate embedded within a porous medium, where both temperature and mass diffusion
vary. The aim was to analytically explore the dynamics of MHD unsteady flow
past such a plate, taking into account the effects of thermal and mass stratification.
Subsequently, we compare the results concerning fluid stratification in both thermal
and mass aspects with those of the specific instance lacking any stratification. This
study explores and presents the effects of various physical parameters, including
γ, ξ, Gr, Gc, the Darcy number (Da), and the Magnetic parameter (M ), on the observed
profiles through graphical representations. The insights gained from this research hold
potential applications across a wide range of industries. For example, the outcomes
can be leveraged to enhance thermal system efficiency by minimizing the temperature
discrepancy between the walls and the fluid, as well as by accelerating the rate of mass
diffusion.
2.2 Mathematical Analysis 27

Fig. 2.1 Physical Model and coordinate system

2.2 Mathematical Analysis

The governing equations describing the convective movement of an electrically con-
ducting, incompressible, and viscous fluid through a porous medium in presence of a
magnetic field, where both mass diffusivity and thermal diffusivity are constant, and
incorporating the diffusion-thermo effect, are formulated in vector form as follows:
Momentum Equation
" #
∂⃗q ⃗ + p⃗g + µ∇2 ⃗q − µ⃗q
ρ ′
+ (⃗q.∇)⃗
⃗ q = −∇p
⃗ + J⃗ × B (2.1)
∂t k

Energy Equation

∂T ′
" #
ρCp ′
+ (⃗q.∇)T
⃗ ′ = α∇2 T ′ (2.2)
∂t

Concentration Equation

∂C ′
+ (⃗q.∇)C
⃗ ′ = D∇2 C ′ (2.3)
∂t′
Consider the MHD unsteady flow of a viscous, incompressible, and stratified fluid
over an accelerating vertical plate within a porous medium. The analysis adopts a
rectangular Cartesian coordinate system (x′ , y ′ , t′ ), where the y ′ axis is perpendicular to
the plate and the x′ axis extends vertically upward along the plate. The fluid velocity
at any point (x′ , y ′ , t′ ) is given by q = (u′ , 0). Initially, at t′ = 0, the temperature
and concentration at the plate are T∞ ′
and C∞ ′
, respectively. For t′ > 0, the plate
28 Thermal and Mass Stratification Effects on MHD flow past an Accelerated...

accelerates within its own plane at a velocity of u0 t′ , relative to the gravitational

force. Additionally, for t′ > 0, the temperature drops to T∞ ′
+ (Tw′ − T∞′
)At′ , while
the concentration increases linearly over time t. Given the plate’s infinite dimensions,
all flow variables are independent of x′ , varying only with y ′ and t′ . Thus, under the
standard Boussinesq approximation, specific equations are employed to describe the
MHD unsteady flow dynamics. The conversion procedure for equations (2.1)-(2.3)
has already been addressed by Sarma and Ahmed [85]. Consequently, we obtain the
following form.
∂u′ ∂ 2 u′ σB02 u′ ν ′
= gβ(T ′
− T ′
∞ ) + gβ ∗
(C ′
− C ′
∞ ) + ν − − u (2.4)
∂t′ ∂y ′2 ρ k
′ 2 ′
∂T ∂ T
= α − γ ′ u′ (2.5)
∂t′ ∂y ′2
∂C ′ ∂ 2C ′
= D − ξ ′ u′ (2.6)
∂t′ ∂y ′2
with the following initial and boundary conditions:

u′ = 0 T ′ = T∞
′
C ′ = C∞
′
∀y ′ , t′ ≤ 0
′ ′
u′ = u0 t′ T ′ = T∞
′
+ (Tw′ − T∞
′
)At′ C ′ = C∞
′
+ (Cw′ − C∞
′
)ea t at y ′ = 0, t′ > 0
u′ = 0 T ′ → T∞ ′
C ′ → C∞ ′
as y ′ → ∞, t′ > 0

where a′ , α, η, ν, D, and Da are respectively constant, thermal diffusivity, similarity

parameter, kinematic viscosity, mass diffusion coefficient, and darcy number. The
"thermal stratification parameter" and "mass stratification parameter" are termed as
′ ′
γ ′ = dT ∞
dx′
+ Cgp and ξ ′ = dC ∞
dx′
respectively. The term "thermal stratification" refers to
′
 
the combination of vertical temperature advection dT∞
dx′
, where the temperature of
 
the surrounding fluid is height-dependent, and work of compression Cgp , which is the
rate at which particles in a fluid do reversible work due to compression.
And we provide non-dimensional quantities in the following:
!1/3
u′ u20 T ′ − T∞
′
C ′ − C∞
′
1/3
u0

U= , t=t ′
, y=y ′
, θ= , C= ,
(u0 ν)1/3 ν ν2 Tw′ − T∞′ Cw′ − C∞′

!1/3
gβ(Tw′ − T∞
′
) gβ ∗ (Cw′ − C∞
′
) ν ν ν
Gr = , Gc = , Pr = , Sc = , a = a′ ,
u0 u0 α D u20

1 !1/3
σB02 ν 3 u20 γ ′ ν 2/3 ξ ′ ν 2/3
M= 2 , Da = k ′ , γ= 1/3
, ξ= 1/3
ρu03 ν4 u0 (Tw′ − T∞
′ ) u0 (Cw′ − C∞
′ )
2.3 Method of Solution 29

u2 1/3
 
A = ν0 is the constant. Then non-dimensional forms of the equations (2.4)-(2.6)
are given by

∂U ∂ 2U 1
 
= Grθ + GcC + − M + U (2.7)
∂t ∂y 2 Da
∂θ 1 ∂ 2θ
= − γU (2.8)
∂t P r ∂y 2
∂C 1 ∂ 2C
= − ξU (2.9)
∂t Sc ∂y 2

Non-dimensional forms of initial and boundary Conditions are:

U =0 θ=0 C=0 ∀y, t ≤ 0

U =t θ=t C = eat at y = 0, t > 0
U =0 θ→0 C→0 as y → ∞, t > 0 (2.10)

2.3 Method of Solution

We discovered that the Laplace transform method produces an equation of non-
tractable form for any arbitrary Prandtl or Schmidt number. The non-dimensional
governing equations (2.7)-(2.9) with boundary conditions (2.10), are solved for the
tractable situation of P r = 1, Sc = 1. Hence, the expressions for velocity, temperature,
and concentration profiles can be determined using the methodologies outlined by
Abramowitz and Stegun [86] and Hetnarski [87], as follows:

U = H1 f1 (A) + H2 f1 (B) − H3 f2 (A, a) + H3 f2 (B, a) (2.11)

2η −η2 eat
" #
θ = (1 − F1 − F2 ) (1 + 2η )erf c(η) − √ e
2
+ (F3 − F4 )
π 2
h √  √  √  √ i
e−2η at erf c η − at + e2η at erf c η + at
+F1 f1 (A) − F3 f2 (A, a) + F2 f1 (B) + F4 f2 (B, a) (2.12)
eat h √  √  √  √ i
C = (1 + F7 − F8 ) e−2η at erf c η − at + e2η at erf c η + at
(2
2η −η2
)
 
−(F5 + F6 )t 1 + 2η erf c(η) − √ e
2
π
+F5 f1 (A) + F6 f1 (B) − F7 f2 (A, a) + F8 f2 (B, a) (2.13)
30 Thermal and Mass Stratification Effects on MHD flow past an Accelerated...

Where,
s
1 1
2
y

η= √ , N =A+B =M + , A−B = M+ − 4(γGr + ξGc)
2 t Da Da
A − Gr Gr − B Gc
H1 = , H2 = , H3 =
A−B A−B A−B
γ(A − Gr) γ(Gr − B) γGc γGc
F1 = , F2 = , F3 = , F4 = ,
A(A − B) B(A − B) A(A − B) B(A − B)
ξ(A − Gr) ξ(Gr − B) ξGc ξGc
F5 = , F6 = , F7 = , F8 =
A(A − B) B(A − B) A(A − B) B(A − B)
Also, fi ’s are inverse Laplace’s transforms given by
√ √
e−y s+p e−y s+p
( ) ( )
f1 (p) = L −1
, f2 (p, a) = L −1
s2 s−a
We separate the complex arguments of the error function contained in the previous
expressions into real and imaginary parts using the formulas provided by Abramowitz
and Stegun [86].

2.3.1 Classical Case

We derived solutions for the classical case of no thermal and mass stratification
(γ = 0, ξ = 0). We want to compare the results of the fluid with thermal and mass
stratification to the case with no stratification. Hence, the solutions for the classical
case with boundary conditions (2.10) by using the Laplace transformation are as
follows:

2η
( )
  2
θc = t 1 + 2η erf c(η) − √ e−η
2
(2.14)
π
eat h −2η√at  √  √  √ i
Cc = e erf c η − at + e2η at erf c η + at (2.15)
2

Gr

Gc Gc eat n −2η√at  √ 
Uc = 1− f1 (N ) − f2 (N, a) + e erf c η − at
N N 2N
√ 2η
( )
√  o tGr   2
+e2η at erf c η + at + 1 + 2η 2 erf c(η) − √ e−η (2.16)
N π

2.3.2 Skin-Friction
The non-dimensional Skin-Friction, which is determined as shear stress on the surface,
is obtained by
2.3 Method of Solution 31

dU
τ=−
dy y=0

The solution for the Skin-Friction is calculated from the solution of Velocity profile U ,
represented by (2.11), as follows:

 √ 
√ √ h √ √
s
t erf ( At) 
τ = H1 t A erf ( At) + e−At + √ − H2 t B erf ( Bt)
π 2 A
s √ 
erf ( Bt) 
√
t
 q
+e−Bt + √ − H3 eat a + A erf ( (a + A)t)
π 2 B
√ e−At − e−Bt
q  #
− a + B erf ( (a + B)t) + √
πt

The solution for the Skin-Friction for the classical case is given from the expression
(2.16), which is represented by

q
t −N t erf ( (N )t)  2Gr
 
Gr  √
s s
t
  q
τc = 1− t N erf ( (N )t) + e + √ + +
N π 2 Nt N π
Gc at √ √ √ 1 
" q  #

e a erf ( at) − a + N erf ( (a + N )t) + √ 1 − e−N t
N πt

2.3.3 Nusselt Number

The non-dimensional Nusselt number, which is determined as the rate of heat transfer,
is obtained by

dθ
Nu = −
dy y=0

The solution for the Nusselt number is calculated from the solution of Temperature
profile θ, represented by (2.12), as follows:
32 Thermal and Mass Stratification Effects on MHD flow past an Accelerated...

 √ 
√ √
s s
t t erf ( At)
N u = 2(1 − F1 − F2 ) + F1 t A erf ( At) + e−At + √ 
π π 2 A
 √ 
√ √
s
t erf ( Bt)
+F2 t B erf ( Bt) + e−Bt + √  + (F3 − F4 )
π 2 B
√ √ 1 √ e−At
" # " q #
eat
a erf ( at) + √ − F3 e at
a + A erf ( (a + A)t) + √
πt πt
√ −Bt
" #
q e
+F4 eat a + B erf ( (a + B)t) + √
πt

The solution for the Nusselt number for the classical case is given from the expression
(2.14), which is represented by s
t
N uc = 2
π

2.3.4 Sherwood Number

The non-dimensional Sherwood number, which is determined as the rate of mass
transfer, is obtained by

dC
Sh = −
dy y=0

The solution for the Sherwood number is calculated from the solution of Concentration
profile C, represented by (2.13), as follows:


√ √
s
√ √ 1
" #
t
Sh = (1 + F7 − F8 ) e at
a erf ( at) + √ + F5 t A erf ( At) + e−At
πt π
√ 
√ √
s s
erf ( At)
#
t t
+ √ − 2(F5 + F6 ) + F6 t B erf ( Bt) + e−Bt
2 A π π
√
erf ( Bt) √ e−At
# " q #
+ √ − F7 eat a + A erf ( (a + A)t) + √
2 B πt
√ −Bt
" #
q e
+F8 eat a + B erf ( (a + B)t) + √
πt

The solution for the Sherwood number for the classical case is given from the
expression (2.15), which is represented by
√ √ 1
Shc = eat a erf ( at) + √
πt
2.4 Results and Discussion 33

2.4 Results and Discussion

We computed numerical values of velocity, temperature, concentration, skin friction,
Nusselt number, and Sherwood number from their solutions derived in the preceding
sections, for various values of the physical parameters γ, ξ, Gr, Gc, M and Da. This
allowed us to get a better understanding of the physical significance of the problem.
Moreover, using MATLAB, we plotted them in Figures 2.2-2.22.

Fig. 2.2 Effects of γ and ξ on Velocity Profile for Gr = 5, Gc =

5, M = 2, Da = 0.5, t = 1.5, a = 0.2,

Figure 2.2 illustrates the impact of thermal and mass stratification on velocity
profiles, showing that both types of stratification lead to reduced velocities. When one
form of stratification is held constant, an increase in the other type further decreases
velocity. In the same way that Shapiro and Fedorovich [5] shows that fluid velocity
drops for thermal stratification γ > 0, we find that this is also the case for mass
stratification ξ > 0. Enhancing the parameter of thermal stratification (γ) diminishes
the convective potential across the hot plate and the adjacent fluid, reducing the
buoyancy force and, subsequently, the flow velocity. Similarly, an increase in the mass
stratification (ξ) value leads to a lower concentration gradient between the surface and
its environment, diminishing the buoyancy’s upward force and thus slowing down the
fluid flow. Therefore, the presence of both thermal and mass stratification results in
a reduced fluid velocity compared to conditions without stratification. Hence, both
thermal and mass stratification play a crucial role in establishing a stable stratified
flow. As seen in Figure 2.3, Raising the value of Gc leads to a higher velocity, while a
rise in Gr causes a decrease in velocity. We can observe from Figure 2.4 that velocity
34 Thermal and Mass Stratification Effects on MHD flow past an Accelerated...

Fig. 2.3 Effects of Gr and Gc on Velocity Profile for γ = 0.5, ξ =

0.4, M = 2, Da = 0.5, t = 1.5, a = 0.2

Fig. 2.4 Effects of M on Velocity Profile for Gr = 5, Gc = 5, γ =

0.5, ξ = 0.4, Da = 0.5, t = 1.5, a = 0.2,

decreases as (M ) grows. Figure 2.5 shows that as Da and the fluid’s porosity increase,
2.4 Results and Discussion 35

Fig. 2.5 Effects of Da on Velocity Profile for Gr = 5, Gc =

5, γ = 0.5, ξ = 0.4, M = 2, t = 1.5, a = 0.2,

there is an elevation in the velocity profile, enabling the fluid particles to move more
smoothly.

Fig. 2.6 Effects of γ and ξ on Temperature Profile for Gr =

5, Gc = 5, M = 2, Da = 0.5, t = 1.5, a = 0.2

Figure 2.6 demonstrates the impact of thermal and mass stratification on the
temperature profile. While mass stratification leads to an increase in temperature, an
36 Thermal and Mass Stratification Effects on MHD flow past an Accelerated...

Fig. 2.7 Effects of Gr and Gc on Temperature Profile for

γ = 0.5, ξ = 0.4, t = 1.5, M = 2, Da = 0.5, a = 0.2

Fig. 2.8 Effects of M on Temperature Profile for Gr =

5, Gc = 5, γ = 0.5, ξ = 0.4, t = 1.5, Da = 0.5, a = 0.2

increase in thermal stratification is associated with a reduction in temperature. An

increase in thermal stratification (γ) causes the temperature gradient between the
vertical plate and the adjacent fluid to diminish. Consequently, this results in a thicker
thermal boundary layer and a lower temperature. As shown in Figures 2.7, and 2.9,
the temperature drops as Gr, Gc, and Da increase and in Figure 2.8 the temperature
2.4 Results and Discussion 37

Fig. 2.9 Effects of Da on Temperature Profile for Gr =

5, Gc = 5, γ = 0.5, ξ = 0.4, t = 1.5, M = 2, a = 0.2

Fig. 2.10 Effects of γ and ξ on Concentration Profile for

Gr = 5, Gc = 5, Da = 0.5, t = 1.5, M = 2, a = 0.2

increases as M increase. In Figure 2.10, fluid concentration decreases with increasing

mass stratification parameters but increases with increasing thermal stratification. As
shown in Figures 2.11, 2.12, and 2.13 the effects of Gr, Gc, Da, and M on concentration
are identical to those seen for temperature profiles.
38 Thermal and Mass Stratification Effects on MHD flow past an Accelerated...

Fig. 2.11 Effects of Gr and Gc on Concentration Profile for

γ = 0.5, ξ = 0.4, t = 1.5, M = 2, Da = 0.5, a = 0.2

Fig. 2.12 Effects of Da on Concentration Profile for Gr =

5, Gc = 5, γ = 0.5, ξ = 0.4, t = 1.5, M = 2, a = 0.2

Figures 2.14, 2.15, and 2.16 illustrate the effects of thermal and mass stratification
on fluid velocity, temperature, and concentration over time. In the classical case, fluid
velocity increases indefinitely with time, whereas the introduction of both stratifications
causes it to stabilize at a steady state. The temperature profile is influenced by the
presence of stratifications, with thermal stratification exhibiting a more significant
2.4 Results and Discussion 39

Fig. 2.13 Effects of M on Concentration Profile for Gr =

5, Gc = 5, γ = 0.5, ξ = 0.4, t = 1.5, Da = 0.5, a = 0.2

Fig. 2.14 Effects of γ and ξ on Velocity Profile against time

for Gr = 5, Gc = 5, M = 2, Da = 0.5, a = 0.2, y = 1.4

impact by noticeably decelerating the rate of temperature increase compared to mass

stratification. Similarly, the concentration profile shows a temporal increase, with the
highest concentration observed in the absence of stratification. The concentration
decreases progressively as the values of thermal or mass stratification increase.
40 Thermal and Mass Stratification Effects on MHD flow past an Accelerated...

Fig. 2.15 Effects of γ and ξ on Temperature Profile against

time for Gr = 5, Gc = 5, M = 2, Da = 0.5, a = 0.2, y = 1.4

Fig. 2.16 Effects of γ and ξ on Concentration Profile against

time for Gr = 5, Gc = 5, M = 2, Da = 0.5, a = 0.2, y = 1.4

In Figure 2.17, skin friction decreases over time in the presence of both thermal and
mass stratifications compared to the case without stratification. As shown in Figure
2.18, skin friction further decreases with time, with the lowest values observed at the
highest Gr while maintaining a constant Gc. Figures 2.19, 2.20, 2.21, and 2.22 depict
2.4 Results and Discussion 41

Fig. 2.17 Effects of γ and ξ on Skin friction for Gr = 5, Gc =

5, M = 2, Da = 0.5, a = 0.2

Fig. 2.18 Effects of Gr and Gc on Skin friction for γ =

0.5, ξ = 0.4, M = 2, Da = 0.5, a = 0.2

the temporal behavior of the Nusselt and Sherwood numbers, both of which increase
over time. Higher thermal stratification moderates the rate of increase for the Nusselt
number and, to a greater extent, for the Sherwood number. In contrast, varying mass
42 Thermal and Mass Stratification Effects on MHD flow past an Accelerated...

Fig. 2.19 Effects of γ and ξ on Nusselt Number for Gr =

5, Gc = 5, M = 2, Da = 0.5, a = 0.2

Fig. 2.20 Effects of Gr and Gc on Nusselt Number for γ =

0.5, ξ = 0.4, M = 2, Da = 0.5, a = 0.2

stratification exhibits mixed effects on these parameters. Notably, an increase in Gr

enhances the growth of the Sherwood number when Gc is held constant.
2.5 Conclusion 43

Fig. 2.21 Effects of γ and ξ on Sherwood Number for Gr =

5, Gc = 5, M = 2, Da = 0.5, a = 0.2

Fig. 2.22 Effects of Gr and Gc on Sherwood Number for

γ = 0.5, ξ = 0.4, M = 2, Da = 0.5, a = 0.2

2.5 Conclusion
The findings from this research reveal that thermal and mass stratification plays a
critical role in reducing velocity over time, allowing the system to attain equilibrium.
Enhanced mass stratification and diminished thermal stratification contribute to the
44 Thermal and Mass Stratification Effects on MHD flow past an Accelerated...

stabilization of temperature and concentration profiles. The combined presence of both

stratifications results in a steady decline in skin friction. Additionally, heat transfer
rates improve with higher thermal stratification, while mass transfer rates exhibit
significant enhancement with increased mass stratification, leading to more pronounced
growth in the Nusselt and Sherwood numbers. These insights provide valuable guidance
for optimizing porous media systems to effectively manage MHD unsteady flow under
stratified conditions.
 Dynamic Interaction of
Stratifications in a MHD Parabolic
3
Flow with Periodic Temperature
Variation and Variable Mass
Diffusion in a Porous Medium
Published in International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer,
159, 108203, 2024, ISSN: 0735-1933. (SCIE, SCOPUS)

3.1 Introduction
In the intricate world of fluid dynamics, Thermal Stratification and Mass Stratification
play pivotal roles. Thermal Stratification emerges from heat transfer resistance that
creates distinct layers within a fluid, whereas Mass Stratification develops from density
differences due to variable solute concentrations. These stratified layers are dynamically
modulated by periodic temperature fluctuations, echoing the cyclic thermal conditions
observed in both natural and industrial environments. Furthermore, the introduction of
Variable Mass Diffusion in porous media adds complexity, as the medium’s structural
characteristics significantly influence fluid flow and diffusion properties. Grasping
these nuanced interactions is critical for optimizing system performance and effectively
managing fluid behavior in a variety of applications.
Initial studies by Siegel [7] addressed transient free convection from a vertical flat
plate, laying foundational concepts of fluid mechanics related to heat transfer. Building
46 Dynamic Interaction of Stratifications in a MHD Parabolic Flow...

on this, Menold and Yang [8] explored asymptotic solutions for unsteady laminar
free convection, which further elucidated the physics of heat transfer along a vertical
plate. Schetz and Eichhorn [9] expanded the understanding by examining unsteady
natural convection in the vicinity of a doubly infinite vertical plate, contributing to
a broader scope of fluid dynamics. Park and Hyun [13], and later Park [14], shifted
focus towards the transient behavior and buoyant flows of stratified fluids, which are
crucial in understanding environmental and industrial processes. This trend continued
with Shapiro and Fedorovich [5] who investigated the convective flows along a vertical
plate immersed in a stably stratified fluid, providing insights relevant to atmospheric
sciences and engineering applications. Magyari, Pop, and Keller [16] addressed the
complex scenario of a vertical plate embedded in a porous medium, enhancing the
understanding of porous media’s impact on convection processes. Chaudhary and
Jain [72], and subsequent works by Reddy et al. [88], Chamkha et al. [19], and
others, progressively incorporated the effects of magnetic fields, chemical reaction,
and thermal radiation, reflecting the evolving complexity of investigations and their
applications in fields like chemical engineering and geophysical flows. Muralidharn
and Muthucumaraswamy [71] initiated the analysis with an investigation of parabolic
flow past a vertical plate with uniform heat flux and variable mass diffusion, laying
the groundwork for understanding such complex fluid flows. Subsequent studies by
Muthucumaraswamy and Sivakumar [21, 57] extended these findings to include the
effects of MHD, thermal radiation, and chemical reaction, illustrating the intricate
interactions within fluid dynamics. Kumaran and Sandeep [89] explored the impact of
thermophoresis and Brownian motion on MHD Casson and Williamson fluids, indicating
significant effects due to these non-Newtonian fluids. Krishna et al. [90] further analyzed
MHD Carreau fluid flows, highlighting how buoyancy and exponential heat sources alter
fluid behavior. Recent works by Gowri and Selvaraj [91], and Selvaraj et al. [22] focused
on rotational effects and the dynamics of accelerated flows in porous media, providing
deeper insights into how rotational forces influence MHD parabolic flows. Endalew and
Sarkar [92], along with Reddy et al. [93], continued to explore these themes within
different configurations of MHD flows in porous environments, emphasizing the role of
aligned magnetic fields and geometric orientations of plates. Sarma and Ahmed [85]
highlighted the Dufour effect in MHD flow with ramped temperature, demonstrating its
significance in modifying the transport phenomena. This theme of environmental and
operational variability was further echoed in studies by Sharma and Chaudhary [94],
Goto et al. [95], and Li et al. [96], each exploring different aspects of fluid responses
to periodic and environmental changes. The work by Jia et al. [97] investigates the
ecological impacts, linking fluid dynamics with environmental science by studying how
temperature variations influence aquatic carbon cycles. Krishna et al. [98] explored the
influence of Hall effects on the peristaltic flow of Jeffrey fluid through a porous medium
within a vertical stratum, setting the stage for understanding MHD flow dynamics
in complex fluid systems. Building on this, Krishna and Chamkha [99] examined the
Hall effects on MHD squeezing flow of a water-based nanofluid between two parallel
disks, further extending the understanding of fluid behavior in confined geometries and
3.1 Introduction 47

their applications in heat transfer. Krishna et al. [100] later addressed the impact of
heat and mass transfer in micropolar fluids, considering the inclined magnetic field and
Hall effects, contributing valuable insights into the complexities of fluid flow through
porous surfaces under magnetic influences. This exploration continued with Krishna
et al. [101], who investigated the combined effects of Soret, Joule, and Hall forces
on MHD mixed convective flow past an infinite vertical porous plate, revealing the
intricate balance of these forces in ocean engineering and environmental applications.
Krishna and Chamkha [102] expanded the scope by considering the Hall and ion slip
effects on unsteady MHD convective rotating flows of nanofluids, a study particularly
relevant for biomedical engineering applications due to its focus on fluid behavior under
rotational and electromagnetic forces. In another significant contribution, Krishna
et al. [77] investigated the heat and mass transfer characteristics of MHD second-
grade fluids through a porous medium over a semi-infinite vertical stretching sheet,
contributing to the growing body of knowledge on non-Newtonian fluid dynamics in
porous media. Further advancing the field, Krishna [103] examined Hall and ion slip
impacts on unsteady MHD free convective rotating flows of Jeffrey fluid with ramped
wall temperature, providing a detailed analysis of how ramped conditions influence
flow stability and convective heat transfer. This research was followed by Krishna
[104], who explored the radiative MHD rotating flow of Jeffrey fluid past an infinite
vertical porous surface, highlighting the interplay between radiation, ion slip, and
Hall effects in fluid mechanics. Krishna [78] further investigated unsteady MHD free
convective flows through a saturated porous medium, focusing on how exponential
acceleration of the plate influences flow dynamics and thermal characteristics. Krishna
and Chamkha [80] addressed the Hall and ion slip effects on the rotating boundary
layer flow of nanofluids past an infinite vertical plate embedded in a porous medium,
enhancing understanding of nanofluid behaviors in porous media. Finally, Krishna and
Chamkha [76] examined the MHD rotating flow of elastico-viscous fluids through a
porous medium, demonstrating how Hall and ion slip effects can alter the behavior
of viscoelastic fluids, further contributing to the study of complex fluid dynamics in
porous environments. Khan et al. [105] explored viscoelastic nanofluid motion in
the Homann stagnation-region, incorporating thermal radiation characteristics, thus
advancing the understanding of heat transfer in viscoelastic flows. Sarfraz and Khan
[106] analyzed entropy generation in CNT-based nanofluid flows induced by a moving
plate, contributing to the optimization of thermal systems using nanofluids. Sarfraz
and Khan [107] further examined the flow of ethylene glycol-based CNT Homann
nanofluids over a biaxially stretching surface, shedding light on the fluid dynamics
of nanofluids in complex configurations. The work of Sarfraz et al. [108] provided
insights into the thermodynamic efficiency of Homann-Agrawal hybrid nanofluids,
broadening the scope of hybrid nanofluid applications. Ahmed et al. [109] investigated
heat transfer in Jeffrey fluid flow over a power law lubricated surface, emphasizing
the influence of solar radiations and magnetic flux, while Khan et al. [110] examined
energy transport near the Homann stagnation point flow over a spiraling disk using the
Cattaneo–Christov theory, offering new perspectives on thermal transport mechanisms
48 Dynamic Interaction of Stratifications in a MHD Parabolic Flow...

in nanofluid systems. The analysis in this study aligns with the work by Muhammad
et al. [111], who explored the behavior of electrically conducting hybrid nanomaterials
near the stagnation region, focusing on how varying parameters affect fluid stability and
heat transfer. Similarly, this research investigates how thermal and mass stratification
influence MHD flow in porous media, using exact solutions derived via the Laplace
transform technique. Additionally, the study’s focus on stability parallels Sarfraz and
Khan’s [112] stability analysis of gyrotactic microorganisms in Jeffrey fluid flow, further
extending the understanding of fluid behavior in complex environments influenced by
stratification and magnetic fields. Both research streams contribute to improving the
efficiency of heat and mass transfer processes in engineered systems. Puneeth et al.
[113] conducted a theoretical analysis on the thermal characteristics of Ree–Eyring
nanofluid flow due to bioconvection, advancing the understanding of heat transfer in
bio-inspired systems. Irfan et al. [114] explored the performance of new mass flux
theory on Carreau nanofluid, offering insights into convective heat transport efficiency.
Hussain et al. [115] investigated hybrid nanoliquid flow over a curved surface, focusing
on chemical reaction and melting heat, contributing to the field of non-linear heat
transfer. Anwar et al. [116] studied MHD nanofluid flow through a Darcy medium with
thermal radiation, furthering knowledge in electromagnetic fluid flow. Anwar [117]
developed numerical simulations for fractional nonlinear viscoelastic flow problems,
laying the groundwork for future fractional fluid dynamics research. Anwar et al.
[118] analyzed convection and diffusion in viscoelastic fluid flow, emphasizing variable
thermal conductivity. Hussain et al. [119] provided insights into MHD Williamson
fluid flow over a convective wedge, considering Ohmic dissipation. Hussain et al. [120]
explored Casson fluid flow over a permeable wedge with chemical reaction, expanding
applications in mass transfer. Haider et al. [121] examined fractional Carreau fluid
with nanoparticles, enhancing thermal performance under magnetic fields. Irfan et al.
[122] modeled MHD bio-convection with gyrotactic microbes, highlighting the complex
interactions in nanofluids.
The study utilizes the Laplace transform technique to address the dynamics of
unsteady MHD parabolic flow, revealing limitations when dealing with arbitrary Prandtl
or Schmidt numbers. The technique leads to equations that become intractable unless
specific conditions are imposed, such as setting both the Prandtl number (P r) and
Schmidt number (Sc) to unity. This restricts the generality of the solutions, limiting
their applicability to only those scenarios where (P r = 1) and (Sc = 1). For more
complex cases with varying (P r) and (Sc), the study must rely on numerical methods,
highlighting a significant limitation in the analytical approach. Future work in this
research should focus on developing more generalized analytical methods that can
handle arbitrary Prandtl and Schmidt numbers without necessitating simplification.
This enhancement will allow the model to be applied to a broader range of conditions,
improving its utility in practical scenarios. Additionally, exploring different analytical
approaches could provide a more complete understanding of the complex interactions
in MHD parabolic flows, further refining the predictive capabilities of the model. The
stability criteria of a model’s solutions involve analyzing the behavior of the system
3.1 Introduction 49

under small perturbations. Stability is achieved when small disturbances diminish over
time, ensuring the solution returns to equilibrium.
The sensitivity analysis of key parameters in the study provides insights into how
thermal stratification (γ), mass stratification (ξ), Grashof numbers (Gr and Gc), mag-
netic parameter (M ), and Darcy number (Da) influence fluid dynamics, temperature,
and concentration profiles in a porous medium under magnetohydrodynamic (MHD)
flow. Thermal and mass stratification significantly impact velocity and stability. As γ
and ξ increase, both temperature and concentration gradients steepen, which dampens
fluid motion and stabilizes the flow. Higher stratification suppresses buoyancy forces,
reducing the overall velocity and temperature profiles. Grashof numbers (Gr and Gc)
represent thermal and solutal buoyancy forces. Higher values of Gr lead to increased
velocity due to stronger thermal buoyancy, while higher Gc tends to hinder the flow
by opposing the thermal buoyancy forces. The magnetic parameter (M ) introduces
Lorentz forces that oppose fluid motion, thus reducing velocity and temperature profiles.
This electromagnetic drag transforms kinetic energy into heat, which stabilizes the
system and limits convective heat transfer. On the other hand, the Darcy number
(Da), representing the permeability of the porous medium, has a direct effect on
fluid movement. Higher Da values allow the fluid to pass more freely through the
porous medium, enhancing both velocity and heat transfer by reducing flow resistance.
Thus, the combined effects of these parameters shape the behavior of the fluid system,
optimizing heat and mass transfer efficiency in various engineering applications.
This study introduces several innovative aspects: it employs the Laplace transform
technique to derive an exact solution without any approximation, proving to be a
highly effective method. Previously, there has been no research exploring the combined
effects of thermal and mass stratification on MHD unsteady parabolic flow along an
infinite vertical plate within a porous medium, especially under conditions of Periodic
Temperature Variation and Variable Mass Diffusion. The aim of this research was
to analytically explore the MHD unsteady parabolic flow in the presence of both
thermal and mass stratification, comparing the results of fluid dynamics in this scenario
against the classical case without stratification. This study thoroughly examines
and presents the effects of key physical parameters such as γ, ξ, Gr, Gc, the Magnetic
parameter M , and Darcy number (Da) on the flow profiles through detailed graphs and
tables. The insights gained have wide-ranging applications across various industries,
notably in enhancing the performance of thermal systems by minimizing temperature
discrepancies between the walls and the fluid and accelerating mass diffusion processes.
The real-world applicability of the findings from this study lies in optimizing fluid
behavior in engineering and environmental processes. The effects of thermal and
mass stratification on MHD flow in porous media can enhance the efficiency of heat
and mass transfer systems, such as in industrial cooling, pollutant management, and
energy system design. These findings also provide valuable insights into process control,
improving the prediction and stabilization of fluid motion in varied magnetic and
porous environments.
50 Dynamic Interaction of Stratifications in a MHD Parabolic Flow...

Fig. 3.1 Physical Model and coordinate system

3.2 Problem Statement

In modern fluid dynamics research, understanding the behavior of magnetohydrody-
namic (MHD) flows, particularly in porous media, is critical for improving industrial
and environmental processes. The challenge lies in accurately modeling the combined
effects of thermal and mass stratification, variable magnetic fields, and mass diffusion,
all of which significantly influence flow dynamics, temperature distribution, and heat
transfer efficiency. Despite existing numerical approaches, experimental validation
remains limited, raising concerns about the robustness of current models. This study
aims to address these limitations by developing a more comprehensive numerical anal-
ysis of MHD flow that incorporates thermal and mass stratification effects. The main
objective is to enhance the accuracy of predictions related to fluid velocity, heat, and
mass transfer, providing valuable insights for optimizing engineering applications such
as cooling systems and environmental management.
Figure 3.1 The geometrical configuration depicts a vertical plate immersed in a
porous medium, featuring distinct momentum, thermal, and concentration boundary
layers. The novelty lies in analyzing MHD flow under thermal and mass stratification
with periodic temperature variations and variable mass diffusion. This setup enhances
understanding of how stratification impacts fluid flow stability and heat/mass transfer
efficiency, offering new insights into optimizing processes in porous environments under
varying magnetic field influences.
The following flow assumptions are made to idealize the mathematical model:

• Incompressible Fluid: The fluid is assumed to be electrically conducting and

incompressible, which simplifies the momentum equations.
3.3 Mathematical Analysis 51

• Infinite Vertical Plate: The flow is considered along an infinite vertical plate,
meaning the flow variables depend only on the coordinate perpendicular to the
plate and time, not along the plate length.

• Parabolic Flow: The flow is assumed to be laminar and parabolic, indicative

of a steady, symmetric velocity profile typical in confined geometries.

• Periodic Temperature Variation: The temperature at the plate undergoes

periodic oscillations, affecting the fluid’s thermal behavior over time.

• Variable Mass Diffusion: Concentration at the plate varies with time, signifi-
cantly affecting mass transfer characteristics.

• No Side Boundaries: The lack of side boundaries implies that the flow extends
indefinitely in the horizontal directions parallel to the plate.

• Porous Medium: The presence of a porous medium affects fluid flow and
diffusion characteristics, modeled through parameters like the Darcy number.

• MHD Effects: Magnetic fields are considered, affecting the fluid dynamics
through electromagnetic forces, represented by the magnetic parameter.

These assumptions form the basis for the mathematical modeling and analysis
conducted in the study, focusing on how these specific conditions impact flow dynamics,
heat, and mass transfer in the context of engineering and environmental applications.

3.3 Mathematical Analysis

The governing equations describing the convective movement of an electrically con-
ducting, incompressible, and viscous fluid through a porous medium in presence of a
magnetic field, where both mass diffusivity and thermal diffusivity are constant, and
incorporating the diffusion-thermo effect, are formulated in vector form as follows:
Momentum Equation
" #
∂⃗q ⃗ + p⃗g + µ∇2 ⃗q − µ⃗q
ρ ′
+ (⃗q.∇)⃗
⃗ q = −∇p
⃗ + J⃗ × B (3.1)
∂t k

Energy Equation

∂T ′
" #
ρCp + (⃗q.∇)T
⃗ ′ = α∇2 T ′ (3.2)
∂t′

Concentration Equation

∂C ′
′
+ (⃗q.∇)C
⃗ ′ = D∇2 C ′ (3.3)
∂t
52 Dynamic Interaction of Stratifications in a MHD Parabolic Flow...

Consider the MHD unsteady parabolic flow of a viscous, incompressible, stratified

fluid along an infinite vertical plate embedded in a porous medium. We use a rectangular
Cartesian coordinate system (x′ , y ′ , t′ ), where the y ′ axis is perpendicular to the plate
and the x′ axis extends vertically along the plate. The fluid velocity at any point
(x′ , y ′ , t′ ) is given by q = (u′ , 0). Initially, at t′ = 0, both the temperature and
concentration at the plate are T∞ ′
and C∞ ′
, respectively. For t′ > 0, the plate moves
within its plane at a velocity of u0 t′2 , relative to the gravitational field. Additionally,
from t′ > 0, the temperature oscillates periodically from T∞ ′
to Tω′ + (Tw′ − T∞
′
) cos ω ′ t′ ,
while the concentration linearly increases with time. Given the infinite extent of the
plate, all flow variables depend solely on y ′ and t′ , not on x′ . Utilizing the standard
Boussinesq approximation, the equations for computing the MHD unsteady flow can
be derived. These derivations follow the conversion procedures previously outlined by
Sarma et al. [85]. The governing equations are based on the formulations presented in
Sahu et al. [123] and Kumar et al. [84].

∂u′ ∂ 2 u′ σB02 u′ ν ′
= gβ(T ′
− T∞
′
) + gβ ∗
(C ′
− C ′
∞ ) + ν − − u (3.4)
∂t′ ∂y ′2 ρ k
′ 2 ′
∂T ∂ T
′
= α ′2 − γ ′ u′ (3.5)
∂t ∂y
′
∂C ∂ 2C ′
= D − ξ ′ u′ (3.6)
∂t′ ∂y ′2

with the following initial and boundary conditions ([71, 94]):

u′ = 0 T ′ = T∞′
C ′ = C∞
′
∀y ′ , t′ ≤ 0
u′ = u0 t′2 T ′ = Tω′ + (Tw′ − T∞
′
)cosω ′ t′ C ′ = C∞
′
+ (Cw′ − C∞
′
)At′ at y ′ = 0, t′ > 0
u′ = 0 T ′ → T∞ ′
C ′ → C∞ ′
as y ′ → ∞, t′ > 0

where α, η, ν, and D are respectively thermal diffusivity, similarity parameter,

kinematic viscosity, and mass diffusion coefficient. The "thermal stratification param-
′ ′
eter" and "mass stratification parameter" are termed as γ = dT ∞
dx′
+ Cgp and ξ = dC ∞
dx′
respectively. The term "thermal stratification" refers to the combination of vertical
′

temperature advection dT ∞
dx′
, where the temperature of the surrounding fluid is height-
 
dependent, and work of compression Cgp , which is the rate at which particles in a
fluid do reversible work due to compression.
We provide non-dimensional quantities in the following:
!1/3
u20 T ′ − T∞
′
C ′ − C∞
′
1/3 1/3
u0 u0
 
U =u ′
, t=t ′
, y=y ′
, θ= , C= ,
ν2 ν ν2 Tw′ − T∞′ Cw′ − C∞′
3.4 Method of Solution 53

!1/3
gβ(Tw′ − T∞ ′
) gβ ∗ (Cw′ − C∞ ′
) ν ν ν
Gr = , Gc = , Pr = , Sc = , ω = ω′ ,
(νu0 )1/3 (νu0 ) 1/3 α D u20

!1/3 !1/3
σB02 ν u20 γ ′ν ξ′ν
M= , Da = k , γ= , ξ=
ρ u20 ν4 u0 (Tw′ − T∞
′ ) u0 (Cw′ − C∞
′ )

u2 1/3
 
A = ν0 is the constant. Then non-dimensional forms of the equations (3.4)-(3.6)
are given by

∂U ∂ 2U 1
 
= Grθ + GcC + 2
− M+ U (3.7)
∂t ∂y Da
∂θ 1 ∂ 2θ
= − γU (3.8)
∂t P r ∂y 2
∂C 1 ∂ 2C
= − ξU (3.9)
∂t Sc ∂y 2

Non-dimensional forms of initial and boundary conditions are:

U =0 θ=0 C=0 ∀y, t ≤ 0

U = t2 θ = 1 + cosωt C=t at y = 0, t > 0
U =0 θ→0 C→0 as y → ∞, t > 0 (3.10)

Dimensionless analysis is essential in generalizing findings across different systems

by normalizing variables and simplifying complex equations. It allows the comparison of
fluid flow behaviors in various contexts regardless of scale. Key dimensionless numbers,
such as Schmidt, Prandtl, and Nusselt, characterize the flow regime, heat transfer, and
other properties. This method helps in reducing experimental data to universal trends,
ensuring that results can be applied to a wide range of physical systems, facilitating
predictions and optimizing processes.

3.4 Method of Solution

We found that using the Laplace transform technique results in an equation of non-
tractable form for any arbitrary Prandtl or Schmidt number. The non-dimensional
governing equations (3.7)-(3.9), along with the boundary conditions (3.10), are solvable
when the conditions are simplified to P r = 1, Sc = 1. Accordingly, we get
54 Dynamic Interaction of Stratifications in a MHD Parabolic Flow...

d2 U 1
 
2
− sU + Grθ + GcC − M + U =0 (3.11)
dy Da

d2 θ
− sθ = γU (3.12)
dy 2
and
d2 C
− sC = ξU (3.13)
dy 2
Where the Laplace transform parameter is denoted by s. For example, the Laplace
transform of U (y, t) is given by
ˆ ∞
L{U (y, t)} = e−st U (y, t) dt = U (y, s),
0
such that its inverse Laplace transform exists and satisfies

L−1 {U (y, s)} = U (y, t).

We will now solve these differential equations using boundary and initial conditions,
and by applying the inverse Laplace technique (referencing Abramowitz and Stegun
[86] and Hetnarski [87]). From this, we have derived expressions for the velocity,
temperature, and concentration profiles as follows:

1 Gr
U = {F h3 (F ) − Qh3 (Q)} + {h4 (Q, iω) + h4 (Q, −iω)
F −Q 2(F − Q)
Gr + Gc
−h4 (F, iω) − h4 (F, −iω)} − {h1 (F ) − h1 (Q)} (3.14)
F −Q
1
θ = (1 + E1 − E2 ) erf c(η) + ( + E3 − E4 ) [h5 (iω) + h5 (−iω)]
2
1 1
" (
Gr
+γ {h3 (F ) − h3 (Q)} + h4 (Q, iω)
F −Q 2(F − Q) Q
1 1 1 Gr + Gc
)
+ h4 (Q, −iω) − h4 (F, iω) − h4 (F, −iω) +
Q F F F −Q
1 1
( )#
h1 (Q) − h1 (F ) (3.15)
Q F

2η
" #
2
C = t (1 + 2η )erf c(η) − √ e−η − (D1 − D2 ) [h5 (iω) + h5 (−iω)]
2
π
ξ
+(D3 − D4 )erf c(η) + {h3 (F ) − h3 (Q)} − D1 {h4 (F, iω) + h4 (F, −iω)}
F −Q
+D2 {h4 (Q, iω) + h4 (Q, −iω)} − D3 h1 (F ) + D4 h1 (Q) (3.16)
3.4 Method of Solution 55

Where,
s
1 1
2
y

η= √ , F Q = γGr+ξGc, F +Q = M + , F −Q = M+ − 4(γGr + ξGc)
2 t Da Da

ξGr ξGr ξ(Gr + Gc) ξ(Gr + Gc)

D1 = , D2 = , D3 = , D4 =
2F (F − Q) 2Q(F − Q) F (F − Q) Q(F − Q)
γ(Gr + Gc) γ(Gr + Gc) γGr γGr
E1 = , E2 = , E3 = , E4 =
F (F − Q) Q(F − Q) 2F (F − Q) 2Q(F − Q)
Also, hi ’s are inverse Laplace’s transforms given by
√ √
e−y s+p
e−y s+p
( ) ( )
h1 (p) = L−1 , h2 (p) = L−1
s s2
√ √ √
e−y s+p e−y s+p e−y s
( ) ( ) ( )
h3 (p) = L −1
, h4 (p, iq) = L −1
, h5 (iq) = L −1
s3 s + iq s + iq
We separate the complex arguments of the error function contained in the previous
expressions into real and imaginary parts using the formulas provided by Abramowitz
and Stegun [86].

3.4.1 Classical Case

We derived solutions for the classical case of no thermal and mass stratification
(γ = 0, ξ = 0). We want to compare the results of the fluid with thermal and mass
stratification to the case with no stratification. Hence, the solutions for the classical
case with boundary conditions (3.10) by using the Laplace transformation are as
follows:

2η
( )
  2
Cc = t 1 + 2η 2 erf c(η) − √ e−η (3.17)
π

1
θc = erf c(η) + [h5 (iω) + h5 (−iω)] (3.18)
2

Gr Gr
Uc = h3 (F + Q) − h1 (f + Q) − {h4 (F + Q, iω) + h4
F +Q 2(F + Q)
Gr Gr
(F + Q, −iω)} + erf c(η) + [h5 (iω) + h5 (−iω)] (3.19)
F +Q 2(F + Q)
56 Dynamic Interaction of Stratifications in a MHD Parabolic Flow...

3.4.2 Skin-Friction
The non-dimensional Skin-Friction, which is determined as shear stress on the surface,
is obtained by

dU
τ=−
dy y=0

The solution for the Skin-Friction is calculated from the solution of Velocity profile U ,
represented by (3.14), as follows:

 √ √ √ −F t 
√ √
s
F t erf ( F t) erf ( F t) te 
τ= t2 F erf ( F t) + t e−F t − +t √ + √
2(F − Q) π 4F 3/2
F 2F π
Gr
 √ q √ q
− e−iωt F − iω erf ( (F − iω)t) + eiωt F + iω erf ( (F + iω)t)
2(F − Q)
2e−F t 2e−Qt
q q #
q q
−e−iωt
Q − iωerf ( (Q − iω)t) − e iωt
Q + iω erf ( (Q + iω)t) + √ − √
πt πt
Gr + Gc √ √ −F t −Qt
" #
e q q e Q
− F erf ( F t) + √ − Q erf ( Qt) − √ −
F −Q πt πt 2(F − Q)
 s √ √ √ −Qt 
q q
t2 Q erf ( Qt) +
t erf ( Qt) erf ( Qt) te
t e−Qt − +t √ + √ 
π 4Q 3/2 Q 2Q π

The solution for the Skin-Friction for the classical case is given from the expression
(3.19), which is represented by

q
erf ( (F + Q)t)
 s
1  2q q t
τc = t F + Q erf ( (F + Q))t) + t e−(F +Q)t −
2 π 4(F + Q)3/2
q √ −(F +Q)t 
erf ( (F + Q)t) te Gr q
 q
+t √ + √ − F + Q erf ( (F + Q)t)
F +Q 2(F + Q) π F +Q


e−(F +Q)t 1 √ √ √
#
Gr Gr h
+ √ + √ + e−iωt −iω erf ( −iωt) + eiωt iω
πt F + Q πt 2(F + Q)
√ 2
#
Gr
 q
erf ( iωt) + √ − e−iωt F + Q − iω
πt 2(F + Q)
2e−(F +Q)t
q q #
q
erf ( (F + Q − iω)t) + e iωt
F + Q + iω erf ( (F + Q + iω)t) + √
πt
3.4 Method of Solution 57

3.4.3 Nusselt Number

The non-dimensional Nusselt number, which is determined as the rate of heat transfer,
is obtained by

dθ
Nu = −
dy y=0

The solution for the Nusselt number is calculated from the solution of Temperature
profile θ, represented by (3.15), as follows:

1 1 h √ √
N u = (1 + E1 − E2 ) √ + ( + E3 − E4 ) e−iωt −iω erf ( −iωt)
πt 2

√ √
s
√ √ 2
#
γ t
+eiωt iω erf ( iωt) + √ + t2 F erf ( F t) + t e−F t
πt 2(F − Q) π
√ √ √ −F t #
erf ( F t) erf ( F t) te √
 q
− + t √ + √ − E 3 e −iωt
F − iω erf ( (F − iω)t)
4F 3/2 F 2F π
√ 2e −F t √ √ −F t
# " #
q e
+eiωt F + iω erf ( (F + iω)t) + √ − E1 F erf ( F t) + √
πt πt
−Qt
" #
e
q q  q q
+E2 Q erf ( Qt) + √ + E4 e−iωt Q − iω erf ( (Q − iω)t)
πt
2e −Qt
#
γ
q q  q q
+e iωt
Q + iωerf ( (Q + iω)t) + √ − t2 Q erf ( Qt)
πt 2(F − Q)
s √ √ √ −Qt 
t erf ( Qt) erf ( Qt) te
+ t e−Qt − +t √ + √ 
π 4Q 3/2 Q 2Q π

The solution for the Nusselt number for the classical case is given from the expression
(3.18), which is represented by
2 1h √ √ √ √ i
N uc = √ + e−iωt −iω erf ( −iωt) + eiωt iω erf ( iωt)
πt 2

3.4.4 Sherwood Number

The non-dimensional Sherwood number, which is determined as the rate of mass
transfer, is obtained by

dC
Sh = −
dy y=0

The solution for the Sherwood number is calculated from the solution of Concentration
profile C, represented by (3.16), as follows:
58 Dynamic Interaction of Stratifications in a MHD Parabolic Flow...

s
√ √ √ √ 2
" #
t
Sh = 2 + (D1 − D2 ) e−iωt −iω erf ( −iωt) + eiωt iω erf ( iωt) + √
π πt
 √
√ √
s
1 ξ t erf ( F t)
+(D3 − D4 ) √ + t2 F erf ( F t) + t e−F t −
πt 2(F − Q) π 4F 3/2
√ √ −F t #
erf ( F t) te √
 q
+t √ + √ − D1 e−iωt
F − iω erf ( (F − iω)t) + eiωt
F 2F π
√ 2e−F t √ √ e−F t
q # " #
F + iω erf ( (F + iω)t) + √ − D3 F erf ( F t) + √ + D4
πt πt
e−Qt
" #  q
q q q
Q erf ( Qt) + √ + D2 e −iωt
Q − iω erf ( (Q − iω)t) + eiωt
πt
2e−Qt
#
ξ
q q  q q
Q + iω erf ( (Q + iω)t) + √ − t2 Q erf ( Qt)
πt 2(F − Q)
s √ √ √ −Qt 
t erf ( Qt) erf ( Qt) te
+ t e−Qt − +t √ + √ 
π 4Q 3/2 Q 2Q π

The solution for the Sherwood number for the classical case is given from the
expression (3.17), which is represented by
s
t
Shc = 2
π

3.5 Results and Discussion

We calculated numerical values for various physical parameters such as velocity, tem-
perature, concentration, skin friction, Nusselt number, and Sherwood number using
the solutions developed in earlier sections. This analysis allowed us to delve deeper
into the physical aspects of the problem. We plotted these values using MATLAB
in Figures 3.3-3.20 and Table 3.1. The parameters used in this study include γ =
0.5, ξ = 0.4, Gr = 5, Gc = 5, M = 0.3, Da = 0.5, ωt = π/3, a = 0.2, and y = 1.1. The
parameter ranges are: 0 ≤ γ ≤ 2, 0 ≤ ξ ≤ 2, 5 ≤ Gr ≤ 10, 5 ≤ Gc ≤ 10, 0 ≤ M ≤ 2,
and 0.3 ≤ Da ≤ 1. A parameter value of zero indicates its negligible effect in the
analysis, though for classical comparisons, some parameters were considered zero.
Figure 3.2 shows that our findings (depicted by the red line) align closely with those
from the study by Muralidharn et al. [71] (marked by blue stars), validating our results
through a notable peak in velocity around η = 0.5, which underscores the consistency
and reliability of our research.
Figure 3.3 illustrates the impact of thermal and mass stratification on velocity
profiles, showing that velocity decreases both when thermal stratification is present
without mass stratification, and vice versa. When one type of stratification is held
3.5 Results and Discussion 59

Fig. 3.2 Comparison of velocity in absence of γ

Fig. 3.3 Effects of γ and ξ on velocity profile

constant, an increase in the other leads to further reductions in velocity. Similar to

the findings of Shapiro and Fedorovich [5], which indicate a reduction in fluid velocity
with thermal stratification for γ > 0, our results also reveal a decrease in velocity with
mass stratification when ξ > 0. An increased thermal stratification (γ) lowers the
convective interaction between the heated plate and the fluid, reducing the buoyancy
force and consequently the flow velocity. Additionally, a higher mass stratification (ξ)
diminishes the concentration gradient at the surface, reducing the buoyant lift and thus
60 Dynamic Interaction of Stratifications in a MHD Parabolic Flow...

Fig. 3.4 Effects of Gr and Gc on velocity profile

Fig. 3.5 Effects of M on velocity profile

the fluid flow velocity. Therefore, the presence of both thermal and mass stratification
reduces fluid velocity compared to conditions without stratification, promoting a more
stable stratified flow. As seen in Fig. 3.4, increasing the thermal Grashof number (Gr)
enhances buoyant forces driven by temperature differences, accelerating fluid motion.
Conversely, increasing the mass Grashof number (Gc) generates stronger concentration
gradients, creating opposing buoyancy forces that hinder flow, leading to reduced
3.5 Results and Discussion 61

Fig. 3.6 Effects of Da on velocity profile

Fig. 3.7 Effects of γ and ξ on velocity Profile against time

velocity. In Figure 3.5, increasing M further amplifies Lorentz forces, which oppose the
fluid’s natural motion. These electromagnetic forces enhance resistive drag, reducing
velocity by converting kinetic energy into heat, thus dampening convective flow and
suppressing fluid movement. We can observe from Fig. 3.6 that higher Da values
correspond to increased permeability in porous media, reducing flow resistance and
allowing fluid to pass more freely. This enhances velocity, as the porous medium offers
less impedance, facilitating smoother fluid movement and stronger convective currents.
62 Dynamic Interaction of Stratifications in a MHD Parabolic Flow...

In Fig. 3.7, increasing the thermal stratification parameter (γ) or mass stratification
parameter (ξ) enhances the vertical temperature and concentration gradients, leading
to stability in the fluid layers. These gradients reduce buoyancy-driven convection,
causing a suppression in velocity as the stratified fluid resists vertical mixing, thereby
dampening overall fluid motion. This stabilizing effect hinders convective flow, leading
to lower velocities over time.

Fig. 3.8 Effects of γ and ξ on Temperature profile

Fig. 3.9 Effects of Gr and Gc on Temperature profile

3.5 Results and Discussion 63

Fig. 3.10 Effects of M on Temperature profile

Fig. 3.11 Effects of Da on Temperature profile

The effect of thermal and mass stratification on the temperature profile is seen in
Fig. 3.8. As γ increases, it tends to lower the temperature gradient, suggesting that
thermal stratification reduces the rate at which temperature decreases with η. Similarly,
an increase in ξ also lowers the temperature gradient, implying that mass stratification
affects the thermal field by moderating temperature variations. Combinations of high
values of both γ and ξ show the most significant reduction in temperature changes
across η, indicating the compounded effect of both types of stratification. Figure 3.9
64 Dynamic Interaction of Stratifications in a MHD Parabolic Flow...

Fig. 3.12 Effects of γ and ξ on Temperature profile over

time

demonstrates that increasing the thermal Grashof number (Gr) reduces the temperature,
reflecting enhanced thermal buoyancy’s cooling effect. Increasing the mass Grashof
number (Gc) similarly lowers the temperature. Maximizing both parameters leads to
the greatest temperature decrease, due to the combined cooling effects of increased
thermal and mass buoyancy. Figure 3.10 illustrates that elevated M values increase
magnetic damping through stronger Lorentz forces, reducing kinetic-to-thermal energy
conversion, thus lowering temperature profiles by limiting convective heat transfer
within the fluid. Figure 3.11 illustrates that higher Darcy number (Da) values enhance
permeability in porous media, reducing flow resistance and improving heat transfer by
facilitating fluid movement. This leads to greater thermal diffusion, resulting in a flatter
temperature profile. Additionally, Figure 3.12 depicts the influence of thermal (γ) and
mass (ξ) stratification parameters on temperature over time. As γ, ξ, or both increase,
the temperature decreases more significantly throughout the timeline, highlighting
the role of stratification in thermal regulation. For example, lines representing higher
values of both γ and ξ show a greater decline in temperature compared to lines with
lower or zero values. This suggests that increased stratification intensifies the cooling
effect over time, leading to lower temperatures as the interaction between thermal and
mass influences becomes more pronounced.
As demonstrated in Figures 3.13, 3.14, 3.15 and 3.16, the impacts of γ and ξ, Gr
and Gc, M , and Da on concentration profiles mirror those observed in temperature
profiles. Fig. 3.17 shows that increasing both the thermal stratification parameter (γ)
and the mass stratification parameter (ξ) influences the concentration profiles over
time. Higher values of γ and ξ, individually or combined, lead to a slower increase
3.5 Results and Discussion 65

Fig. 3.13 Effects of γ and ξ on Concentration profile

Fig. 3.14 Effects of Gr and Gc on Concentration profile

in concentration. This suggests that enhanced stratification suppresses the rate of

concentration change, stabilizing the concentration levels more effectively.
In Figure 3.18, the skin friction graph demonstrates an increase over time, partic-
ularly in scenarios with both thermal (γ) and mass (ξ) stratification. This increase,
compared to cases without stratification, suggests that the combined effects of both
parameters enhance the fluid’s resistance against the surface, thereby increasing skin
friction. In Figures 3.19 and 3.20 the Nusselt and Sherwood numbers increase over
66 Dynamic Interaction of Stratifications in a MHD Parabolic Flow...

Fig. 3.15 Effects of M on Concentration profile

Fig. 3.16 Effects of Da on Concentration profile

time, indicating improved heat and mass transfer, respectively. Higher γ and ξ values
further enhance these transfers, as seen in the steepness of the curves. This suggests
that increased stratification intensifies the heat and mass transfer efficiencies in the
fluid.
Table 3.1 presents the impact of thermal Grashof number (Gr), mass Grashof
number (Gc), magnetic parameter (M ), and Darcy number (Da) on skin friction,
Nusselt number (N u), and Sherwood number (Sh). As Gr and Gc increase, there is a
3.5 Results and Discussion 67

Fig. 3.17 Effects of γ and ξ on Concentration profile over

time

Fig. 3.18 Effects of γ and ξ on Skin Friction

significant rise in skin friction, indicating that enhanced buoyancy forces lead to greater
convective flow and higher surface resistance. This also results in improved heat and
mass transfer, as reflected by the higher N u and Sh values. Conversely, increasing the
magnetic parameter (M ) reduces skin friction, due to the magnetic field’s damping
effect, which slows fluid motion by introducing Lorentz forces. This also slightly
decreases the Nusselt and Sherwood numbers, as the stabilizing effect of the magnetic
68 Dynamic Interaction of Stratifications in a MHD Parabolic Flow...

Fig. 3.19 Effects of γ and ξ on Nusselt Number

Fig. 3.20 Effects of γ and ξ on Sherwood Number

field reduces convective heat and mass transfer. The Darcy number (Da) shows a
more complex relationship: as permeability increases, skin friction initially decreases
due to restricted flow but rises again at higher Da values as fluid motion becomes less
restricted. Both Nu and Sh increase with Da, reflecting enhanced heat and mass transfer
as permeability increases. Overall, thermal and mass stratification, magnetic fields,
and porous medium characteristics significantly influence fluid dynamics, affecting both
heat and mass transfer efficiency.
3.6 Conclusion 69

Table 3.1 The impact of different parameters on Skin Friction, Nusselt number and
Sherwood number coefficients with

Gr Gc M Da τ Nu Sh
5 5 0.3 0.5 -3.2582 1.2030 1.3793
10 5 -6.1775 1.2240 1.3960
5 10 -5.0863 1.3208 1.4735
10 10 -8.0389 1.3319 1.4824
0.1 -3.3470 1.2080 1.3833
0.5 -3.1721 1.1983 1.3755
1 -2.9683 1.1873 1.3667
0.3 -2.7331 1.1746 1.3566
0.7 -3.5186 1.2180 1.3912
1 -3.7265 1.2310 1.4017

3.6 Conclusion
The study reveals that increasing thermal and mass stratification parameters consis-
tently reduces velocity and temperature, stabilizing fluid flow and thermal environments.
Enhancements in thermal and mass Grashof numbers improve heat and mass trans-
fer efficiency, as indicated by higher Nusselt and Sherwood numbers. The magnetic
parameter and Darcy number significantly impact heat transfer and flow resistance,
respectively. The novel findings demonstrate that combined thermal and mass strati-
fication dampens fluid velocity, enhances heat and mass transfer, and increases skin
friction due to stratification-induced stability. These insights provide valuable guidance
for optimizing fluid dynamics in engineering applications. Future studies could inves-
tigate non-linear temperature and concentration gradients, variable magnetic fields,
and different porous media to further improve process control. Practical applications
include optimizing industrial cooling systems, controlling environmental pollutants,
and designing efficient heat exchangers, highlighting the relevance of these findings in
engineering and energy systems.
 The Comprehensive Analysis of
Stratification and Chemical
4
Reaction on MHD Flow along an
Impulsively Started Infinite Vertical
Plate in Presence of Radiation and
Heat Source Through Porous
Medium
Published in Heat Transfer, 2025, ISSN: 2312-4334, E-ISSN: 2688-4542,
(SCOPUS, ESCI)

4.1 Introduction
In fluid dynamics and heat transfer studies, the interaction of chemical reaction, heat
sources, porous media, thermal radiation, and thermal stratification creates a complex
environment where each factor influences the others. Chemical reaction within a flow
generate or consume heat, altering temperature profiles and often interacting with
heat sources that inject additional energy, intensifying thermal gradients and driving
convection processes. This intricate temperature distribution becomes more complex
in a porous medium, which restricts fluid movement while enhancing thermal and mass
exchange through increased surface area. The laplace transform technique is frequently
employed to simplify these interactions mathematically, converting differential equations
72 The Comprehensive Analysis of Stratification and Chemical Reaction...

of these coupled phenomena into solvable algebraic forms. Additionally, thermal

radiation contributes to energy transfer independently of the medium, especially
relevant in high-temperature systems or where conduction and convection are limited,
influencing heat distribution alongside stratified layers in thermally stable or unstable
forms. This thermal stratification—layering based on temperature differences—affects
the stability and efficiency of heat transfer in systems, as warmer, buoyant layers form
above cooler, denser ones, modifying the flow and exchange patterns across the medium.
Together, these factors define and shape the behavior of thermal and reactive flows,
each influencing and driven by the other in dynamic, often complex ways that are
crucial to various engineering and environmental applications.
Recent studies have thoroughly explored hydromagnetic (MHD) and heat trans-
fer behavior in fluid flows along vertical plates under various conditions. Seth et al.
[124] examined MHD convection past an accelerated plate within a porous medium,
incorporating chemical reaction and heat absorption, whereas Muralidharn and Muthu-
cumaraswamy [71] analyzed parabolic flows with uniform heat flux and variable mass
diffusion. Expanding on this, Muthucumaraswamy and Sivakumar [21, 57] investigated
the effects of thermal radiation on MHD flows past isothermal plates. Selvaraj et al.
[22] incorporated rotational effects on MHD-parabolic flow with mass diffusion, while
Reddy et al. [73] studied the influence of ramped temperature and slip conditions on
unsteady MHD flow. Asogwa et al. [125]ther explored Casson fluid dynamics with
ramped temperature and surface concentration effects. Yanala et al. [126] addressed
chemical reaction impacts under transient laminar flow, and Endalew and Sarkar [92]
examined the alignment of magnetic fields in MHD flows. Reddy et al. [93] presented
numerical insights on MHD parabolic flow past a vertical plate in a porous medium,
highlighting complex interactions in fluid dynamics. Relevant studies have advanced
our understanding of unsteady MHD convective flows under varying physical effects.
Sarma and Ahmed [85] explored the Dufour effect on MHD flow in porous media
with ramped temperature conditions. Mandal et al. [127] studied unsteady MHD
free convection in radiative fluids with ramped double-diffusive conditions along a
time-dependent moving plate. Rajaraman and Muthucumaraswamy [128] examined
the impact of chemical reaction, viscous dissipation, and thermal radiation on MHD
flows around oscillating plates. Aravind and Ravikumar [129] analyzed rotating fluid
effects on oscillating plates with variable temperature and mass diffusion. Ullah and
Alkinidri [130] investigated the influence of variable viscosity on oscillatory heat and
mass transfer with chemical reaction under reduced gravity. Bordoloi et al. [131, 132]
provided exact analyses on radiation absorption and Dufour effect impacts on Cu-water
nanofluids and free convective MHD radiative flows, respectively. Kumar et al. [133]
detailed MHD flows over vertical porous plates with heat generation and chemical
reaction, while Goud et al. [134] emphasized viscous dissipation and Soret effects
in porous media flows. Finally, Anand Kumar et al. [135] analyzed heat and mass
transfer in MHD convective flows through porous media between two vertical plates,
furthering insights into complex fluid dynamics. The most recent literature continues
to explore the complex interactions in MHD convective flows, particularly focusing on
4.1 Introduction 73

the influence of chemical reaction, heat generation, and various stratification effects.
Harikrushna et al. [136] analyzed chemical reaction effects on MHD flow past a vertical
absorbent plate with ramped wall temperature and concentration. Sudarmozhi et
al. [137] investigated Maxwell fluid dynamics under chemical reaction and viscous
dissipation. Appidi et al. [138] examined the influence of thermal radiation and
viscous dissipation on MHD convective flows with micro-polar fluids. Rai and Mishra
[139] explored MHD nanofluid flows with slip conditions and radiation effects on a
moving plate. Ramanjaneyulu and Hari Krishna [140] studied heat absorption in fluids
around inclined porous plates. Gopal et al. [141] assessed second-grade fluid flow in
unsteady MHD convection with chemical reaction. Chandra Sekhar and Vijaya Kumar
[142] investigated chemical impacts on unsteady MHD flows past infinite vertical
plates, while Reddy et al. [143, 144] provided computational analyses on chemically
reactive magneto-nanofluids in oscillating and permeable plates. Sahu and Deka [145–
148, 123, 149, 150] analyzed the dynamic effects of thermal and mass stratification on
MHD parabolic flow with periodic temperature variations, adding valuable insights
into stratification influences in porous media. Khan [151] explored the significance of
ramped temperature in the unsteady dynamics of viscoelastic fluids under Lorentz
force, demonstrating how thermal ramping can impact flow behavior and heat transfer
characteristics. This study is crucial for understanding fluid behavior in magnetic
fields, with applications in industrial processes and biomedical engineering. In a com-
plementary study, Khan [152] investigated the Prabhakar fractional derivative model
for sodium alginate (C6 H9 N aO7 ), highlighting its role in modeling accelerated plate
motions. This work emphasizes the relevance of fractional derivatives in describing the
memory effects in viscoelastic materials. The hemodynamics of blood flow, a critical
aspect of biomedical engineering, has also been addressed. Khan [153] examined blood
flow over an inclined cylinder, contributing to the understanding of blood dynamics
under complex geometrical and external conditions. This study offers insights into
physiological flows, such as those in arterial structures. Khan’s [154] earlier work
introduced the Atangana-Baleanu fractional derivatives to model human blood flow
in nanofluids, shedding light on how fractional calculus can refine the understanding
of rheological properties in biological systems. This model has implications for drug
delivery systems and other biomedical applications. Building on these findings, Khan
[155] analyzed ramped heating in CNTs fractional nanofluids, revealing the impact of
ramped temperature on heat transfer efficiency. This work holds promise for enhancing
thermal management in nanotechnology applications. The entropy generation and
thermal analysis in viscoelastic fluids are vital for optimizing energy systems. Khan
[156] explored the entropy generation in sodium alginate fluids subjected to MHD and
porosity effects, providing insights into energy efficiency and thermal performance in
engineering systems. Furthermore, Khan et al. [157], presented a natural convection
simulation for Prabhakar-like fractional Maxwell fluid on inclined planes, incorporating
generalized thermal flux. Their findings highlight the interplay of fractional derivatives
and natural convection, with implications for materials processing and energy systems.
Khan’s extensive contributions, ranging from fractional derivatives to MHD and ther-
74 The Comprehensive Analysis of Stratification and Chemical Reaction...

mal effects in various fluid systems, underscore the growing importance of advanced
mathematical models in addressing complex fluid behaviors across engineering and
biomedical domains. Kataria and Mittal [158, 159] investigated nanofluid flow over an
oscillating vertical plate. Sheikholeslami et al. [160] examined the effects of radiation on
three-dimensional nanofluid heat transfer, incorporating thermal interfacial resistance
and suspension micromixing. Using a mesoscopic approach, Li et al. [161] analyzed the
MHD flow of a nanofluid through a permeable duct. Additionally, Patel et al. [162]
studied the effect of magnetic fields on the flow of micropolar ferrofluids. Mittal and
Patel [163] investigated the flow of Casson fluid at the stagnation point over an infinite
plate within a media that is permeable in two dimensions, using a mixed convective
MHD framework. Kataria and Mittal [164] analyzed the flow of Casson nanofluid in
the existence of radiation and a magnetic field. Mittal and Kataria [165] studied the
three-dimensional flow of CuO–Water nanofluid through a porous medium within a
rotating system confined between two horizontal parallel plates. Furthermore, Kataria
and Mittal [166] provided a mathematical analysis of three-dimensional nanofluid flow
in a rotating system, accounting for thermal interfacial resistance in suspensions within
porous media. Mittal et al. [167] investigated the influence of phenomena such as
viscous dissipation, mixed convection, and Joule heating on micropolar ferrofluid flow.
Mittal [168] analyzed the mass and heat transfer in a three-dimensional composite MHD
nanofluid flow between two parallel horizontal plates within a rotating system. Mittal
[169] examined the effect of a magnetic field on the flow of a two-dimensional squeezing
nanofluid confined between two equally spaced plates. Kataria et al. [170, 171] studied
the effects of nonlinear radiation on MHD micropolar fluid flow and entropy-optimized
MHD fluid flow, respectively. Patel et al. [172] explored nanofluid flow in unsteady
magnetohydrodynamics with thermo-diffusion and heat-generation effects over an
exponentially accelerated porous plate. The time-dependent flow across a vertical plate
with a stepped surface concentration in a porous medium was investigated by Mittal et
al. [173]. Additionally, Patel et al. [174] analyzed the effects of radiation and magnetic
fields on unsteady mixed convection micropolar nanofluid flow.

This study presents several novel contributions. The Laplace transform technique is
utilized to obtain an exact solution with no approximations, showcasing its effectiveness
as a reliable analytical approach. The main objective of this research was to conduct an
analytical investigation to examine MHD unsteady flow with thermal stratification and
compare the resulting fluid dynamics with the classical case without stratification. Key
physical parameters, including γ, K, Gr, Gc, R, ϕ, Sc, M , and Da, were meticulously
analyzed, with comprehensive graphs and tables illustrating their effects on flow profiles.
The findings offer significant applications in optimizing thermal systems, reducing
temperature disparities between walls and fluids, and improving mass diffusion processes.
These results are invaluable for engineering and environmental applications, improving
heat and mass transfer efficiency in systems like industrial cooling, pollution control,
and energy optimization. Additionally, the study provides critical insights for the
4.2 Mathematical Formulation 75

Fig. 4.1 Physical Model

control of processes, facilitating fluid motion prediction and stabilization in porous and
magnetic mediums.

4.2 Mathematical Formulation

We investigate the effects of first-order chemical reaction on the unsteady MHD motion
of a stratified, viscous, incompressible fluid flowing past an oscillating vertical plate
with an impulsive start. In this setup, the x′ -axis is directed vertically along the plate,
while the y ′ -axis is normal to the plate, as illustrated in Figure 4.1. Initially, at t′ = 0,
the concentration and temperature of the fluid at the plate are C ′ and T ′ , respectively.
For t′ > 0, the plate starts moving impulsively with a velocity u0 , while the concen-
tration and temperature of the plate are raised to Cw′ and Tw′ , respectively. Because
the plate extends infinitely, all flow variables depend only on y ′ and t′ , leading to a
one-dimensional flow characterized by a single non-zero vertical velocity component, u′ .
By incorporating the pressure work term and ambient temperature stratification into
the thermodynamic energy equation and applying the Boussinesq approximation, the
following is the derivation of the governing equations [73, 131, 146]:

∂u′ ∂ 2 u′ σB02 u′ ν ′
= gβ(T ′
− T∞
′
) + gβ ∗
(C ′
− C ′
∞ ) + ν − − u (4.1)
∂t′ ∂y ′2 ρ k
∂T ′ k ∂ 2T ′ 1 ∂qr q0
′
= ′2
− ′
− (T ′ − T∞′
) − γ ′ u′ (4.2)
∂t ρCp ∂y ρCp ∂y ρCp
′ 2 ′
∂C ∂ C
′
= D ′2 − K ′ (C ′ − C∞ ′
) (4.3)
∂t ∂y
76 The Comprehensive Analysis of Stratification and Chemical Reaction...

accompanied by the following initial and boundary conditions ([175]):

u′ = 0 T ′ = T∞′
C ′ = C∞′
∀y ′ , t′ ≤ 0
u′ = u0 T ′ = Tw′ C ′ = Cw′ at y ′ = 0, t′ > 0
u′ = 0 T ′ → T∞ ′
C ′ → C∞ ′
as y ′ → ∞, t′ > 0
′ ′
Here, the term γ ′ ≡ dT ∞
dx′
+ Cgp , where dT ∞
dx′
represents thermal stratification or
vertical temperature advection. Additionally, Cp denotes the rate at which compression,
g

sometimes referred to as the work of compression, performs reversible work on the fluid
particles. For the purpose of evaluating numerical models, the compression work is
combined with thermal stratification as an additive component.

The local radiative heat flux is given by

∂qr
= −4a∗ σ ∗ (T∞
′4
− T ′4 )
∂y ′
We assume that the temperature variations inside the flow are minimal enough such
that T ′ 4 may be expressed as the linear function of the temperature. This is achieved
by ignoring higher order terms and expanding T ′ 4 in a Taylor series about T∞ ′
. Thus,

T′ ∼
4
= 4T∞
′3
T ′ − 3T∞
′4

Consequently, we get

∂T ′ k ∂ 2T ′ 1 h ∗ ∗ ′3 ′ i q0
= 2 − 16a σ T∞ (T − T∞
′
) − (T ′ − T∞
′
) − γ ′ u′
∂t′ ρCp ∂y ′ ρCp ρCp
non-dimensional quantities are presented in the following section:
!1/3
u20 T ′ − T∞
′
C ′ − C∞
′
1/3 1/3
u0 u0
 
U =u ′
, t=t ′
, y = y′ , θ= , C= ,
ν2 ν ν2 Tw′ − T∞′ Cw′ − C∞′

!1/3
gβ(Tw′ − T∞ ′
) gβ ∗ (Cw′ − C∞′
) µCp ν q0 ν
Gr = , Gc = , Pr = , Sc = , ϕ= ,
(νu0 )1/3 (νu0 )1/3 k D ρCp u20

!1/3 !1/3 !1/3

σB02 ν u20 γ ′ν 16a∗ σ ∗ T∞
′3
ν4
M= , Da = k , γ= , R=
ρ u20 ν4 u0 (Tw′ − T∞
′ ) k u20

ν
K = K′
u20
4.3 Solution Method 77

u2 1/3
 
A = ν0 is the constant. The dimensionless forms of equations (4.1)-(4.3) are
expressed as follows:

∂U ∂ 2U 1
 
= Grθ + GcC + − M + U (4.4)
∂t ∂y 2 Da
∂θ 1 ∂ 2T 1
= − Rθ − ϕT − γu (4.5)
∂t P r ∂y 2 Pr
∂C 1 ∂ 2C
= − KC (4.6)
∂t Sc ∂y 2

The non-dimensional forms of the initial and boundary conditions are outlined as
follows:

U =0 θ=0 C=0 ∀y, t ≤ 0

U =1 θ=1 C=1 at y = 0, t > 0
U =0 θ→0 C→0 as y → ∞, t > 0 (4.7)

4.3 Solution Method

The dimensionless governing equations (4.4)–(4.6), combined with the boundary condi-
tions (4.7), are solved using Laplace transform techniques for P r = 1. As a result, the
expressions for velocity, temperature, and concentration are derived, as referenced in
[176] and [87], and are presented below:

Gc
U = [E4 ξ(A) + E5 ξ(A, Z1 , Z2 ) + E6 ξ(A, Z1 , −Z2 )]
A−B
A − N + Gr + Gc Gc
+ ξ(A) +
A−B Sc − 1
[E1 ξ(B) + E2 ξ(B, Z1 , Z2 ) + E3 ξ(B, Z1 , −Z2 )]
A − N + Gr + Gc Gc
+ ξ(B) −
A−B A−B
Gc
[E4 ξ(B) + E5 ξ(B, Z1 , Z2 ) + E6 ξ(B, Z1 , −Z2 )] −
Sc − 1
[E1 ψ(K) + E2 ψ(K, Z1 , Z2 ) + E3 ψ(K, Z1 , −Z2 )] (4.8)
78 The Comprehensive Analysis of Stratification and Chemical Reaction...

θ = (1 + λ1 − λ4 − λ5 + λ8 )ξ(G) + (λ2 − λ6 − λ9 ) ξ(G, Z1 , Z2 ) + (λ3 − λ7 − λ10 )

ξ(G, Z1 , −Z2 ) + (−λ8 + λ9 + λ10 ) ξ(G, Z3 ) + (λ11 + λ4 )ξ(A) + λ12 ξ(A, Z1 , Z2 )
+λ13 ξ(A, Z1 , −Z2 ) + (λ5 − λ14 + λ17 )ξ(B) + (λ6 − λ15 )ξ(B, Z1 , Z2 )
+(λ7 − λ16 )ξ(B, Z1 , −Z2 ) − λ18 ψ(K) + (−λ18 − λ19 − λ20 )ψ(K, Z3 )
+λ19 ψ(K, Z1 , Z2 ) + λ20 ψ(K, Z1 , −Z2 ) (4.9)

C = ψ(K) (4.10)

Where,
y 1 1
 
η= √ , AB = M + (R + ϕ) − γGr, A+B =M + + R + ϕ,
2 t Da Da
s
1 1
 2
A−B = M+ −R−ϕ − 4γGr, N =M+ , G = R + ϕ,
Da Da
v
2 Sc K − N − G u (N − G)2 − 4γGr Sc K − G
u
Z1 = , Z2 = t , Z3 = ,
2(Sc − 1) 4(Sc − 1)2 Sc − 1
Sc K − B Sc K − N Z3 Z3 − Z1 − Z2
Z4 = , Z5 = , E1 = , E2 = ,
Sc − 1 Sc − 1 Z12 − Z22 2Z2 (Z1 + Z2 )
Z2 − Z1 + Z3 Z3 Z4 (Z3 − Z1 − Z2 )(Z4 − Z1 − Z2 )
E3 = , E4 = , E5 = ,
2Z2 (Z2 − Z1 ) Z12 − Z22 2Z2 (Z1 + Z2 )
(Z2 − Z1 + Z3 )(Z2 − Z1 + Z4 ) γ Gc E4 γ Gc E5
E6 = , λ1 = , λ2 = ,
2Z2 (Z2 − Z1 ) (A − G)(B − G) (A − G)(B − G)
γ Gc E6 γ (N − B − Gr − Gc) γ Gc E1
λ3 = , λ4 = , λ5 = ,
(A − G)(B − G) (A − G)(B − G) (Sc − 1)(B − G)
γ Gc E2 γ Gc E3 γ Gc E1
λ6 = , λ7 = , λ8 = ,
(Sc − 1)(B − G) (Sc − 1)(B − G) Z3 (Sc − 1)2
γ Gc E2 γ Gc E3 γ Gc E4
λ9 = , λ10 = , λ11 = ,
(Sc − 1)2 (Z1 + Z2 − Z3 ) (Sc − 1)2 (Z1 − Z2 − Z3 ) (A − B)(A − G)
γ Gc E5 γ Gc E6 γ Gc E4
λ12 = , λ13 = , λ14 = ,
(A − B)(A − G) (A − B)(A − G) (A − B)(B − G)
γ Gc E5 γ Gc E6 γ (A − N + Gr + Gc)
λ15 = , λ16 = , λ17 = ,
(A − B)(B − G) (A − B)(B − G) (A − B)(B − G)
4.3 Solution Method 79

γ Gc E1 γ Gc E2
λ18 = , λ19 = ,
Z3 (Sc − 1)2 (Sc − 1)2 (Z1 + Z2 − Z3 )
γ Gc E3 Gr Gc
λ20 = , λ21 = , λ22 =
(Sc − 1)2 (Z1 − Z2 − Z3 ) N −G Z5 (Sc − 1)
Additionally, the inverse Laplace transforms, are defined as follows:

√ √
e−y s+A e−y s+A
( ) ( )
ξ(A, Z1 , Z2 ) = L −1
, ξ(A, Z3 ) = L−1 ,
s − (−Z1 − Z2 ) s − (−Z3 )
 √   √ 
 e−y Sc(s+K)   e−y Sc(s+K) 
ψ(K, Z1 , Z2 ) = L−1  , ψ(K, Z3 ) = L−1 
s − (−Z1 − Z2 )  s − (−Z3 ) 

4.3.1 Classical Case

For the classical case without thermal stratification (γ = 0), solutions were derived.
To enable a comparison between the fluid behavior with and without thermal stratifi-
cation, the solutions corresponding to the classical case, determined using the Laplace
transformation and the boundary conditions (4.7), are provided as follows:

θc = ξ(G) (4.11)
Uc = (1 − λ21 ) ξ(N ) + λ22 [ξ(N ) − ξ(N, Z5 )]
+λ21 ξ(G) − λ22 [ξ(K) − ξ(K, Z5 )] (4.12)

4.3.2 Skin-Friction
The non-dimensional Skin-Friction, representing the shear stress at the surface, is
determined as follows:

dU
τ=−
dy y=0

The Skin-Friction is determined from the Velocity profile U , given by (4.8), and is
expressed as follows:
80 The Comprehensive Analysis of Stratification and Chemical Reaction...

E4 Gc + N − B − Gr − Gc √ √ e−At
" # !
τ = A erf ( At) + √
A−B πt
−At
" !
Gc q q e
+ E5 e(−Z1 −Z2 )t A − Z1 − Z2 erf ( (A − Z1 − Z2 )t) + √
A−B πt
−At
!#
q q e
+E6 e(−Z1 +Z2 )t A − Z1 + Z2 erf ( (A − Z1 + Z2 )t) + √
πt
−E4 Gc + A − N + Gr + Gc √ √ e−Bt
" # !
E1 Gc
+ + B erf ( Bt) + √
Sc − 1 A−B πt
e−Bt
" # !
E2 Gc E5 Gc q q
+ − e (−Z1 −Z2 )t
B − Z1 − Z2 erf ( (B − Z1 − Z2 )t) + √
Sc − 1 A − B πt
−Bt
" # !
E3 Gc E6 Gc q q e
+ − e (−Z1 +Z2 )t
B − Z1 + Z2 erf ( (B − Z1 + Z2 )t) + √
Sc − 1 A − B πt
s
√ √
" !
Gc Sc −Kt
− E1 K Sc erf ( Kt) + e
Sc − 1 πt
s !
q q Sc −Kt
+E2 e (−Z1 −Z2 )t
Sc (K − Z1 − Z2 ) erf ( (K − Z1 − Z2 )t) + e
πt
s !#
q q Sc −Kt
+E3 e (−Z1 +Z2 )t
Sc (K − Z1 + Z2 ) erf ( (K − Z1 + Z2 )t) + e
πt

The Skin-Friction solution for the classical case is obtained from the expression
(4.12) and is expressed as follows:

√ √ e−N t
!
τc = (1 − λ21 + λ22 ) N erf ( N t) + √
πt
e−N t
q q !
−λ22 e N − Z5 erf ( (N − Z5 )t) + √
−Z5 t
πt
√ √ e−Gt
!
+λ21 G erf ( Gt) + √
πt
s
√ √
" !
Sc −Kt
−λ22 K Sc erf ( Kt) + e
πt
s !#
q q Sc −Kt
−e−Z5 t Sc (K − Z5 ) erf ( (K − Z5 )t) + e
πt
4.3 Solution Method 81

4.3.3 Nusselt Number

The non-dimensional Nusselt number, representing the rate of heat transfer, is calculated
as follows:

dθ
Nu = −
dy y=0

The Nusselt number is derived from the Temperature profile θ, given by (4.9), and is
expressed as follows:

√ √ e−Gt
!
N u = (1 + λ1 − λ4 − λ5 + λ8 ) G erf ( Gt) + √
πt
e−Gt
q q !
+(λ2 − λ6 − λ9 ) e G − Z1 − Z2 erf ( (G − Z1 − Z2 )t) + √
(−Z1 −Z2 )t
πt
e−Gt
q q !
+(λ3 − λ7 − λ10 ) e (−Z1 +Z2 )t
G − Z1 + Z2 erf ( (G − Z1 + Z2 )t) + √
πt
−Gt
!
q q e
+(−λ8 + λ9 + λ10 ) e−Z3 t G − Z3 erf ( (G − Z3 )t) + √
πt
√ √ −At
!
e
+(λ11 + λ4 ) A erf ( At) + √
πt
e−At
q q !
+λ12 e (−Z1 −Z2 )t
A − Z1 − Z2 erf ( (A − Z1 − Z2 )t) + √
πt
−At
!
q q e
+λ13 e (−Z1 +Z2 )t
A − Z1 + Z2 erf ( (A − Z1 + Z2 )t) + √
πt
√ √ −Bt
!
e
+(λ5 − λ14 + λ17 ) B erf ( Bt) + √
πt
e−Bt
q q !
+(λ6 − λ15 ) e (−Z1 −Z2 )t
B − Z1 − Z2 erf ( (B − Z1 − Z2 )t) + √
πt
−Bt
!
q q e
+(λ7 − λ16 ) e (−Z1 +Z2 )t
B − Z1 + Z2 erf ( (B − Z1 + Z2 )t) + √
πt
s !
q q Sc −Kt
+(−λ18 − λ19 − λ20 )e (−Z3 )t
Sc (K − Z3 ) erf ( (K − Z3 )t) + e
πt
s
√ √
!
Sc −Kt
−λ18 E1 K Sc erf ( Kt) + e
πt
s !
q q Sc −Kt
+λ19 e (−Z1 −Z2 )t
Sc (K − Z1 − Z2 ) erf ( (K − Z1 − Z2 )t) + e
πt
s !
q q Sc −Kt
+λ20 e (−Z1 +Z2 )t
Sc (K − Z1 + Z2 ) erf ( (K − Z1 + Z2 )t) + e
πt
82 The Comprehensive Analysis of Stratification and Chemical Reaction...

The Nusselt number solution for the classical case is obtained from the expression
(4.11) and is presented as follows:
√ √ e−Gt
N uc = G erf ( Gt) + √
πt

4.3.4 Sherwood Number

The non-dimensional Sherwood number, representing the rate of mass transfer, is
calculated as follows:

dC
Sh = −
dy y=0

The Sherwood number is derived from the Concentration profile C, given by (4.10),
and is expressed as follows:
√
√ √ Sc e−Kt
Sh = K Sc erf Kt + √
πt

4.4 Results and Discussion

Based on the solutions derived in earlier sections, numerical values were computed for
various physical parameters such as velocity, temperature, concentration, skin friction,
Nusselt number, and Sherwood number. This analysis offered a deeper understanding
of the physical behavior of the problem. The results were visualized in Figures 4.3-4.14
and summarized in Tables 4.1 and 4.2 using MATLAB. The parameters considered
in this study were γ = 0.7, K = 0.6, Gr = 10, Gc = 10, M = 0.4, Da = 0.5, t = 1.5,
R = 2, ϕ = 1.5, and Sc = 0.78. A parameter value of zero indicates minimal impact on
the analysis; however, for classical comparisons, specific parameters were set to zero.

Figure 4.2 illustrates that the results of the present study closely align with those
of Muthucumaraswamy [175], demonstrating strong agreement; as both studies exhibit
a similar trend. The strong alignment of the curves validates the methodology and
assumptions used in the present study against an established study, strengthening its
reliability.

Table 4.1 Comparison of Sherwood number for K=0.6 and Sc=0.78

t Muthucumaraswamy [175] (Sh) Present study (Sh)

0.5 2.3169 2.3169
1 1.6768 1.6768
1.5 1.4046 1.4046
4.4 Results and Discussion 83

Fig. 4.2 Comparison of concentration profile

Table 4.1 shows a remarkable agreement between the Sherwood number (Sh)
derived in this study and those reported by Muthucumaraswamy [175] for K = 0.6 and
Sc = 0.78, confirming the reliability of the present results.
The effect of thermal stratification is depicted in Figure 4.3, which significantly
influences fluid velocity, as shown in the graph. Higher thermal stratification (γ)
reduces velocity due to increased thermal resistance, limiting energy transfer across
layers. As γ increases, the peak velocity decreases, and the velocity profile becomes
more uniform. When γ = 0, the absence of stratification allows maximum velocity,
emphasizing the role of thermal gradients in controlling flow behavior. These findings
align with those of [5]. This indicates a reduction in fluid velocity under thermal
stratification for γ > 0, as higher thermal stratification (γ) diminishes the convective
interaction between the heated plate and the fluid, leading to a reduction in buoyancy
force and, subsequently, flow velocity. As seen in Figure 4.4, chemical reaction signifi-
cantly impact fluid velocity. An increase in (K) leads to a decrease in fluid velocity
because reaction rates suppress flow momentum. When K is low, velocity is higher,
indicating minimal reaction effects. Conversely, higher K leads to reduced velocity,
showcasing the dominant role of chemical reaction in resisting flow and altering the
velocity profile.

Figure 4.5 illustrates the impact of the Grashof number (Gr) and modified Grashof
number (Gc) on the velocity profile (U ). As Gr and Gc increase, the velocity profile
rises, with the peak velocity becoming higher and occurring closer to the boundary
layer. This behavior occurs because larger Gr and Gc enhance the buoyancy effects,
resulting in a stronger upward force and increasing the flow velocity. The velocity
gradually decreases beyond the peak due to viscous effects, eventually stabilizing at
84 The Comprehensive Analysis of Stratification and Chemical Reaction...

Fig. 4.3 Effects of γ on velocity profile

Fig. 4.4 Effects of K on velocity profile

the free-stream region. Figure 4.6 depicts the effect of the magnetic parameter (M )
on the velocity profile (U ). As M increases, the velocity profile decreases throughout
the boundary layer, with the peak velocity becoming lower. This reduction occurs
because the presence of a magnetic field induces a Lorentz force, which opposes the
fluid motion and increases the resistive drag in the flow. Consequently, the velocity
diminishes with higher magnetic field strength, demonstrating the suppressive effect of
M on fluid flow.
Figure 4.7 demonstrates the influence of the Darcy number (Da) on the velocity
profile (U ). As Da increases, the velocity profile becomes more pronounced, with higher
4.4 Results and Discussion 85

Fig. 4.5 Effects of Gr and Gc on velocity profile

Fig. 4.6 Effects of M on velocity profile

peaks occurring closer to the boundary. This is because an increase in Da indicates

a decrease in the medium’s resistance to flow, allowing for greater fluid movement
and higher velocities. Conversely, lower Da values result in reduced velocity due to
increased flow resistance. Figure 4.8 shows the effect of the radiation parameter (R) on
the velocity profile. An increase in R enhances the velocity profile, with higher peaks
observed. This is attributed to the radiative heat transfer, which facilitates additional
thermal energy within the flow, reducing thermal gradients and enhancing velocity. As
R decreases, the velocity diminishes due to lower radiative effects.
86 The Comprehensive Analysis of Stratification and Chemical Reaction...

Fig. 4.7 Effects of Da on velocity profile

Fig. 4.8 Effects of R on velocity profile

Figure 4.9 illustrates the effect of the volume fraction (ϕ) on the velocity profile (U ).
As ϕ increases, the velocity decreases due to the higher solid particle concentration in
the fluid, which enhances resistance and dampens the fluid motion. This reduction in
velocity is most prominent near the boundary layer, where the influence of particle
concentration is strongest. Figure 4.10 shows the influence of the Schmidt number (Sc)
on the velocity profile. An increase in Sc leads to a significant reduction in U , as higher
Sc corresponds to a lower molecular diffusivity of the solute. This suppresses the mass
transfer within the fluid, reducing the buoyancy-driven flow velocity. Consequently,
lower Sc values exhibit higher velocities due to enhanced mass diffusion.
4.4 Results and Discussion 87

Fig. 4.9 Effects of ϕ on velocity profile

Fig. 4.10 Effects of Sc on velocity profile

In Figure 4.11, thermal stratification affects fluid temperature by creating layers of

varying thermal resistance. As the stratification parameter (γ) increases, the tempera-
ture (θ) near the surface decreases due to reduced thermal conductivity, limiting heat
transfer. Higher γ results in steeper thermal gradients and lower temperature profiles.
Without stratification (γ = 0), heat transfer is more uniform, leading to higher overall
temperatures. We can observe from Figure 4.12 Chemical reaction influence fluid
temperature by generating heat during the reaction process. As the chemical reaction
parameter (K) increases, the temperature profile (θ) rises, particularly near the surface,
due to the exothermic nature of the reaction. Higher K enhances heat generation,
88 The Comprehensive Analysis of Stratification and Chemical Reaction...

Fig. 4.11 Effects of γ on temperature profile

Fig. 4.12 Effects of K on temperature profile

leading to a thicker thermal boundary layer and higher overall fluid temperatures,
reflecting the impact of intensified chemical activity.

Table 4.2 presents the impact of various parameters on the temperature profile, θ.
An increase in the Grashof number (Gr) decreases the temperature, while a rise in
the modified Grashof number (Gc) also lowers the temperature profile. The magnetic
parameter (M ) exhibits a direct relationship, with higher values resulting in an increase
in θ. The Darcy number (Da) shows an inverse effect, where increasing Da reduces the
temperature. Similarly, the radiation parameter (R) significantly decreases θ, indicating
4.4 Results and Discussion 89

Table 4.2 The influence of various parameters on the temperature profile

Gr Gc M Da R ϕ Sc θ
5 10 1.2 0.25 1 0.5 0.6 0.3456
15 0.3377
5 0.3862
15 0.2976
0 0.3315
1 0.3551
3 0.3861
5 0.4059
0.2 0.3907
0.4 0.3530
0.7 0.3266
1 0.3127
0 0.4008
3 0.3191
5 0.2815
10 0.2146
0 0.3836
5 0.2733
10 0.2094
15 0.1664
0.22 0.2824
0.6 0.3269
0.78 0.3419
1 0.3575

that higher radiation reduces the thermal effect. The volume fraction (ϕ) has a notable
negative influence on the temperature profile, with higher volume fractions leading to
substantial reductions in θ. In contrast, the Schmidt number (Sc) positively affects
the temperature profile, as larger values correspond to higher θ. These trends reveal
the complex dependencies of θ on the governing parameters.

In Figure 4.13 the influence of the stratification parameter (γ) on skin friction (τ )
over time (t). As γ increases, τ becomes less negative initially and stabilizes more
rapidly, indicating that higher stratification reduces the magnitude of shear stresses
caused by thermal and mass effects. This behavior is attributed to the reduced gradients
in temperature and concentration due to increased stratification. In Figure 4.14, the
effect of γ on the Nusselt number (N u) over time is shown. Higher γ values enhance N u,
especially at early times, due to increased heat transfer caused by stratification. Over
time, N u stabilizes at higher values for greater γ, reflecting the persistent enhancement
90 The Comprehensive Analysis of Stratification and Chemical Reaction...

Fig. 4.13 Effects of γ on Skin Friction profile

Fig. 4.14 Effects of γ on nusselt number Profile

of thermal energy transfer in stratified conditions. These results suggest that strat-
ification mitigates shear stresses while improving heat transfer efficiency within the flow.

Table 4.3 highlights the effects of various parameters on skin friction (τ ) and the
Nusselt number (N u). An increase in the permeability parameter (K) generally reduces
τ , transitioning from negative to positive values, while N u increases slightly. Variations
in (Gr) and (Gc) significantly influence both τ and N u. Higher Gr and Gc values
tend to decrease τ and slightly increase N u. An increase in the magnetic parameter
(M ) positively impacts τ , moving it from negative to positive, and also enhances N u.
4.4 Results and Discussion 91

Table 4.3 The influence of various parameters on Skin Friction and the Nusselt number

K Gr Gc M Da R ϕ Sc τ Nu
0.2 10 10 0.4 0.5 2 1.5 0.78 -0.4408 2.5466
0.8 -0.2907 2.5825
1.5 -0.0113 2.6151
3 2.6766 2.5475
0.6 5 5 0.4 0.5 2 1.5 0.78 0.6125 2.4069
10 5 0.6428 2.3904
5 10 -0.6125 2.6436
15 15 -1.1417 2.6821
0.6 10 10 0 0.5 2 1.5 0.78 -0.4477 2.5723
1 -0.2249 2.5727
3 0.0757 2.5957
5 0.3136 2.6261
0.6 10 10 0.4 0.4 2 1.5 0.78 -0.2439 2.5721
0.7 -0.4958 2.5739
1 -0.6351 2.5812
0.6 10 10 0.4 0.5 0 1.5 0.78 0.7642 2.4809
1 0.1512 2.5156
5 -1.4337 2.8154
10 -2.4238 3.6441
0.6 10 10 0.4 0.5 2 0 0.78 0.4408 2.4953
5 -1.5734 2.8640
10 -2.4196 3.7093
0.6 10 10 0.4 0.5 2 1.5 0.22 -1.9116 2.9481
0.6 -0.7584 2.6697
0.78 -0.3707 2.5708
1 0.0924 2.4644

The Darcy number (Da) shows a decreasing influence on τ , while its effect on N u is
marginal. Radiation parameter (R) significantly impacts both τ and N u, with higher
R values reducing τ and increasing N u. Finally, increasing the volume fraction (ϕ)
and Schmidt number (Sc) leads to a decrease in τ and an enhancement in N u.

Table 4.4 shows that the Sherwood number (Sh) increases with higher Schmidt
number (Sc) and permeability parameter (K), indicating enhanced mass transfer rates.
A noticeable rise in Sherwood number is observed for both parameters at their respective
higher values.
92 The Comprehensive Analysis of Stratification and Chemical Reaction...

Table 4.4 The influence of various parameters on Sherwood number

K Sc Sh
0.2 0.78 1.3291
0.8 1.4417
1.5 1.5691
3 1.8284
0.6 0.22 0.7459
0.6 1.2319
0.78 1.4046
1 1.5904

4.5 Conclusion
In conclusion, the study provides a comprehensive analysis of the effects of various
parameters on velocity, temperature, concentration, skin friction, Nusselt number,
and Sherwood number profiles in a fluid flow system. Thermal stratification (γ) and
chemical reaction (K) significantly influence velocity, temperature, and mass transfer,
with γ reducing velocity and temperature due to increased thermal resistance, while
K enhances temperature and mass transfer through exothermic reaction. Buoyancy
forces, represented by thermal and mass Grashof numbers (Gr and Gc), drive the flow
and increase heat and mass transfer, but their effects diminish at higher values due to
reduced gradients. The magnetic parameter (M ) enhances skin friction and Nusselt
number by restricting fluid motion, while the Darcy number (Da) reduces these profiles
by facilitating smoother flow in a porous medium. Radiation (R) and heat source
(ϕ) reduce heat transfer efficiency by dispersing thermal energy, while the Schmidt
number (Sc) enhances Sherwood number and slightly impacts other profiles by limiting
mass diffusivity. These findings emphasize the interplay of thermal, mechanical, and
chemical forces in shaping fluid flow dynamics and provide insights into optimizing
heat and mass transfer in engineering and industrial applications.
Influences of Thermal Stratification
and Chemical Reaction on MHD
5
Free Convective Flow Along an
Accelerated Vertical Plate with
Variable Temperature and
Exponential Mass Diffusion in a
Porous Medium
Published in Heat Transfer, 53(7) (2024), 3643-3666, E-ISSN: 2688-4542,
ISSN: 2688-4534. (SCOPUS, ESCI)

5.1 Introduction
The widespread occurrence of thermal stratification in fluid systems arises from the
inherent tendency of fluids to organize themselves into distinct temperature layers based
on their thermal properties. This temperature stratification within a fluid medium
plays a pivotal role in defining the thermal characteristics of various natural and
man-made environments. Thermal stratification exerts a substantial influence on heat
transfer, energy efficiency, and environmental dynamics, with particular prevalence in
bodies of water, atmospheric conditions, and industrial processes. In the realm of fluid
dynamics, magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) serves as a pivotal field of study, focusing
on how magnetic fields interact with electrically conducting fluids such as plasmas
94 Influences of Thermal Stratification and Chemical Reaction on MHD...

and liquid metals. This interaction is crucial for manipulating fluid behaviors in a
variety of engineering and scientific processes. Concurrently, unsteady flow dynamics,
characterized by temporal variations in flow velocity and pressure, are essential for
understanding fluid behaviors in conditions marked by fluctuating dynamics, like those
observed in pulsatile flows. Moreover, the influence of chemical reaction extends to
modifying key fluid properties—including viscosity and density—which subsequently
shape the flow dynamics critical to the design of chemical reactors and the management
of environmental pollutants. The study of fluid flow through porous medium further
enriches our understanding, as the porous structure inherently modifies flow resistance,
making it indispensable across diverse applications from groundwater remediation to
industrial filtration. Additionally, examining the fluid dynamics near an accelerated
vertical plate sheds light on fluid responses to abrupt boundary movements or velocity
shifts, a phenomenon of significant importance in the engineering of rotating machinery
such as turbines and pumps.
Early work by Siegel [7] and Menold and Yang [8] laid the groundwork for un-
derstanding transient free convection from vertical flat plates. Schetz and Eichhorn
[9] extended this by investigating unsteady natural convection near doubly infinite
vertical plates. Later studies explored diverse aspects of this phenomenon. Park and
Hyun [13] and Park [14] investigated transient buoyant flows in stratified fluids, while
Shapiro and Fedorovich [5] explored convectively driven flows in stably stratified fluids.
Porous media were explored in greater detail. Magyari et al.[16] investigated unsteady
free convection in a fluid-saturated porous medium, and Chaudhary and Jain [72]
considered heat and mass diffusion flow by natural convection in a porous medium.
The influence of radiation and magnetic fields was also examined. Reddy et al. [73]
analyzed MHD boundary layer flow along vertical plates with ramped temperature,
while Reddy et al. [88] considered MHD free convective mass transfer with variable
suction and Soret effect.
Krishna et al. [98] examined the Hall effects on MHD peristaltic flow of Jeffrey
fluid through a porous medium in a vertical stratum, shedding light on the interactions
within complex fluid systems under the influence of a magnetic field and porous
constraints. Krishna and Chamkha [99] studied the Hall effects on MHD squeezing flow
of a water-based nanofluid between two parallel disks. This research focuses on how
magnetic fields and Hall effects can manipulate nanofluid flow dynamics, which is crucial
for applications in cooling systems and devices. Also Krishna et al. [100] explored heat
and mass transfer in the free convective flow of a micropolar fluid through a porous
surface with an inclined magnetic field and Hall effects. Their findings highlight the
complex interactions between thermal and velocity fields in micropolar fluids. At the
same year Krishna et al. [101] investigated the influence of Soret, Joule, and Hall effects
on MHD rotating mixed convective flow past an infinite vertical porous plate. This
study is pivotal for understanding how multiple forces interact in an MHD environment.
Krishna and Chamkha [102] expanded their research to explore the Hall and ion slip
effects on unsteady MHD convective rotating flow of nanofluids, with an emphasis on
biomedical engineering applications. This highlights the potential for using MHD flows
5.1 Introduction 95

in medical devices and treatments. Finally, in the same year, Krishna et al. [77] delved
into the heat and mass transfer on MHD flow of a second-grade fluid through a porous
medium over a semi-infinite vertical stretching sheet. This work provides insights into
the behavior of more complex fluid models under the influence of MHD and stretching
effects.
Chemical reaction and thermal radiation were combined in studies by Muthu-
cumaraswamy and Sivakumar [21] and El-Fayez [177], considering chemical reaction
effects on vertical plates with radiation and thermal stratification. Kandasamy et al.
[37] analyzed the effects of chemical reaction, heat, and mass transfer on MHD flow over
a vertical surface, considering heat source and thermal stratification. They focus on
the impacts of chemical reaction on fluid motion near oscillating plates and stretching
surfaces, under various conditions like heat flux, mass transfer, and magnetic fields,
providing comprehensive insights into the complex interplay of thermal stratification,
heat, and mass transfer in fluid dynamics.
Recent research has delved into the effects of chemical reaction in these flows. Nath
and Deka [82] and Nath et al. [83] studied unsteady flow past vertical plates with
chemical reaction in the presence of thermal stratification. Nath and Deka [178–180]
collectively explored the complex dynamics of magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) nanofluids
in different porous media environments, with an emphasis on the combined effects
of thermal and mass stratification. Lastly, non-Newtonian fluids were considered in
porous media with chemical reaction and thermal stratification by Megahed and Abbas
[181], showcasing the breadth and depth of research in this field.
More recent studies have extensively analyzed MHD flows, focusing on the combined
effects of magnetic fields, chemical reaction, and thermal radiation across various
conditions. Notably, research by Yanala et al. [182] investigate the 3-D radiative
MHD flow over a stretching sheet, highlighting the effects of chemical reaction and
the stretching geometry on Casson fluids. Reddy et al. [183] and Shankar Goud et al.
[184] explored similar themes but focused on the impact of radiation and porosity on
two-dimensional MHD flows at stagnation points with viscous dissipation, and also
considerd the heat transfer characteristics of nanofluids on an inclined spinning disk and
over nonlinearly porous sheets. Kumar and Reddy [84] studied the influence of thermal
radiation and nanoparticles on boundary layer flows, revealing the nuanced interactions
within Maxwell fluids. Additionally, studies by Reddy and Mangamma [185] Yanala
et al. [186] Reddy and Mangamma, [187] and Goud and Reddy [188] delved into
specific scenarios such as nanofluid flow over a nonlinearly porous stretching sheet
with nonuniform heat source, flow past a non-linear stretching Riga plate, flow past
a porous shrinking sheet, and flow over a permeable wedge, all considering elements
like heat generation/absorption and radiation. The research is further enriched by
computational analyses, such as those by Reddy et al. [189] who examined the
independence of computational meshes in their models. The study by Suhasini et
al. [190] delves into the dynamics of magneto-micropolar fluid flow over a porous
stretching surface, addressing the complex interactions influenced by a non-uniform
heat source/sink and the presence of Soret-Dufour effects. Their research focuses on
96 Influences of Thermal Stratification and Chemical Reaction on MHD...

the nuanced behavior of micropolar fluids, which are fluids with microstructure and
are capable of exhibiting microrotational effects, under the influence of magnetic fields.
The following points highlight the novelties of the current study: we achieve an
exact solution through the Laplace transform approach without any error, proving
it to be a highly efficient method for obtaining precise solutions. The concurrent
influence of thermal stratification and chemical reaction on the flow past an accelerated
vertical plate has not been previously investigated, making this study the pioneering
endeavor in this field. The goal of this research was to analytically explore MHD
unsteady flow across an accelerated vertical plate, considering the effects of thermal
stratification and chemical reaction. Subsequently, results for the stratified fluid are
contrasted with those from the classical case without stratification. The effects of
physical parameters including γ, Gr, Gc, Sc, Kc , Magnetic parameter M , Chemical
reaction Kc , and Darcy number Da on the profiles, are examined and presented in
graphical form. These insights deepen our understanding of natural convection under
diverse fluid and environmental conditions, offering profound implications for industries
like chemical manufacturing, polymer production, and crystal separation.

5.2 Mathematical Analysis

We explore the transient behavior of a stratified, incompressible, viscous fluid flowing
past a vertically accelerated plate, incorporating the impact of chemical reaction. The
following assumptions are made:

• It is assumed that both the diffusing species and the fluid engage in a first-order
chemical reaction, influencing the flow dynamics.

• The physical setup of the problem is depicted in figure 5.1, where the x′ axis is
aligned with the flow along the plate and the y ′ axis is perpendicular to it.

• Initially, the temperature (T∞

′
) and concentration (C∞
′
) at the plate and in the
fluid are uniform.

• At a time t′ > 0, the temperature of the plate is increased following the formula
2
′ u0 ′
′
T∞ + (Tw′ − T∞ ) ν t , and similarly, the concentration is adjusted to C∞
′
+ (Cw′ −
u2
0 ′
′
C∞ )e ν t .

Using the standard Boussinesq’s approximation and based on the aforementioned

assumption, the equations for motion, energy, and concentration as well as the boundary
conditions applied to the study have been addressed and specified according to Pattnaik
and Biswal [191]:
5.2 Mathematical Analysis 97

Fig. 5.1 Physical Representation and Coordinate

Framework

∂u′ ∂ 2 u′ σB02 ′ µu′

= ν − u − ′ + gβ(T ′ − T∞
′
) + gβ ′ (C ′ − C∞
′
) (5.1)
∂t′ ∂y ′2 ρ ρkp
∂T ′ ∂ 2T ′ q0
′
= α ′ 2 − (T ′ − T∞ ′
) − γ ′ u′ (5.2)
∂t ∂y ρCp
∂C ′ ∂ 2C ′
= D − K ′ (C ′ − C∞′
) (5.3)
∂t′ ∂y ′2
′ ′
Here the term γ ′ ≡ dT ∞
dx′
+ Cgp , where dT∞
dx′
, stands for thermal stratification, or
vertical temperature advection. Also, Cp is the rate at which compression, sometimes
g

referred to as the work of compression, causes reversible work to be done on the fluid
particles. For the purpose of evaluating numerical models, compression work is added
to thermal stratification as an additive component.

Incorporating the subsequent boundary and initial conditions:

u′ = 0, T ′ = T∞
′
, C ′ = C∞
′
,∀y ′ , t′ ≤ 0
2 u2
′ u0 ′ 0 ′
t′ > 0 : u′ = u0 t′ a′ , T ′ = T∞
′
+ (Tw′ − T∞ ) t , C ′ = C∞
′
+ (Cw′ − C∞
′
)e ν t aty ′ = 0
ν
u = 0, T → T∞ , C → C∞ , as y ′ → ∞
′ ′ ′ ′ ′

Together, these boundary and initial conditions are crucial for modeling the prob-
lem accurately. They provide necessary constraints that help define the fluid flow,
temperature, and concentration fields under the influence of plate movement, thermal
98 Influences of Thermal Stratification and Chemical Reaction on MHD...

stratification, and chemical reaction, ensuring that the physical behavior of the system
is realistically and comprehensively captured.
The subsequent dimensionless variables are introduced:

u0 y ′ u2 t′ T ′ − T∞
′
u′ a′ ν ν
y= , t= 0 , T = ′ , u = , a = 2 , Pr =
ν ν Tw − T∞ ′ u0 u0 α
′ ′ ′ 2 ′
Kν C − C∞ νq0 uK ν
K= 2 , C= ′ , ϕ= 2
, Da = 0 2 p , Sc =
u0 Cw − C∞ ′ ρCp u0 ν D
2
σB0 ν γν′
gβν(Tw − T∞ )
′ ′ ′
gβ ′ ν(Cw′ − C∞ )
M= , γ= , Gr = , Gc =
ρu0 2
u0 (Tw − T∞ )
′ ′ u03
u03

The equations (5.1)-(5.3) are presented in their non-dimensional forms as follows:

∂u ∂ 2u
= 2 + GrT + GcC − N u (5.4)
∂t ∂y
∂T 1 ∂ 2T
= − ϕT − γu (5.5)
∂t P r ∂y 2
∂C 1 ∂ 2C
= − KC (5.6)
∂t Sc ∂y 2
Where,
1
N =M+
Da
The boundary and initial conditions are expressed in dimensionless terms as follows:

u = 0, T = 0, C=0 ∀y and t ≤ 0
u = at, T = t, C = et at y = 0, t > 0 (5.7)
u → 0, T → 0, C→0 as y → ∞, t > 0

5.3 Method of Solution

Using Laplace’s transform technique, the dimensionless governing formulas (5.4)–(5.6)
along with boundary conditions (5.7) are solved for P r = 1. Consequently, the formulas
for velocity, temperature, and concentration in terms of Abramowitzetal et al. [86] and
Hetnarski [87] are provided as follows:
5.3 Method of Solution 99

u = ϵ1 η1 (A) + ϵ2 η2 (A, Z1 , Z2 ) + ϵ3 η2 (A, Z1 , −Z2 ) + ϵ4 η3 (A) + (ϵ5 − ϵ1 )η1 (B)

+(ϵ6 − ϵ2 )η2 (B, Z1 , Z2 ) + (ϵ7 − ϵ3 )η2 (B, Z1 , −Z2 ) + ϵ8 η3 (B)
−ϵ5 η1 (K) − ϵ6 η2 (K, Z1 , Z2 ) − ϵ7 η2 (K, Z1 , −Z2 ) (5.8)

T = (1 − λ4 − λ11 )η3 (ϕ) + (−λ1 − λ5 + λ8 + λ15 )η1 (ϕ)

+(−λ2 − λ6 + λ9 + λ16 )η2 (ϕ, Z1 , Z2 ) + (−λ3 − λ7 + λ10 − λ17 )
η2 (ϕ, Z1 , −Z2 ) + (−λ15 − λ16 + λ17 )η4 (ϕ, Z3 ) + λ1 η1 (A)
+λ2 η2 (A, Z1 , Z2 ) + λ3 η2 (A, Z1 , −Z2 ) + λ4 η3 (A) + (λ5 − λ8 )η1 (B)
+(λ6 − λ9 )η2 (B, Z1 , Z2 ) + (λ7 − λ10 )η2 (B, Z1 , −Z2 ) + λ11 η3 (B)
+λ12 η1 (K) + λ13 η2 (K, Z1 , Z2 ) + λ14 η2 (K, Z1 , −Z2 ) (5.9)

C = η1 (K) (5.10)

Where,
s
1 1
2
y

η= √ , A−B = M+ −ϕ − 4γGr, A+B =M + + ϕ,
2 t Da Da
v
1 2 Sc K − N − ϕ u (N − ϕ)2 − 4γGr
u
N =M+ , Z1 = , Z2 = t ,
Da 2(Sc − 1) 4(Sc − 1)2
Sc K − ϕ Sc K − B Sc K − N
Z3 = , Z4 = , Z5 = ,
Sc − 1 Sc − 1 Sc − 1

1 + Z3 Z3 − Z1 − Z2 Z2 − Z1 + Z3
E1 = , E2 = , E3 = ,
(1 + Z1 )2 − Z22 2Z2 (1 + Z1 + Z2 ) 2Z2 (Z2 − Z1 − 1)

(1 + Z3 ) (1 + Z4 ) (Z3 − Z1 − Z2 )(Z4 − Z1 − Z2 )
E4 = , E5 = ,
(1 + Z1 )2 − Z22 2Z2 (1 + Z1 + Z2 )
(Z2 − Z1 + Z3 )(Z2 − Z1 + Z4 )
E6 = ,
2Z2 (Z2 − Z1 − 1)

Gc(E4 − 1) Gc E5 Gc E6 a(N − B) − Gr
ϵ1 = , ϵ2 = , ϵ3 = , ϵ4 = ,
A−B A−B A−B A−B
100 Influences of Thermal Stratification and Chemical Reaction on MHD...

Gc E1 Gc E2 Gc E3 a(A − N ) + Gr
ϵ5 = , ϵ6 = , ϵ7 = , ϵ8 = ,
Sc − 1 Sc − 1 Sc − 1 A−B

γ Gc (E4 − 1) γ Gc E5 γ Gc E6
λ1 = , λ2 = , λ3 = ,
(A − B)(A − ϕ) (A − B)(A − ϕ) (A − B)(A − ϕ)

γ (a(N − B) − Gr)γ γ Gc E1 γ Gc E2
λ4 = , λ5 = , λ6 = ,
(A − B)(A − ϕ) (Sc − 1)(B − ϕ) (Sc − 1)(B − ϕ)
γ Gc E3 γ Gc (E4 − 1) γ Gc E5
λ7 = , λ8 = , λ9 = ,
(Sc − 1)(B − ϕ) (A − B)(A − ϕ) (A − B)(A − ϕ)
γ Gc E6 γ (a(A − N ) + Gr)γ γ Gc E1
λ10 = , λ11 = , λ12 = ,
(A − B)(A − ϕ) (A − B)(B − ϕ) (1 + Z3 ) (Sc − 1)2
γ Gc E2 γ Gc E3
λ13 = , λ14 = ,
(Sc − 1)2 (Z1 − Z2 − Z3 ) (Sc − 1)2 (Z1 − Z2 − Z3 )
γ Gc E1 γ Gc E2
λ15 = , λ16 = ,
(Sc − 1)2 (1 + Z3 ) (Sc − 1)2 (Z3 − Z2 − Z1 )
γ Gc E3
λ17 =
(Sc − 1)2 (Z3 − Z2 − Z1 )
Additionally, the inverse Laplace transforms, defined as follows:
√ √
e−y s+A e−y s+A
( ) ( )
η1 (A) = L −1
, η2 (A, Z1 , Z2 ) = L −1
,
s−1 s + Z1 + Z2
√ √
e−y s+A e−y s+A
( ) ( )
η3 (A) = L −1
, η4 (A, Z5 ) = L −1
s2 s + Z5

5.3.1 Classical Case

Solutions have been formulated for the traditional scenario where there is no thermal
stratification (γ = 0). To compare the outcomes in the fluid with thermal stratification
against those without it, the respective solutions for the classical case are presented as
follows:

!
Gr Gc
uc = a− η3 (N ) + [η1 (N ) − η4 (N, Z5 )]
N −ϕ (Sc − 1)(Z5 + 1)
Gr Gc
+ η3 (ϕ) − [η1 (K) − η4 (K, Z5 )] (5.11)
N −ϕ (Sc − 1)(Z5 + 1)
Tc = η3 (ϕ) (5.12)
5.3 Method of Solution 101

5.3.2 Skin-Friction
The dimensionless Skin-Friction, defined as the surface shear stress, is calculated by:

du
τ =−
dy
y=0

Now from equation (5.8), we get the expression for skin friction as:

√ e−At
q !
τ = ϵ1 e A + 1 erf ( (A + 1)t) + √
t
πt
e−At
q q !
+ϵ2 e(−Z1 −Z2 )t A − Z1 − Z2 erf ( (A − Z1 − Z2 )t) + √
πt
−At
!#
q q e
+ϵ3 e (−Z1 +Z2 )t
A − Z1 + Z2 erf ( (A − Z1 + Z2 )t) + √
πt
 √ 
√ √
s
t erf ( At) 
+ϵ4 t A erf ( At) + e−At + √
π 2 A
√ e−Bt
q !
+(ϵ5 − ϵ1 ) e B + 1 erf ( (B + 1)t) + √
t
πt
e−Bt
q q !
+(ϵ6 − ϵ2 ) e (−Z1 −Z2 )t
B − Z1 − Z2 erf ( (B − Z1 − Z2 )t) + √
πt
e−Bt
q q !
+(ϵ7 − ϵ3 ) e (−Z1 +Z2 )t
B − Z1 + Z2 erf ( (B − Z1 + Z2 )t) + √
πt
 √ 
√ √
s
t erf ( Bt) 
+ϵ8 t B erf ( Bt) + e−Bt + √
π 2 B
 s 
q q Sc −Kt 
−ϵ5 et Sc(K + 1) erf ( (K + 1)t) + e
πt
s !
q q Sc −Kt
−ϵ6 (−Z1 −Z2 )t
e Sc (K − Z1 − Z2 ) erf ( (K − Z1 − Z2 )t) + e
πt
s !#
q q Sc −Kt
−ϵ7 (−Z1 +Z2 )t
e Sc (K − Z1 + Z2 ) erf ( (K − Z1 + Z2 )t) + e
πt

For the classical case, the Skin-Friction solution is derived from the expression
(5.11), which is represented by
102 Influences of Thermal Stratification and Chemical Reaction on MHD...

 √  
Gr  √ √ 
s
t −N t erf N t 
 
τc = a+ t N erf N t + e + √
ϕ−N π 2 N
Gc √ q e−N t q
+ et N + 1 erf ( (N + 1)t) + √ − e−Z5 t N − Z5
(Sc − 1)(Z5 + 1) πt
 s √ 
e−N t (
!
q Gr  q q t erf ϕt) 
erf ( (N − Z5 )t) − √ + t ϕ erf ( ϕt) + e−ϕt + √
πt N −ϕ π 2 ϕ
√
Gc q q e−Kt Sc
− et (K + 1)Sc erf ( (K + 1)t) + √
(Sc − 1)(Z5 + 1) πt
!
q q Sc
−e−Z5 t Sc(K − Z5 ) erf ( (K − Z5 )t) − √ e−Kt
πt

5.3.3 Nusselt Number

The dimensionless representation of the heat transfer rate (Nusselt Number) is provided
by:

dT
Nu = −
dy
y=0

Now from equation (5.9), we get the expression for the Nusselt number as:
5.3 Method of Solution 103

 s √  
q q  t −ϕt erf ϕt 
N u = (1 − λ4 − λ11 )t ϕerf ϕt + e + √
π 2 ϕ
e−ϕt
q q !
+(−λ1 − λ5 + λ8 + λ15 ) e ϕ + 1 erf ( (ϕ + 1)t) + √
t
+ (−λ2 − λ6
πt
e−ϕt
q q !
+λ9 + λ16 ) e (−Z1 −Z2 )t
ϕ − Z1 − Z2 erf ( (ϕ − Z1 − Z2 )t) + √ + (−λ3
πt
e−ϕt
q q !
−λ7 + λ10 − λ17 ) e (−Z1 +Z2 )t
ϕ − Z1 + Z2 erf ( (ϕ − Z1 + Z2 )t) + √
πt
−ϕt
!
q q e
+(−λ15 − λ16 + λ17 ) e−Z3 t ϕ − Z3 erf ( (ϕ − Z3 )t) + √
πt
√ −At
!
q e
+λ1 et A + 1 erf ( (A + 1)t) + √
πt
e−At
q q !
+λ2 e (−Z1 −Z2 )t
A − Z1 − Z2 erf ( (A − Z1 − Z2 )t) + √
πt
−At
!#
q q e
+λ3 e (−Z1 +Z2 )t
A − Z1 + Z2 erf ( (A − Z1 + Z2 )t) + √
πt
 √ 
√ √
s
t erf ( At) 
+λ4 t A erf ( At) + e−At + √
π 2 A
√ e−Bt
q !
+(λ5 − λ8 ) e B + 1 erf ( (B + 1)t) + √
t
πt
e−Bt
q q !
+(λ6 − λ9 ) e (−Z1 −Z2 )t
B − Z1 − Z2 erf ( (B − Z1 − Z2 )t) + √
πt
−Bt
!
q q e
+(λ7 − λ10 ) e (−Z1 +Z2 )t
B − Z1 + Z2 erf ( (B − Z1 + Z2 )t) + √
πt
 √ 
√ √
s
t erf ( Bt) 
+λ11 t B erf ( Bt) + e−Bt + √
π 2 B
 s 
q q Sc −Kt 
+λ12 et Sc(K + 1) erf ( (K + 1)t) + e
πt
s !
q q Sc −Kt
+λ13 (−Z1 −Z2 )t
e Sc (K − Z1 − Z2 ) erf ( (K − Z1 − Z2 )t) + e
πt
s !#
q q Sc −Kt
+λ14 (−Z1 +Z2 )t
e Sc (K − Z1 + Z2 ) erf ( (K − Z1 + Z2 )t) + e
πt
104 Influences of Thermal Stratification and Chemical Reaction on MHD...

For the classical case, the Nusselt number solution is derived from the expression
(5.12), which is represented by
s √ 
q q  t −ϕt erf ϕt
N uc = t ϕ erf ϕt + e + √ (5.13)
π 2 ϕ

5.3.4 Sherwood Number

The dimensionless Sherwood number, representing the mass transfer rate, is derived as
follows:

dC
Sh = −
dy
y=0

The calculation of the Sherwood number is derived from the Concentration profile
C, denoted by (5.10), in the following manner:

√
q q  Sc e−Kt
Sh = e t
Sc(1 + K) erf (1 + K)t + √ (5.14)
πt

5.4 Results and Discussion

Numerical values for temperature, concentration, velocity, Nusselt number, Skin friction,
and Sherwood number were calculated based on the solutions derived in previous
sections. These calculations were performed for various physical parameter values such
as Gr, Gc, ϕ, Da, Kc , Sc, M , and γ, enhancing our comprehension of the problem’s
physical implications. The results, particularly those involving thermal stratification
(γ ̸= 0), were contrasted with those from the isothermal (γ = 0) scenario. Furthermore,
these findings are illustrated in Figures 5.4 to 5.23.
The parameter ranges throughout the problem are as follows: 0 ≤ γ ≤ 2, 5 ≤ Gr ≤
10, 5 ≤ Gc ≤ 10, 0 ≤ M ≤ 3, 5 ≤ Kc ≤ 15, 0.22 ≤ Sc ≤ 1, 0 < Da ≤ 1, 1 ≤ ϕ < 10. If
any of the previously mentioned parameters are zero, it suggests that their respective
effects are irrelevant to the problem. In the primary solution, we have omitted any
values that are zero. Nevertheless, for specific comparative scenarios, we have assumed
them to be zero. The chosen ranges for the physical flow parameters ensure coverage
of both minimal and intense influences within realistic operational conditions. This
diversity allows for a comprehensive analysis of the system’s behavior under varying yet
plausible scenarios, enhancing the applicability and robustness of the study’s findings.
In our present study, the velocity and temperature are benchmarked against those in a
study by Pattnaik et al. Pattnaik and Biswal [191], disregarded the effects of thermal
stratification to validate the numerical method employed. The outcomes are highly
comparable, as depicted in Figures 5.2 and 5.3.
5.4 Results and Discussion 105

Fig. 5.2 Comparison of velocity profile in absence of γ

Fig. 5.3 Comparison of temperature profile in absence of γ.

106 Influences of Thermal Stratification and Chemical Reaction on MHD...

Fig. 5.4 Influences of γ on velocity profile for ϕ = 3, t =

1, a = 0.2, Gr = 5, Gc = 5, M = 1, Da = 0.5, Kc =
10, Sc = 0.22 (Elapsed time is 0.778004 seconds.)

Fig. 5.5 Influences of Gr and Gc on velocity profile for

ϕ = 3, t = 1, a = 0.2, γ = 1, M = 1, Da = 0.5, Kc =
10, Sc = 0.22(Elapsed time is 0.760535 seconds.)
5.4 Results and Discussion 107

Fig. 5.6 Influences of M on velocity profile for ϕ = 3, t =

1, a = 0.2, Gr = 5, Gc = 5, γ = 1, Da = 0.5, Kc =
10, Sc = 0.22 (Elapsed time is 0.960286 seconds.)

Fig. 5.7 Influences of Kc on velocity profile for ϕ = 3, t =

1, a = 0.2, Gr = 5, Gc = 5, M = 1, Da = 0.5, Sc =
0.22, γ = 1 (Elapsed time is 0.951089 seconds.)
108 Influences of Thermal Stratification and Chemical Reaction on MHD...

Fig. 5.8 Influences of Sc on velocity profile for ϕ = 3, t =

1, a = 0.2, Gr = 5, Gc = 5, M = 1, Da = 0.5, Kc =
10, γ = 1 (Elapsed time is 0.793939 seconds.)

Fig. 5.9 Influences of Da on velocity profile for ϕ =

3, t = 1, a = 0.2, Gr = 5, Gc = 5, M = 1, Kc = 10, Sc =
0.22, γ = 1 (Elapsed time is 0.939195 seconds.)
5.4 Results and Discussion 109

Fig. 5.10 Influences of γ on Temperature profile for

ϕ = 3, t = 1.4, a = 0.2, Gr = 5, Gc = 5, M = 1, Da =
0.5, Kc = 10, Sc = 0.22 (Elapsed time is 0.831028 sec-
onds.)

The velocity profiles for various values of γ, Gr, Gc, M, Da, Kc and (Sc) are illus-
trated in Figures 5.4 through 5.9, both with and without stratification. In Figure
5.4, observations indicate that thermal stratification reduces the flow velocity. As the
thermal stratification parameter (γ) increases, there is a decline in the efficiency of
convective potential between the hot plate and the adjacent fluid. This decline in the
buoyancy force, in turn, leads to a reduction in the velocity of the flow. Figures 5.5 to
5.8 illustrate that higher values of Gr and Gc correlate with an increase in fluid velocity,
indicating enhanced buoyancy forces that drive the fluid motion. Similarly, increased
values of Sc and Kc lead to a velocity decrease, suggesting more effective momentum
diffusion. Conversely, higher M values reduce the velocity due to the damping effect
of the magnetic field, which opposes the fluid’s motion by inducing a Lorentz force
that acts as a brake. In Figure 5.9, the velocity profile increases along with Da as the
porosity of the fluid increases, allowing the fluid particles to flow more freely.
Figure 5.10 illustrates the influence of thermal stratification (γ) on temperature
distribution. A decrease in the temperature differential between the plate’s surface
and the fluid around it is the result of thermal stratification (γ). The result is a
decrease in temperature due to the thickening of the thermal boundary layer. It has
been shown that temperature falls as there is an increase in the thermal stratification
parameter (γ). Figures 5.11 to 5.13 show that higher Kc and Sc values correlate
with increased temperature, possibly due to enhanced reaction rates and reduced
diffusive transport of heat. Conversely, a rise in ϕ increases temperature, likely due to
endothermic reactions absorbing heat. As Gr and Gc increasees, temperature decreases,
suggesting that enhanced buoyancy-driven fluid movement enhances heat dissipation
110 Influences of Thermal Stratification and Chemical Reaction on MHD...

Fig. 5.11 Influences of ϕ on Temperature profile for

t = 1.4, a = 0.2, γ = 1, Gr = 5, Gc = 5, M = 1, Da =
0.5, Kc = 10, Sc = 0.22 (Elapsed time is 0.923230 sec-
onds.)

Fig. 5.12 Influences of Gr and Gc on Temperature profile

for ϕ = 3, t = 1.4, a = 0.2, γ = 1, M = 1, Da = 0.5, Kc =
10, Sc = 0.22 (Elapsed time is 0.832565 seconds.)
5.4 Results and Discussion 111

Fig. 5.13 Influences of Kc and Sc on Temperature profile

for ϕ = 3, t = 1.4, a = 0.2, Gr = 5, Gc = 5, M = 1, Da =
0.5, γ = 1 (Elapsed time is 0.752004 seconds.)

Fig. 5.14 Influences of M on Temperature profile for

ϕ = 3, t = 1.4, a = 0.2, Gr = 5, Gc = 5, Kc = 10, Sc =
0.22, Da = 0.5, γ = 1 (Elapsed time is 0.960517 seconds.)
112 Influences of Thermal Stratification and Chemical Reaction on MHD...

Fig. 5.15 Influences of Da on temperature profile for

ϕ = 3, t = 1.4, a = 0.2, Gr = 5, Gc = 5, M = 1, Kc =
10, Sc = 0.22, γ = 1 (Elapsed time is 0.946695 seconds.)

away from the heated surface. As observed in Figures 5.14 and 5.15, an increase in the
Magnetic parameter (M) corresponds to an elevation in temperature, while an upsurge
in the Darcy number (Da) results in a decrease in temperature, showcasing the inverse
relationship between Da and thermal behavior.
Figures 5.16 and 5.18 provide a detailed depiction of how thermal stratification
influences the velocity and temperature of a fluid as time progresses. In scenarios
where stratification is not present, there is a noticeable and steep increase in both the
fluid’s temperature and velocity over time. However, this trend undergoes a significant
transformation with the introduction of thermal stratification. Once stratification is
applied, both temperature and velocity begin to exhibit a pattern of gradual stabiliza-
tion, diverging from the rapid increases observed in the absence of stratification. This
process of stabilization results in lower temperatures and velocities when compared
to the standard scenario where γ = 0. This nuanced understanding underscores the
critical role of thermal stratification in accurately modeling and interpreting fluid
dynamics over time. Furthermore, as depicted in Figures 5.17 and 5.19, an increase
in the thermal Grashof number (Gr) and the mass Grashof number (Gc) correlates
with an increased fluid velocity due to stronger buoyancy forces. However, as these
numbers rise, temperature decreases, indicating that the enhanced fluid motion effec-
tively disperses heat, leading to more efficient cooling and a lower temperature near
the heated surface.

Figure 5.20 shows how the fluid’s concentration is affected by the parameters Sc
and Kc . An observation is made that a rise in the values of Sc and Kc corresponds
to a decrease in fluid concentration. This occurs because higher Sc value slows mass
5.4 Results and Discussion 113

Fig. 5.16 Influences of γ on velocity profile against time

for ϕ = 3, y = 1, a = 0.2, Gr = 5, Gc = 5, M = 1, Da =
0.5, Kc = 10, Sc = 0.22 (Elapsed time is 0.766638 sec-
onds.)

Fig. 5.17 Influences of Gr and Gc on velocity profile

against time for ϕ = 3, a = 0.2, γ = 1, M = 1, Da =
0.5, Kc = 10, Sc = 0.22 (Elapsed time is 0.930277 sec-
onds.)
114 Influences of Thermal Stratification and Chemical Reaction on MHD...

Fig. 5.18 Influences of γ on Temperature profile against

time for ϕ = 3, a = 0.2, Gr = 5, Gc = 5, M = 1, Da =
0.5, Kc = 10, Sc = 0.22 (Elapsed time is 0.836585 sec-
onds.)

Fig. 5.19 Influences of Gr and Gc on Temperature profile

against time for ϕ = 3, a = 0.2, γ = 1, M = 1, Da =
0.5, Kc = 10, Sc = 0.22 (Elapsed time is 0.866011 sec-
onds.)
5.4 Results and Discussion 115

Fig. 5.20 Influences of Kc and Sc on Concentration profile

for t = 0.7, a = 0.2 (Elapsed time is 0.707158 seconds.)

Fig. 5.21 Influences of γ on Skin friction for ϕ = 3, a =

0.2, Gr = 5, Gc = 5, M = 1, Da = 0.5, Kc = 10, Sc =
0.22 (Elapsed time is 0.843836 seconds.)
116 Influences of Thermal Stratification and Chemical Reaction on MHD...

Fig. 5.22 Influences of γ on Nusselt number for ϕ = 3, a =

0.2, Gr = 5, Gc = 5, M = 1, Da = 0.5, Kc = 10, Sc =
0.22 (Elapsed time is 0.844541 seconds.)

Fig. 5.23 Influences of Kc and Sc on Sherwood number

for a = 0.2 (Elapsed time is 0.727446 seconds.)
5.5 Conclusion 117

diffusion, and elevated Kc enhances chemical reaction that consume the diffusing
species, thereby reducing the concentration. Figures 5.21 and 5.22 depict how thermal
stratification affects variations in skin friction and nusselt number. Over time, a trend is
observed where skin friction diminishes while the Nusselt number experiences an upward
trajectory. This pattern starkly contrasts with the distinct scenario observed in the
absence of stratification. Remarkably, the introduction of thermal stratification, which
leads to an enhancement of both skin friction and the Nusselt number, indicating a
significant shift in thermal and frictional properties under the influence of stratification.
In Figure 5.23 an increase in the Schmidt number Sc and the chemical reaction rate
constant Kc corresponds to a higher Sherwood number, signifying an improvement in
the mass transfer rate during the chemical process.

5.5 Conclusion
The prominent outcomes of the present work are as follows:

• The movement of the fluid is hindered by the Lorentz force, which originates
electromagnetically, while it is aided by the permeability of the porous medium.
• The buoyancy force acts to accelerate the fluid motion.
• In this study, results are juxtaposed with those from the classical scenario, where
there is no stratification.
• As γ, M Kc and Sc values increase, fluid velocity decreases, whereas it rises with
an increase in Gr, Gc and Da.
• This study’s incorporation of thermal stratification, leading to lower velocity and
temperature compared to the classical case (γ = 0), enhances its relevance over
previous studies.
• Temperature decreases with an increase in γ, Gr, Gc, and Da, whereas it rises
with an increase in ϕ, M, Kc and Sc.
• The presence of stratification elevates both skin friction and the Nusselt number
compared to scenarios lacking stratification.
• It’s noteworthy that the destructive reaction does not contribute to an increase
in the distribution of concentration.
• The changes in rates at the boundary surface are crucial in governing the overall
distribution of flow, heat, and mass.
 Numerical study of MHD Ternary
Nanofluid
6
(Ag − CoF e2O4 − ZnO/C2H6O2 + H2O):
Effects of Thermal Stratification on
a Vertically Stretching Cylinder in a
Porous Environment
Published in Biointerface Research in Applied Chemistry, 14, 6 (2024),
ISSN: 2069-5837. (SCOPUS)

6.1 Introduction
This study explores the numerical investigation of an MHD ternary nanofluid con-
sisting of silver (Ag), cobalt ferrite (CoF e2 O4 ), and zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles,
uniformly dispersed in a mixture of ethylene glycol (C2 H6 O2 ) and water (H2 O). This
distinctive ternary nanofluid offers remarkable properties, making it suitable for diverse
applications. Incorporating silver (Ag) nanoparticles enhances thermal conductivity,
while cobalt ferrite (CoF e2 O4 ) and zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles improve heat
transfer performance and stability. Such a nanofluid can effectively serve in heat
exchangers, cooling systems, and electronic devices, optimizing thermal management
and enhancing heat dissipation. Furthermore, silver nanoparticles exhibit antibacterial
traits, while ZnO nanoparticles provide photocatalytic action against bacteria. This
120 Numerical study of MHD Ternary Nanofluid ...

ternary nanofluid formulation (Ag − CoF e2 O4 − ZnO) is also valuable for creating
antimicrobial coatings on various surfaces, including medical devices, textiles, and
food storage containers. These coatings effectively restrict bacterial growth, ensur-
ing enhanced hygiene. Zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles further contribute to organic
pollutant degradation and water purification through photocatalytic properties. The
integration of Ag − CoF e2 O4 − ZnO nanoparticles demonstrates potential in improving
thermal conductivity, heat transfer efficiency, antibacterial properties, and photocat-
alytic activity, making it ideal for cooling systems, antimicrobial coatings, and water
treatment solutions to improve water quality and pollutant removal.
The concept of nanofluid, initially introduced by scientists, transformed fluid
dynamics through the incorporation of nanoparticles. The concept of nanofluid, first
introduced by Choi and Eastman,[6], suggests that heat transfer fluids containing
metallic nanoparticles could revolutionize heat transfer fluids. In groundbreaking
studies, Das and Jana [60] and Das et al. [61] explored the natural convective flow of
nanofluids with radiation in a moving vertical plate and a vertical channel, respectively.
Both investigations examined water-based nanofluids composed of titanium dioxide,
aluminum oxide, and copper. Addressing heat production or absorption scenarios,
Rashidi et al. [192] sought a Lie group solution for the flow of nanofluid over a
chemically reacting horizontal plate. The entropy analysis by Abolbashari et al. [62]
employed the Homotopy Analysis Method (HAM) to examine a nanofluid composed
of water and one of four distinct types of nanoparticles: T iO2 , Al2 O3 , Cu, and CuO,
passing across a stretchable permeable surface. In a numerical study, Motsumi and
Makinde [193] focused on the boundary layer movement of nanofluids over a moving
flat plate, specifically the impacts of thermal radiation, viscous dissipation, and thermal
diffusion. Considering velocity slip and temperature jump conditions, Turkyilmazoglu
[194] conducted an analytical study on MHD nanofluid flow using various water-based
nanoparticles across a continuously stretching/shrinking permeable sheet. Further,
Jeevandhar et al. [24] explored the MHD boundary layer nanofluid flow under thermal
radiation over an exponentially accelerating vertical plate. In addition, Cheng [39, 40]
investigated double-diffusive natural convection and combined heat and mass transfer
in non-Newtonian fluid-saturated porous media with thermal and mass stratification.
Recent studies by Sahu and Deka [123, 149, 146], Das and Deka [195], Nath et al. [180],
Nath and Deka [196, 178] focused on thermal and mass stratification effects on MHD
flow with variable temperature and mass diffusion also including chemical reaction, heat
sources, and thermal radiation in their theoretical analyses. The impact of nanoparticle
shape on heat transfer enhancement in magnetized ternary nanofluid was explored by
Shanmugapriya et al. [197]. Arif et al. [198] investigated heat transfer in a radiator
with differently shaped nanoparticles in a water-based ternary nanofluid, utilizing a
fractional model. Finally, Patil et al. [199] explored the flow of tangent hyperbolic
ternary nanofluid over a rough-yawed cylinder due to impulsive motion. Mahmood et al.
[200] examined the effects of suction and a heat source on MHD stagnation point flow
of ternary nanofluid over a convectively heated cylinder. Additionally, Cao et al. [201]
simulated the dynamics of water-based colloidal mixtures with various nanoparticles,
6.1 Introduction 121

Fig. 6.1 Physical Model and coordinate system

focusing on ternary-hybrid nanofluids. Recent numerical investigations by Nath and

Deka [202, 203] delved into the MHD ternary nanofluid (Cu-Al2 O3 -TiO2 /H2 O) flowing
past a vertically stretching cylinder within a porous medium, influenced by thermal
stratification analyzing the effects of radiation and thermal stratification. Sarma and
Paul [50] studied thermophoresis and Brownian motion in bioconvective cylindrical-
shaped Ag–CuO/H2 O Ellis hybrid nanofluid flow along a radiative stretched tube
with an inclined magnetic field. Paul et al. [204] examined the mixed convection of
shear-thinning hybrid nanofluid flow across a radiative unsteady cone with suction and
slip effects. Additionally, Paul et al. [205] explored thermal and mass transfer analysis
of Casson-Maxwell hybrid nanofluids through an unsteady horizontal cylinder with
variable thermal conductivity and Arrhenius activation energy.
According to the literature review, previous research has not addressed the MHD
ternary nanofluid (Ag−CoF e2 O4 −ZnO/C2 H6 O2 +H2 O) flowing via a porous substance
past a cylinder that is extending vertically. The primary aim of this research is
to investigate the heat transfer attributes of a ternary nanofluid comprising Ag −
CoF e2 O4 − ZnO particles dispersed in ethylene glycol and water. The bvp4c technique
applied in this study is well-established, as discussed and applied in MATLAB by
Shampine et al. [206] and Kierzenka et al. [207]. Graphical representation results are
given for a variety of parameters. such as δ, γ, M, K, R, Q, P r, and λ.
122 Numerical study of MHD Ternary Nanofluid ...

6.2 Mathematical Analysis

Envision a two-dimensional steady incompressible ternary nanofluid consisting of
Ag − CoF e2 O4 − ZnO/C2 H6 O2 + H2 O, flowing through a porous medium around a
vertically stretchable cylinder with a radius of r0 . Influences on this system include
a heat source/sink, thermal stratification, and thermal radiation. The movement
of the ternary nanofluid is directed axially along the x-direction, with the radial
coordinate r perpendicular to the x-axis, as depicted in Figure 6.1. The velocity
components of the nanofluid along the r and x axes are denoted by ”u” and ”v”,
respectively. A magnetic field with strength B0 is applied perpendicularly to the flow.
The study accounts for thermal buoyancy effects but excludes Joule heating. The
velocity that causes the cylinder to stretch linearly is defined as u = a xl , where ′ a′ is
the velocity coefficient and ′ l′ is thecharacteristic
 length of the cylinder. The wall
temperature varies as Tw (x) = T0 +A l and the ambient temperature of the nanofluid
x
 
as T∞ (x) = T0 + B xl , with A, B, and T0 being constants where T0 indicates the
initial temperature. The governing equations for continuity, momentum, and energy
for the ternary nanofluid are outlined according to Paul et al. [49] are:

∂(ru) ∂(rv)
+ = 0 (6.1)
∂x ∂r
µmnf 1 ∂ (ρβT )mnf
!
∂u ∂u ∂u σmnf 2
u +v = r + g(T − T∞ ) − B u
∂x ∂r ρmnf r ∂r ∂r ρmnf ρmnf 0
µmnf u
− (6.2)
ρmnf k ′
kmnf 1 ∂
!
∂T ∂T ∂T Q0
u +v = r + (T − T∞ ) (6.3)
∂x ∂r (ρcp )mnf r ∂r ∂r (ρcp )mnf

The boundary conditions are specified as follows:

x
u=a , v = 0, T = Tw (x) when r = r0
l
u = 0, T → T∞ (x) when r → ∞

The similarity transformation (Paul et al. [49]) applied to Equations (6.1)-(6.3) is

as follows:

r2 − r02 T − T∞ (x)
s
a aνf
r
η= , ψ= xr0 f (η), θ=
2r0 νf l l Tw (x) − T0
and the non-dimensional quantities are provided as follows:

νf (µcp )f
s
lσf B02 lνf lνf Gr B Q0 l
M= , K= , γ= , λ= , δ= , Q= , Pr =
aρf ak ar02 Re2x A a(ρcp )f kf
6.2 Mathematical Analysis 123

where δ represents thermal stratification, γ curvature, M magnetism, λ thermal

buoyancy, K porosity, Q heat source/sink, and P r the Prandtl number.
To meet the requirements of the continuity equation (6.1), the stream function ψ is
introduced, with u = 1r ∂ψ
∂r
and v = − 1r ∂ψ
∂x
. Consequently, the dimensionless versions of
the transformed equations are displayed as follows:

f ′2 − f f ′′ = a1 [2γf ′′ + (1 + 2γη)f ′′′ ] + a2 λθ − (a3 M + a1 K)f ′ (6.4)

f ′ (θ + δ) − f θ′ = a4 [2γθ′ + (1 + 2γη)θ′′ ] + a5 θ (6.5)

where,

µmnf ρf (ρβT )mnf (ρCp )f σmnf kmnf

x1 = , x2 = , x3 = , x4 = , x5 = , x6 =
µf ρmnf (ρβT )f (ρCp )mnf σf kf

x4 x6
a1 = x 1 x 2 , a2 = x2 x3 , a3 = x2 x5 , a4 =
, a5 = Qx4
Pr
Here, the variables µmnf , (βT )mnf , ρmnf , (ρCp )mnf , kmnf , σmnf refer to the viscosity,
thermal expansion coefficient, electrical conductivity, heat capacity, thermal con-
ductivity, and density of the ternary nanofluid, respectively. In a similar manner,
µf , (βT )f , ρf , (ρCp )f , kf , σf correspond to the viscosity, thermal expansion coefficient,
electrical conductivity, heat capacity, thermal conductivity, and density of the base
fluid, respectively.
Here is how the transformed boundary conditions are defined:

f (η) = 0 f ′ (η) = 1 θ(η) = 1 − δ at η = 0

f ′ (η) → 0 θ(η) → 0 as η → ∞ (6.6)

The thermophysical properties of the ternary nanofluid are as follows:

µf
µmnf =
(1 − ϕ1 )2.5 (1 − ϕ2 )2.5 (1 − ϕ3 )2.5
ρmnf = (1 − ϕ3 ) [(1 − ϕ2 ) {(1 − ϕ1 )ρf + ϕ1 ρs1 } + ϕ2 ρs2 ] + ϕ3 ρs3
(ρcp )mnf = (1 − ϕ3 ) [(1 − ϕ2 ) {(1 − ϕ1 )(ρcp )f + ϕ1 (ρcp )s1 } + ϕ2 (ρcp )s2 ] + ϕ3 (ρcp )s3
(ρβT )mnf = (1 − ϕ3 ) [(1 − ϕ2 ) {(1 − ϕ1 )(ρβT )f + ϕ1 (ρβT )s1 } + ϕ2 (ρβT )s2 ] + ϕ3 (ρβT )s3
(ks1 + 2kf ) − 2ϕ1 (kf − ks1 ) (ks2 + 2knf ) − 2ϕ2 (knf − ks2 )
" # " #
knf = kf , khnf = knf
(ks1 + 2kf ) + ϕ1 (kf − ks1 ) (ks2 + 2knf ) + ϕ2 (knf − ks2 )
(ks3 + 2khnf ) − 2ϕ3 (khnf − ks3 ) (σs1 + 2σf ) − 2ϕ1 (σf − ks1 )
" # " #
kmnf = khnf , σnf = σf
(ks3 + 2khnf ) + ϕ3 (khnf − ks3 ) (σs1 + 2σf ) + ϕ1 (σf − σs1 )
124 Numerical study of MHD Ternary Nanofluid ...

(σs2 + 2σnf ) − 2ϕ2 (σnf − σs2 ) (σs3 + 2σhnf ) − 2ϕ3 (σhnf − σs3 )
" # " #
σhnf = σnf , σmnf = σhnf
(σs2 + 2σnf ) + ϕ2 (σnf − σs2 ) (σs3 + 2σhnf ) + ϕ3 (σhnf − σs3 )
Here, ϕ1 , ϕ2 , and ϕ3 signify the volume fractions of Ag (Silver), CoF e2 O4 (Cobalt
ferrite), and ZnO (Zinc Oxide) nanoparticles, respectively. The designations mnf, hnf,
nf, f, s1, s2, and s3 refer to ternary nanofluid, hybrid nanofluid, nanofluid, base fluid,
and the dense nanoparticles of Silver (Ag), Cobalt ferrite (CoF e2 O4 ), and Zinc Oxide
(ZnO), respectively.
The definitions of the skin friction coefficient and local Nusselt number are as
follows:

1 kmnf ′
x =
Cf Re1/2 f ′′ (0) and N ux Re−1/2 =− θ (0)
(1 − ϕ1 )2.5 (1 − ϕ2 ) (1 − ϕ3 )
2.5 2.5 x
kf

where Rex represents the local Reynolds Number.

Table 6.1 Thermal and Physical Properties of Ethylene glycol+ water and nanoparticles
(Paul et al. [1, 2])

Physical Properties Ethylene glycol (30%)+ H2 O(70%) Ag CoF e2 O4 ZnO

ρ (kg/m3 ) 1038 10500 4907 5606
Cp (J/kgK) 3714 235 700 544
k (W/mK) 0.484 429 3.7 19

6.3 Method of Solution

To put it numerically, tackle the system of higher-order nonlinear ODEs outlined
in Equations (6.4)-(6.5) along with the associated boundary circumstances (6.6),
we employ the bvp4c solver, which is integrated into the MATLAB computational
environment. This method is frequently used by both professionals and researchers
for analyzing fluid flow dynamics. Developed by Jacek Kierzenka and Lawrence F.
Shampine from Southern Methodist University in Texas, the bvp4c solver was first
introduced by Hale [208]. It utilizes a finite modification algorithm alongside the
Lobatto IIIA implicit Runge-Kutta method, delivering numerical solutions with fourth-
order accuracy. This method is crucial for ensuring precision by allowing for initial
guesses at mesh points and adjustments in step-size. In research conducted by Waini
et al. [209], the bvp4c solver was shown to yield satisfactory outcomes when compared
to the shooting technique and the Keller box method. To manage the greater-order
derivatives concerning η, we introduce the following new variables:

f = y(1), f ′ = y(2), f ′′ = y(3), θ = y(4), θ′ = y(5)

6.4 Results and Discussion 125

 

y(1)

y(2)
y(2)
  
 y(3) 

d  
y(3) = 
  y(2)2 −y(1)y(3)−a2 λy(4)+(a3 M +a1 K)y(2)−2a1 γy(3) 

(1+2γη)a1 
dη    
y(4) y(5)
   
 
y(5) y(2)(y(4)+δ)−y(1)y(5)−2a4 γy(5)−a5 y(4)
(1+2γη)a 4

and the boundary conditions are stated as,

ya(1), ya(2) − 1, ya(4) − 1 + δ, yb(2), yb(4)

where ya represents the state at η = 0 and yb denotes the state at η = ∞.

6.4 Results and Discussion

The figures analyses were conducted using the bvp4c solver in MATLAB, with findings
depicted in Figures 6.2-6.13 and Tables 6.3-6.5. Table 6.2 contrasts the values of
−θ′ (0) derived from this research with those previously stated by Ishak and Nazar
[210] and Elbashbeshy et al. [211], when no nanoparticle volume fractions are present
and the parameters δ = γ = M = K = Q = λ = ϕ1 = ϕ2 = ϕ3 = 0, with varying
values of the Prandtl number. This comparison validates that the bvp4c algorithm can
produce numerical results that are precise and consistent with those obtained from
other methodologies.
The study uses the following values: δ = 0.4, γ = 0.3, M = 1.3, K = 3, Q = 0.3, λ =
1.5, P r = 6.2, ϕ1 = 0.03, ϕ2 = 0.10 and ϕ3 = 0.15. Figure 6.2 illustrates the effect of the
thermal stratification (δ) parameter on the velocity f ′ (η). As thermal stratification (δ)
intensifies, it leads to a decrease in velocity. An escalation in the thermal stratification
(δ) parameter reduces the effective convective interaction between the heated wall and
the adjacent fluid, reducing the buoyancy force and consequently slowing the flow
velocity. Illustrated in Fig. 6.3, the fluid velocity f ′ (η) falls as the magnetic parameter
(M ) increases. The increase in (M ) leads to a thinner momentum boundary layer
due to the Lorentz force exerted by the horizontal magnetic field, which diminishes
the velocity of the ternary nanofluid. Fig. 6.4 shows how the porosity parameter (K)
affects the nanofluid velocity f ′ (η). With an increase in (K), the velocity decreases.
There exists an inverse correlation between K and the porous medium’s diameter,

Table 6.2 Comparable values of −θ′ (0) with δ = γ = M = K = Q = λ = ϕ1 = ϕ2 =

ϕ3 = 0

Pr Ishak and Nazar [210] Elbashbeshy et al. [211] Present Study

1 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999
10 3.7207 3.7207 3.7213
126 Numerical study of MHD Ternary Nanofluid ...

Fig. 6.2 Effects of δ on Velocity Profile

where a higher K corresponds to a decreasing diameter. This smaller diameter restricts

fluid move via the porous medium, reducing velocity due to the resistance posed by
the porosity parameter (K).
As shown in Fig. 6.5, the graph of velocity f ′ (η) increases as the curvature parameter
(γ) increases. This indicates that higher curvature (γ) enhances the fluid flow along the
vertically stretching cylinder, reducing resistance and thereby increasing the velocity of
the ternary nanofluid within the porous medium. Fig. 6.6 illustrates the impact of λ on
fluid velocity, where it is noted that the velocity increases in tandem with increasing λ.
This rise in λ bolsters the thermal buoyancy forces, consequently boosting the fluid’s
velocity and suggesting that buoyancy forces significantly accelerate fluid flow.
Figure 6.7 demonstrates that as thermal stratification (δ) rises, the fluid temperature
declines. The presence of thermal stratification (δ) reduces the temperature gradient
between the heated wall and the adjacent fluid, causing the thermal boundary layer
to thicken and the temperature to decrease. Conversely, Fig. 6.8 shows that the fluid
temperature grows with rising values of R. This increase is attributed to higher R
values enhancing the thermal radiative flux, which in turn raises the temperatures,
showcasing the direct correlation between increased radiative flux and elevated fluid
temperatures.
Figure 6.9 illustrates the result of the Q on the temperature profile, showing that as
(Q) increases, the fluid temperature similarly rises, aligning with the fluid’s fundamental
physical properties. Figure 6.10 presents the effect of the P r on the fluid’s temperature
profile, revealing that an increase in P r leads to a decrease in fluid temperature. A
higher P r suggests lower thermal conductivity, which reduces the efficiency of heat
6.4 Results and Discussion 127

Fig. 6.3 Effects of M on Velocity Profile

Fig. 6.4 Effects of K on Velocity Profile

transfer through the fluid. Consequently, the rate of heat transfer diminishes, the
thermal boundary layer narrows, and the fluid temperature decreases.
Figure 6.11 shows that a rise in the percentage of solid volume of Ag nanoparticles,
with the volume fractions of CoF e2 O4 and ZnO held constant, causes an increase in
the temperature profile. Furthermore, Figure 6.12 demonstrates that the temperature
also increases as the percentage of volume that CoF e2 O4 rises, while keeping the
128 Numerical study of MHD Ternary Nanofluid ...

Fig. 6.5 Effects of R on Velocity Profile

Fig. 6.6 Effects of λ on Velocity Profile

Ag and ZnO fractions constant. Similarly, an elevated volume fraction of ZnO (ϕ3 ),
as depicted in Figure 6.13, results in a higher temperature profile, indicating that
increased concentrations of these nanoparticles improve the fluid’s thermal properties.
Tables 6.3 detail the effects of various flow parameters on skin friction and the
local Nusselt number. With a rise in the thermal stratification parameter (δ), both
skin friction and the local Nusselt number decrease. Higher values of the M and the
6.4 Results and Discussion 129

Table 6.3 Skin friction Coefficient and Local Nusselt number for different values of
δ, M, K, λ, P r, Q, γ

δ M K λ Pr Q γ Skin-friction Coefficient Local Nusselt Number

0 -4.6237 2.6921
0.3 1.5 3 1.5 6.2 0.3 0.3 -4.7881 2.5381
0.5 -4.8867 2.3541
0 -4.3195 2.5855
0.4 1.3 3 1.5 6.2 0.3 0.3 -4.6474 2.5132
1.5 -4.9147 2.4446
0 -3.2065 3.1715
0.4 1.3 2 1.5 6.2 0.3 0.3 -4.3406 2.5816
4 -5.2901 2.3442
0 -5.0461 2.3555
0.4 1.3 3 1 6.2 0.3 0.3 -4.9060 2.4280
2 -4.7761 2.4975
0.6 -4.6845 0.5110
0.4 1.3 3 1.5 6.2 0.3 0.3 -4.8399 2.4642
21 -5.0492 6.5163
-0.3 -4.8671 3.1050
0.4 1.3 3 1.5 6.2 0 0.3 -4.8531 2.7983
0.1 -4.8456 2.6708
0 -4.6327 2.9534
0.4 1.3 3 1.5 6.2 0.3 0.2 -4.7382 2.3769
0.4 -4.9429 2.5709

Table 6.4 Comparison of −Cf Rex1/2

δ Nanofluid Hybrid Nanofluid ternary nanofluid

0 3.3154 4.2717 4.6237
0.1 3.3042 4.3242 4.6795
0.2 3.3552 4.3759 4.7345

Table 6.5 Comparison of Local Nusselt Number

δ Nanofluid Hybrid Nanofluid Ternary Nanofluid

0 2.8469 2.6112 2.6921
0.1 2.4314 2.5706 2.6484
0.2 2.3940 2.5244 2.5983
130 Numerical study of MHD Ternary Nanofluid ...

Fig. 6.7 Effects of δ on Temperature Profile

Fig. 6.8 Effects of R on Temperature Profile

K also lead to a decrease in both skin friction and the Nusselt number. In contrast,
an increase in the value of λ results in higher skin friction and Nusselt number. For
the P r, while skin friction decreases, the Nusselt number increases. Similarly, a rise
in the Q decreases the heat transfer rate, but skin friction increases. Lastly, as the γ
increases, skin friction decreases, but the Nusselt number rises.
6.4 Results and Discussion 131

Fig. 6.9 Effects of Q on Temperature Profile

Fig. 6.10 Effects of P r on Temperature Profile

Tables 6.4 and 6.5 present comparisons of the absolute skin friction (−Cf Re1/2
x ) and
the local Nusselt number (N ux Rex ) across nanofluid, hybrid nanofluid, and ternary
−1/2

nanofluid formulations. The ternary nanofluid (Ag − CoF e2 O4 − ZnO/C2 H6 O2 + H2 O)

demonstrates a substantial enhancement in skin friction relative to the nanofluid
(Ag/C2 H6 O2 + H2 O). Additionally, as thermal stratification (δ) increases, the disparity
in skin friction between the ternary nanofluid and the standard nanofluid narrows
132 Numerical study of MHD Ternary Nanofluid ...

Fig. 6.11 Effects of ϕ1 on Temperature Profile

Fig. 6.12 Effects of ϕ2 on Temperature Profile

for −Cf Re1/2x . The Nusselt number for the ternary nanofluid shows a significant
improvement over that of the conventional nanofluid. Moreover, an increase in thermal
stratification (δ) augments the difference in the Nusselt number between the ternary
nanofluid and the regular nanofluid for N ux Re−1/2
x .
6.5 Conclusion 133

Fig. 6.13 Effects of ϕ3 on Temperature Profile

6.5 Conclusion
An extensive study was conducted on the consequences of the thermal stratification
effect regarding the movement of a ternary nanofluid that demonstrates magnetohydro-
dynamics characteristics through a vertically stretchable cylinder. This study took into
account the existence of a thermal buoyancy effect and a heat source within a porous
medium. The study also looks at the flow features and how they affect temperature
and velocity profiles, as well as the Nusselt number and friction factor. Notable findings
from this inquiry include the following: As the parameters δ, K, and M grow, the
velocity profile shows a decreasing trend, while it shows a rising pattern with higher
values of λ, and γ. With rising values of δ and P r, the temperature declines, whereas
with rising values of ϕ1 , ϕ2 , ϕ3 , P r, γ and Q, it rises. Parameters δ, M, K, Q, γ, and P r
cause a decrease in absolute skin friction, whereas λ cause it to increase. An upward
trend is noted in the local Nusselt number as the values of P r and γ increase, whereas
a downward trend is observed as δ, M, K, λ, and Q increase. In comparison to the
hybrid nanofluid, the ternary nanofluid exhibits higher absolute skin friction. Similarly,
when compared to ordinary nanofluids, hybrid nanofluids exhibit higher skin friction.
A ternary nanofluid has a greater heat transfer rate than a hybrid nanofluid, which is
also higher than that of standard nanofluids.
 MHD Natural Convection of
Ternary Nanofluid in a Porous
7
Medium Incorporating
Stratification and Radiation
Published in ZAMM - Journal of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics,
ISSN: 0044-2267, E-ISSN: 1521-4001, (SCOPUS, SCIE)

7.1 Introduction
Ternary nanofluids are specialized fluids comprising three distinct types of nanoparticles
dispersed within a base fluid. This paper presents a numerical investigation into an
MHD ternary nanofluid comprised of silver (Ag), cobalt ferrite (CoF e2 O4 ), and zinc
oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles, which are evenly distributed in a blend of ethylene glycol
(C2 H6 O2 ) and water (H2 O). This ternary nanofluid possesses unique properties that
render it appropriate for various uses. The inclusion of silver (Ag) nanoparticles
in the nanofluid has been demonstrated to improve thermal conductivity, while the
inclusion of cobalt ferrite (CoF e2 O4 ) and zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles enhances
heat transfer effectiveness and stability. This nanofluid can be used in multiple areas
including heat exchangers, cooling systems, and electronic devices, aiming to enhance
heat dissipation and improve thermal management. Additionally, silver nanoparticles
exhibit antibacterial properties, while ZnO nanoparticles possess photocatalytic action
against bacteria. The use of the ternary nanofluid, comprising Ag − CoF e2 O4 − ZnO,
136 MHD Natural Convection of Ternary Nanofluid in a Porous Medium...

presents a promising approach for developing antimicrobial coatings on different surfaces,

such as medical devices, fabrics, and food containers. These coatings successfully inhibit
bacterial growth and help in preserving cleanliness. Zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles
have photocatalytic properties, enabling the degradation of organic pollutants and the
purification of water. The utilization of the Ag − CoF e2 O4 − ZnO ternary nanofluid
shows potential in thermal conductivity, heat transfer effectiveness, antibacterial
properties, and photocatalytic activity, rendering it suitable for cooling systems,
antibacterial coatings, and water treatment processes, assisting in the removal of
pollutants and enhancing the overall quality of water resources.
The idea of nanofluid, originally proposed by scientists, revolutionized fluid dynamics
with nanoparticles. The concept of nanofluid was first introduced by Choi, and
Eastman [6], suggests that heat transfer fluids containing metallic nanoparticles could
revolutionize heat transfer fluids. In groundbreaking studies, Das and Jana [60] and
Das et al. [61] explored the natural convective flow of nanofluids with radiation in a
moving vertical plate and a vertical channel, respectively. Both investigations examined
water-based nanofluids composed of titanium dioxide, aluminum oxide, and copper.
Addressing heat production or absorption scenarios, Rashidi et al. [192] sought a
Lie group solution for the flow of nanofluid over a chemically reacting horizontal
plate. The entropy analysis by Abolbashari et al. [62] employed the Homotopy
Analysis Method (HAM) to examine a nanofluid composed of water and one of four
distinct types of nanoparticles: T iO2 , Al2 O3 , Cu, and CuO, passing across a stretchable
permeable surface. In a numerical study, Motsumi, and Makinde [193] focused on
the boundary layer movement of nanofluids over a moving flat plate, specifically the
impacts of thermal radiation, viscous dissipation, and thermal diffusion. Considering
velocity slip and temperature jump conditions, Turkyilmazoglu [194] conducted an
analytical study on MHD nanofluid flow using various water-based nanoparticles across
a continuously stretching/shrinking permeable sheet. Further, Jeevandha [24] explored
the MHD boundary layer nanofluid flow under thermal radiation over an exponentially
accelerating vertical plate.
In addition, Cheng [39, 40] investigated double-diffusive natural convection and
combined heat and mass transfer in non-Newtonian fluid-saturated porous media with
thermal and mass stratification. Recent studies by Sahu and Deka [123, 149, 146, 145,
147, 148], and Das and Deka [195] focused on thermal and mass stratification effects
on MHD flow with variable temperature and mass diffusion also including chemical
reaction in their theoretical analyses. The impact of nanoparticle shape on heat transfer
enhancement in magnetized ternary nanofluid was explored by Shanmugapriya et al.
[197]. Arif et al. [198] investigated heat transfer in a radiator with differently shaped
nanoparticles in a water-based ternary nanofluid, utilizing a fractional model. Finally,
Patil et al. [199] explored the flow of tangent hyperbolic ternary nanofluid over a
rough-yawed cylinder due to impulsive motion. Mahmood et al. [200] examined the
effects of suction and a heat source on MHD stagnation point flow of ternary nanofluid
over a convectively heated cylinder. Additionally, Animasaun et al. [201] simulated
7.2 Mathematical Analysis 137

the dynamics of water-based colloidal mixtures with various nanoparticles, focusing on

ternary-hybrid nanofluids.
Recent numerical investigations by Nath and Deka [202, 203] delved into the MHD
ternary nanofluid (Cu-Al2 O3 -TiO2 /H2 O) flowing past a vertically stretching cylinder
within a porous medium, influenced by thermal stratification. analyzing the effects
of radiation and thermal stratification. Sarma and Paul [50] studied thermophoresis
and Brownian motion in bioconvective cylindrical-shaped Ag–CuO/H2 O Ellis hybrid
nanofluid flow along a radiative stretched tube with an inclined magnetic field. Paul
et al. [204] examined the mixed convection of shear-thinning hybrid nanofluid flow
across a radiative unsteady cone with suction and slip effects. Additionally, Paul
et al. [205] explored thermal and mass transfer analysis of Casson-Maxwell hybrid
nanofluids through an unsteady horizontal cylinder with variable thermal conductivity
and Arrhenius activation energy.
Hybrid and ternary nanofluids have garnered significant attention for their advanced
thermal properties. Ghadikolaei et al. [212] investigated the impact of nanoparticle
shape on heat transfer in hybrid nanofluids, while further studies explored MHD flows
with nonlinear thermal radiation and Joule heating effects Ghadikolaei et al. [213].
Environmental applications include reducing CO2 emissions using cooling technologies
in solar PV cells Ghadikolaei [214], with detailed reviews on enhancing photovoltaic
performance Ghadikolaei [215]. Research on thermophysical properties Ghadikolaei et
al. [216], second-grade non-Newtonian fluids Ghadikolaei et al. [217], and CNT-water
nanofluids under MHD and Joule heating effects Ghadikolaei et al. [218] highlight the
versatility of nanofluids in engineering and energy systems.
The present study uniquely combines the influences of thermal stratification, ra-
diation, and natural convection on the flow and heat transfer characteristics of a
ternary nanofluid (Ag − CoF e2 O4 − ZnO) past a vertically stretching cylinder in a
porous medium. Unlike previous investigations, this work considers the synergistic
effects of multiple nanoparticles in a thermally stratified environment, which remains
largely unexplored. The bvp4c technique applied in this study is well-established,
as discussed and applied in MATLAB by Shampine et al. [206] and Kierzenka, and
Shampine [207]. The key advantages of this study are its comprehensive analysis of
the ternary nanofluid’s enhanced heat transfer capabilities, improved stability, and
superior thermal conductivity, heat transfer efficiency, and stability that cannot be
achieved with single or hybrid nanoparticles alone. This study provides novel insights
into optimizing advanced thermal management systems, such as cooling mechanisms
for electronic devices, heat exchangers, and energy systems, under varying thermal
and physical conditions. These findings address critical gaps in current fluid dynamics
research, paving the way for more efficient and sustainable engineering applications.

7.2 Mathematical Analysis

Envision a two-dimensional steady incompressible ternary nanofluid consisting of
Ag − CoF e2 O4 − ZnO/C2 H6 O2 + H2 O, flowing through a porous medium around a
138 MHD Natural Convection of Ternary Nanofluid in a Porous Medium...

Fig. 7.1 Physical Model and coordinate system

vertically stretchable cylinder with a radius of r0 . Influences on this system include

a heat source/sink, thermal stratification, and thermal radiation. The movement
of the ternary nanofluid is directed axially along the x-direction, with the radial
coordinate r perpendicular to the x-axis, as depicted in Figure 7.1. The velocity
components of the nanofluid along the r and x axes are denoted by ”u” and ”v”,
respectively. A magnetic field with strength B0 is applied perpendicularly to the flow.
The study accounts for thermal buoyancy effects but excludes Joule heating. The
velocity that causes the cylinder to stretch linearly is defined as u = a xl , where ′ a′
is the velocity coefficient and ′ l′ thecharacteristic
 length of the cylinder. The wall
temperature varies as Tw (x) = T0 +A l and the ambient temperature of the nanofluid
x
 
as T∞ (x) = T0 + B xl , with A, B, and T0 being constants where T0 indicates the
initial temperature. The governing equations for continuity, momentum, and energy
for the ternary nanofluid are outlined according to Paul et al. [49].

∂(ru) ∂(rv)
+ = 0 (7.1)
∂x ∂r
µmnf 1 ∂ (ρβT )mnf
!
∂u ∂u ∂u σmnf 2
u +v = r + g(T − T∞ ) − B u
∂x ∂r ρmnf r ∂r ∂r ρmnf ρmnf 0
µmnf u
− (7.2)
ρmnf k ′
kmnf 1 ∂ 1 1 ∂ ∂qr′
! !
∂T ∂T ∂T
u +v = r − r
∂x ∂r (ρcp )mnf r ∂r ∂r (ρcp )mnf r ∂r ∂r
Q0
+ (T − T∞ ) (7.3)
(ρcp )mnf
7.2 Mathematical Analysis 139

The boundary conditions are specified as follows:

x
u=a , v = 0, T = Tw (x) when r = r0 (7.4)
l
u = 0, T → T∞ (x) when r → ∞

The radiative heat flux qr′ in Eqn. (7.3) is estimated using the Rosseland approx-
imation Rosseland [219], under the assumption that the nanofluid is optically thick.
According to this approximation, the radiative heat flux is expressed as:

4σ ∗ ∂T 4
qr′ = − ,
3k ∗ ∂r
where σ ∗ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and k ∗ is the mean absorption coefficient.
Under the assumption that temperature differences within the fluid are relatively
small, T 4 is linearized using a Taylor series expansion around T∞ , yielding T 4 ≈
4T∞3
T − 3T∞4
. Substituting this into the radiative heat flux term and differentiating,
the energy equation is modified to account for radiative contributions. This method
ensures the inclusion of radiative heat transfer effects in the thermodynamic model
without introducing excessive computational complexity. Following the studies by
Turkyilmazoglu [194] and Ghadikolaei, Gholinia [220], Eqn. (7.3) is reformulated as
follows:

16σ ∗ T∞
′3
1 ∂
! !
∂T ∂T kf kmnf ∂T Q0
u +v = + r + (T − T∞ ) (7.5)
∂x ∂r (ρcp )mnf kf 3kf k r ∂r ∂r (ρcp )mnf

The similarity transformation (Ref. [49]) applied to Equations (7.1)-(7.3) is as

follows.

r2 − r02 T − T∞ (x)
s
a aνf
r
η= , ψ= xr0 f (η), θ= (7.6)
2r0 νf l l Tw (x) − T0

and the non-dimensional quantities are provided as follows:

s
lσf B02 lνf lνf Gr B Q0 l
M= , K= , γ= , λ= , δ= , Q=
aρf ak ar02 Re2x A a(ρcp )f

16σ ∗ T∞
′3
νf (µcp )f
R= , Pr =
3kf k kf
where δ represents thermal stratification, γ curvature, M magnetism, λ thermal
buoyancy, K porosity, Q heat source/sink, R radiation and P r the Prandtl number.
140 MHD Natural Convection of Ternary Nanofluid in a Porous Medium...

To meet the requirements of the continuity equation (7.1), the stream function ψ is
introduced, with u = 1r ∂ψ
∂r
and v = − 1r ∂ψ
∂x
. Consequently, the dimensionless versions of
the transformed equations are displayed as follows:

f ′2 − f f ′′ = a1 [2γf ′′ + (1 + 2γη)f ′′′ ] + a2 λθ − (a3 M + a1 K)f ′ (7.7)

f ′ (θ + δ) − f θ′ = a4 [2γθ′ + (1 + 2γη)θ′′ ] + a5 θ (7.8)

where,

µmnf ρf (ρβT )mnf (ρCp )f σmnf kmnf

x1 = , x2 = , x3 = , x4 = , x5 = , x6 =
µf ρmnf (ρβT )f (ρCp )mnf σf kf

x4 x6 + R
a1 = x 1 x 2 , a2 = x2 x3 , a3 = x2 x5 , a4 =
, a5 = Qx4
Pr
Here, the variables µmnf , (βT )mnf , ρmnf , (ρCp )mnf , kmnf , σmnf refer to the viscosity,
thermal expansion coefficient, electrical conductivity, heat capacity, thermal con-
ductivity, and density of the ternary nanofluid, respectively. In a similar manner,
µf , (βT )f , ρf , (ρCp )f , kf , σf correspond to the viscosity, thermal expansion coefficient,
electrical conductivity, heat capacity, thermal conductivity, and density of the base
fluid, respectively.
Here is how the transformed boundary conditions are defined:

f (η) = 0 f ′ (η) = 1 θ(η) = 1 − δ at η = 0

f ′ (η) → 0 θ(η) → 0 as η → ∞ (7.9)

The thermophysical properties of the ternary nanofluid are as follows:

µf
µmnf =
(1 − ϕ1 )2.5 (1 − ϕ2 )2.5 (1 − ϕ3 )2.5
ρmnf = (1 − ϕ3 ) [(1 − ϕ2 ) {(1 − ϕ1 )ρf + ϕ1 ρs1 } + ϕ2 ρs2 ] + ϕ3 ρs3
(ρcp )mnf = (1 − ϕ3 ) [(1 − ϕ2 ) {(1 − ϕ1 )(ρcp )f + ϕ1 (ρcp )s1 } + ϕ2 (ρcp )s2 ] + ϕ3 (ρcp )s3
(ρβT )mnf = (1 − ϕ3 ) [(1 − ϕ2 ) {(1 − ϕ1 )(ρβT )f + ϕ1 (ρβT )s1 } + ϕ2 (ρβT )s2 ] + ϕ3 (ρβT )s3
(ks1 + 2kf ) − 2ϕ1 (kf − ks1 ) (ks2 + 2knf ) − 2ϕ2 (knf − ks2 )
" # " #
knf = kf , khnf = knf
(ks1 + 2kf ) + ϕ1 (kf − ks1 ) (ks2 + 2knf ) + ϕ2 (knf − ks2 )
(ks3 + 2khnf ) − 2ϕ3 (khnf − ks3 ) (σs1 + 2σf ) − 2ϕ1 (σf − ks1 )
" # " #
kmnf = khnf , σnf = σf
(ks3 + 2khnf ) + ϕ3 (khnf − ks3 ) (σs1 + 2σf ) + ϕ1 (σf − σs1 )
(σs2 + 2σnf ) − 2ϕ2 (σnf − σs2 ) (σs3 + 2σhnf ) − 2ϕ3 (σhnf − σs3 )
" # " #
σhnf = σnf , σmnf = σhnf
(σs2 + 2σnf ) + ϕ2 (σnf − σs2 ) (σs3 + 2σhnf ) + ϕ3 (σhnf − σs3 )
7.3 Method of Solution 141

Here, ϕ1 , ϕ2 , and ϕ3 represent the volume fractions of Silver (Ag), Cobalt Ferrite
(CoF e2 O4 ), and Zinc Oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles, respectively. The terms mnf, hnf,
nf, f, s1, s2, and s3 denote ternary nanofluid, hybrid nanofluid, nanofluid, base fluid,
and the dense nanoparticles of Silver (Ag), Cobalt Ferrite (CoF e2 O4 ), and Zinc Oxide
(ZnO), respectively, as presented in Table 7.1.
The definitions of the skin friction coefficient and local Nusselt number are as
follows:

1
x =
Cf Re1/2 f ′′ (0) (7.10)
(1 − ϕ1 )2.5 (1 − ϕ2 )2.5 (1 − ϕ3 )2.5
kmnf ′
N ux Re−1/2
x =− θ (0) (7.11)
kf

where Rex represents the local Reynolds Number.

Table 7.1 Thermal and Physical Properties of Ethylene glycol+ water and nanoparticles
(Paul et al. [1, 2], and Ghadikolaei et al. [3, 4])

Physical Properties Ethylene glycol (30%)+ H2 O(70%) Ag CoF e2 O4 ZnO

ρ (kg/m3 ) 1038 10500 4907 5606
Cp (J/kgK) 3714 235 700 544
k (W/mK) 0.484 429 3.7 19

7.3 Method of Solution

To put it numerically tackle the system of higher-order nonlinear ODEs outlined
in Equations (7.7)-(7.8) along with the associated boundary circumstances, (7.9),
we employ the bvp4c solver, which is integrated into the MATLAB computational
environment. This method is frequently used by both professionals and researchers
for analyzing fluid flow dynamics. Developed by Jacek Kierzenka and Lawrence F.
Shampine from Southern Methodist University in Texas, the bvp4c solver was first
introduced by Hale [208]. It utilizes a finite modification algorithm alongside the
Lobatto IIIA implicit Runge-Kutta method, delivering numerical solutions with fourth-
order accuracy. This method is crucial for ensuring precision by allowing for initial
guesses at mesh points and adjustments in step-size. In research conducted by Waini
et al. [209], the bvp4c solver was shown to yield satisfactory outcomes when compared
to the shooting technique and the Keller box method. To manage the greater-order
derivatives concerning η, we introduce the following new variables:

f = y(1), f ′ = y(2), f ′′ = y(3), θ = y(4), θ′ = y(5)

142 MHD Natural Convection of Ternary Nanofluid in a Porous Medium...

 

y(1)

y(2)
y(2)
  
 y(3) 

d  
y(3) = 
  y(2)2 −y(1)y(3)−a2 λy(4)+(a3 M +a1 K)y(2)−2a1 γy(3) 

(1+2γη)a1 
dη    
y(4) y(5)
   
 
y(5) y(2)(y(4)+δ)−y(1)y(5)−2a4 γy(5)−a5 y(4)
(1+2γη)a 4

and the boundary conditions are stated as,

ya(1), ya(2) − 1, ya(4) − 1 + δ, yb(2), yb(4)

where ya represents the state at η = 0 and yb denotes the state at η = ∞.

7.4 Results and Discussion

The figures analyses were conducted using the bvp4c solver in MATLAB, with findings
depicted in Figures 7.2-7.13 and Tables 7.3-7.5. Table 7.2 contrasts the values of −θ′ (0)
derived from this research with those previously stated by Ishak and Nazar [210] and
Elbashbeshy et al. [211], when no nanoparticle volume fractions are present and the
parameters δ = γ = M = K = R = Q = λ = ϕ1 = ϕ2 = ϕ3 = 0, with varying
values of the Prandtl number. This comparison validates that the bvp4c algorithmcan
produce numerical results that are precise and consistent with those obtained from
other methodologies.
The study uses the following values: δ = 0.05, γ = 0.3, M = 0.5, K = 1, R = 2, Q =
0.06, λ = 1.5, P r = 6.2, ϕ1 = 0.03, ϕ2 = 0.10 and ϕ3 = 0.15. Figure 7.2 illustrates the
effect of the thermal stratification (δ) parameter on the velocity f ′ (η). As thermal
stratification (δ) intensifies, the decrease in velocity can be attributed to the reduced
temperature gradient between the heated wall and the adjacent fluid. This diminished
gradient weakens the thermal buoyancy forces, which are responsible for driving the
fluid flow. Physically, thermal stratification creates layers of varying temperature
within the fluid, leading to a stabilization effect that suppresses convective motion.
The higher temperature near the wall and the relatively cooler layers above inhibit the
upward flow of fluid parcels, as the buoyancy-induced momentum transfer becomes less
effective. Additionally, the presence of stratified layers introduces thermal resistance,
further reducing the ability of heat to propagate effectively. This results in a thicker

Table 7.2 Comparable values of −θ′ (0) with δ = γ = M = K = R = Q = λ = ϕ1 =

ϕ2 = ϕ3 = 0

Pr Ishak and Nazar [210] Elbashbeshy et al. [211] Present Study

1 1.0000 1.0000 0.9999
10 3.7207 3.7207 3.7213
7.4 Results and Discussion 143

Fig. 7.2 Effects of δ on Velocity Profile

thermal boundary layer and a corresponding decrease in fluid velocity. The interplay
between these factors highlights the critical role of thermal stratification in modulating
the flow dynamics, emphasizing its impact on the overall efficiency of heat transfer and
fluid motion in the system. Illustrated in Fig. 7.3, the fluid velocity f ′ (η) falls as the
magnetic parameter (M ) increases due to the Lorentz force, which acts as a resistive
force opposing the fluid motion. This force, generated by the interaction between the
magnetic field and the moving charged particles in the nanofluid, enhances the viscous
drag, reducing momentum transfer and thinning the boundary layer. Fig. 7.4 shows
how the porosity parameter (K) affects the nanofluid velocity f ′ (η). With an increase
in (K), the velocity decreases. There exists an inverse correlation between K and the
porous medium’s diameter, where a higher K corresponds to a decreasing diameter.
This smaller diameter restricts fluid move via the porous medium, reducing velocity
due to the resistance posed by the porosity parameter (K).
As shown in Fig. 7.5, a rise in the value of R results in increased fluid velocity f ′ (η),
as the elevated thermal radiation parameter enhances energy transfer through radiative
heat flux. This intensification reduces the temperature gradient between the fluid
and the surrounding environment, promoting thermal buoyancy effects. Physically,
the added energy accelerates the fluid particles near the boundary, decreasing viscous
resistance and expanding the thermal boundary layer, thereby increasing velocity.
This phenomenon demonstrates how radiation augments convective flow by coupling
thermal and momentum fields, significantly influencing the fluid’s dynamic behavior.
Fig. 7.6 illustrates the impact of λ on fluid velocity, where it is noted that the
velocity increases in tandem with increasing λ. This rise in λ, representing the thermal
buoyancy parameter, enhances the temperature-induced density differences within the
fluid. Physically, these density variations create upward buoyancy forces that overcome
viscous resistance, accelerating the fluid flow. The increase in velocity reflects the
144 MHD Natural Convection of Ternary Nanofluid in a Porous Medium...

Fig. 7.3 Effects of M on Velocity Profile

Fig. 7.4 Effects of K on Velocity Profile

dominance of thermal buoyancy over inertial forces, effectively driving the convective
motion. This interaction underscores the critical role of λ in intensifying the coupling
between thermal and momentum transport, resulting in a more vigorous fluid motion
and improved heat transfer efficiency.
Figure 7.7 demonstrates that as thermal stratification (δ) rises, the fluid temperature
declines due to the diminishing temperature gradient between the heated wall and
the adjacent fluid. Physically, thermal stratification creates layered temperature
distributions, restricting heat transfer between these layers. This reduced gradient
7.4 Results and Discussion 145

Fig. 7.5 Effects of R on Velocity Profile

Fig. 7.6 Effects of λ on Velocity Profile

limits the convective energy transfer from the wall to the fluid, causing a decrease in
thermal energy within the fluid. Additionally, the thickening of the thermal boundary
layer acts as a thermal insulator, further impeding heat diffusion into the bulk fluid.
This interplay of reduced convection and increased insulation leads to a lower overall
temperature in the fluid, highlighting the stabilizing effect of thermal stratification on
thermal transport dynamics. Conversely, Fig. 7.8 shows that the fluid temperature
grows with rising values of R, attributed to the enhancement of thermal radiative flux.
Physically, higher R represents increased radiative heat transfer, which supplements
146 MHD Natural Convection of Ternary Nanofluid in a Porous Medium...

Fig. 7.7 Effects of δ on Temperature Profile

Fig. 7.8 Effects of R on Temperature Profile

conductive and convective heat transfer within the fluid. The radiation acts as an
additional energy source, intensifying the overall thermal energy available in the system.
This results in elevated fluid temperatures, particularly near the heated surfaces, as
the energy transfer mechanisms synergistically amplify. The direct correlation between
R and temperature underscores the critical role of radiation in augmenting thermal
transport, expanding the thermal boundary layer, and enhancing energy distribution
within the fluid.
7.4 Results and Discussion 147

Fig. 7.9 Effects of Q on Temperature Profile

Fig. 7.10 Effects of P r on Temperature Profile

Figure 7.9 illustrates the effect of Q on the temperature profile, showing that as
Q increases, the fluid temperature rises due to the heat source term represented by
Q. Physically, a higher Q indicates an intensified internal heat generation within
the fluid, which directly adds thermal energy to the system. This increased energy
elevates the temperature of the fluid, particularly in regions closer to the source. The
additional heat enhances the convective transport of energy, thickening the thermal
boundary layer and elevating the overall temperature distribution. This relationship
highlights how internal heat generation drives temperature augmentation, reinforcing
148 MHD Natural Convection of Ternary Nanofluid in a Porous Medium...

Fig. 7.11 Effects of ϕ1 on Temperature Profile

the thermal energy balance in the fluid. Figure 7.10 presents the effect of the P r on
the fluid’s temperature profile, revealing that an increase in P r leads to a decrease in
fluid temperature. A higher P r suggests lower thermal conductivity, which reduces
the efficiency of heat transfer through the fluid. Consequently, the rate of heat transfer
diminishes, the thermal boundary layer narrows, and the fluid temperature decreases.

Fig. 7.12 Effects of ϕ2 on Temperature Profile

Figures 7.11, 7.12, and 7.13 demonstrate that increasing the volume fractions of
Ag, CoF e2 O4 , and ZnO nanoparticles individually enhances the temperature profile
of the fluid. Physically, each nanoparticle type contributes to improving the thermal
7.4 Results and Discussion 149

Fig. 7.13 Effects of ϕ3 on Temperature Profile

conductivity of the nanofluid due to their superior intrinsic heat transfer properties.
Silver (Ag) nanoparticles, known for their exceptional thermal conductivity, enable
rapid heat conduction, while CoF e2 O4 enhances the fluid’s heat retention due to
its magnetic properties, aiding in the uniform distribution of thermal energy. Zinc
oxide (ZnO) adds photocatalytic capabilities that can absorb and redistribute energy
efficiently. The cumulative effect of increased nanoparticle volume fractions reduces
thermal resistance and augments heat transfer within the fluid, raising the overall
temperature profile and improving thermal management capabilities. This highlights
the synergistic role of these nanoparticles in optimizing the thermal behavior of the
ternary nanofluid.
Table 7.3 detail the effects of various flow parameters on skin friction and the
local Nusselt number, offering insights into their physical implications. A rise in the
thermal stratification parameter (δ) reduces the buoyancy forces and temperature
gradient, thereby decreasing skin friction and limiting heat transfer, which lowers the
Nusselt number. Higher values of M (magnetic parameter) introduce Lorentz forces
that oppose fluid motion, reducing momentum transfer and consequently lowering
both skin friction and the Nusselt number. Similarly, higher K (porosity parameter)
increases resistance within the porous medium, dampening flow and thermal transfer.
In contrast, increases in λ (thermal buoyancy) enhance temperature-induced density
differences, driving stronger flow and improving heat transfer efficiency, which raises
both skin friction and the Nusselt number. For P r (Prandtl number), a higher value
indicates lower thermal diffusivity, leading to a stronger thermal boundary layer and
improved heat transfer (higher Nusselt number) despite reduced flow momentum (lower
skin friction). An increase in R (radiation parameter) adds thermal energy, raising
fluid velocity and skin friction but reducing the heat transfer rate due to a diminished
temperature gradient. Similarly, higher Q (heat source) increases internal heating,
150 MHD Natural Convection of Ternary Nanofluid in a Porous Medium...

thickening the boundary layer and raising skin friction while decreasing heat transfer
efficiency. Finally, an increase in γ (curvature parameter) weakens flow resistance,
reducing skin friction, while simultaneously enhancing convective heat transfer, which
raises the Nusselt number. These relationships highlight the intricate balance between
flow dynamics and heat transfer mechanisms in the system.

Table 7.3 Cf Re1/2

x and N ux Re−1/2
x for different values of δ, M, K, λ, P r, R, Q, γ

δ M K λ Pr R Q γ Cf Rex1/2 N ux Rex−1/2
0 -3.0085 2.4733
0.15 0.5 1 1.5 6.2 2 0.06 0.3 -3.1192 2.3167
0.25 -3.1919 2.2079
0 -2.7456 2.4952
0.05 0.6 1 1.5 6.2 2 0.06 0.3 -3.1026 2.4084
1.2 -3.4268 2.3306
0 -2.2325 2.6210
0.05 0.5 0.5 1.5 6.2 2 0.06 0.3 -2.6659 2.5147
1.5 -3.3879 2.3398
0 -3.5708 2.2467
0.05 0.5 1 1 6.2 2 0.06 0.3 -3.2131 2.3751
2 -2.8834 2.4630
0.6 -2.7941 0.8328
0.05 0.5 1 1.5 6.2 2 0.06 0.3 -3.0457 2.4221
21 -3.2519 4.8521
0 -3.1632 3.5724
0.05 0.5 1 1.5 6.2 1.5 0.06 0.3 -3.0681 2.6106
3 -3.0094 2.1393
-0.1 -3.0792 2.6734
0.05 0.5 1 1.5 6.2 2 0 0.3 -3.0598 2.5225
0.05 -3.0482 2.4395
0 -2.7907 2.2332
0.05 0.5 1 1.5 6.2 2 0.06 0.25 -3.0037 2.3898
0.50 -3.2111 2.5519

Tables 7.4 and 7.5 highlight the performance of ternary nanofluid formulations
in terms of skin friction (−Cf Re1/2 x ) and the local Nusselt number (N ux Rex
−1/2
),
demonstrating their superior thermal and flow characteristics compared to conventional
and hybrid nanofluids. The enhanced skin friction of the ternary nanofluid can be
attributed to its higher viscosity and density, resulting from the synergistic properties of
the nanoparticles (Ag, CoF e2 O4 , ZnO), which increase resistance to flow but improve
heat retention. As thermal stratification (δ) intensifies, the temperature gradient
diminishes, narrowing the disparity in skin friction between the ternary nanofluid
and the standard nanofluid by reducing buoyancy-driven momentum transfer. The
7.5 Conclusion 151

significant improvement in the Nusselt number for the ternary nanofluid is due to its
superior thermal conductivity, enabled by the optimal dispersion of nanoparticles, which
facilitates efficient heat transfer. Additionally, as δ increases, the thermal conductivity
advantage of the ternary nanofluid becomes more pronounced, further amplifying the
heat transfer rate compared to conventional nanofluids. This indicates the ability
of ternary nanofluids to maintain high thermal performance even under stratified
conditions, underscoring their potential for advanced heat transfer applications.

Table 7.4 Comparison of −Cf Rex1/2

δ Nanofluid Hybrid Nanofluid ternary nanofluid

0 2.0771 2.7683 3.0085
0.05 2.1106 2.8035 3.0457
0.1 2.1444 2.8384 3.0825

Table 7.5 Comparison of N ux Re−1/2

x

δ Nanofluid Hybrid Nanofluid ternary nanofluid

0 2.0580 2.3484 2.4733
0.05 2.0146 2.3006 2.4221
0.1 1.9714 2.2516 2.3699

7.5 Conclusion
A comprehensive investigation was conducted to analyze the effects of thermal stratifica-
tion on the flow of a ternary nanofluid with magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) properties
along a vertically stretchable cylinder. The study incorporates the influence of thermal
buoyancy, heat source/sink, radiation, and the presence of a porous medium. The
analysis examines the flow characteristics, focusing on their impact on velocity and
temperature profiles, skin friction, and the local Nusselt number. The key findings of
this study are summarized as follows:

• The velocity profile exhibits a decreasing trend as the parameters δ, M and K

are increased, whereas it demonstrates an increasing trend with increasing values
of R and λ.

• The temperature shows a reduction as the values of δ and P r grow, whereas it

demonstrates an increase with the increase of ϕ1 , ϕ2 , ϕ3 , R, γ and Q.

• The absolute skin friction is increased for parameters λ and R while it decreases
for parameters δ, M, K, Q, P r and γ.
152 MHD Natural Convection of Ternary Nanofluid in a Porous Medium...

• An increase in the local Nusselt number is observed with increasing values of

R, λ, γ and P r, while it decreases with increasing δ, M, K and Q.

• The ternary nanofluid shows greater absolute skin friction when compared to
the hybrid nanofluid. Likewise, the skin friction of hybrid nanofluids shows an
increase in comparison to that of regular nanofluids.

• The ternary nanofluid shows a higher heat transfer rate in comparison to the
hybrid nanofluid, and the hybrid nanofluid exhibits a higher heat transfer rate
when compared to traditional nanofluids.
 Future Work
8
The research presented in this thesis has explored various aspects of heat and mass
transfer in stratified fluids under the influence of magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) and
porous media. While significant insights have been gained, there are several avenues
for future research to further enhance the understanding and application of these
phenomena. Below are some potential directions for future work:

• Generalization of Analytical Solutions

Arbitrary Prandtl and Schmidt Numbers: The current study relies on the
Laplace transform technique, which becomes intractable for arbitrary Prandtl
(P r) and Schmidt (Sc) numbers. Future work could focus on developing more
generalized analytical methods or numerical approaches that can handle a wider
range of P r and Sc values without requiring simplification. This would allow the
model to be applied to a broader range of fluid systems with varying thermal
and mass diffusivities.

• Non-Linear Temperature and Concentration Gradients

Non-Linear Stratification: The current study assumes linear temperature
and concentration gradients. Future research could investigate the effects of
non-linear stratification, where the temperature and concentration profiles vary
in a more complex manner. This would provide a more realistic representation of
many natural and industrial systems where stratification is not linear.
154 Future Work...

• Variable Magnetic Fields

Time-Dependent Magnetic Fields: The current study considers a constant
magnetic field. Future work could explore the effects of time-dependent or
spatially varying magnetic fields on fluid flow, heat transfer, and mass transfer.
This would be particularly relevant in applications such as magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) and electromagnetic flow control in industrial processes.

• Different Porous Media

Heterogeneous Porous Media: The current study assumes a homogeneous
porous medium. Future research could investigate the effects of heterogeneous
porous media, where the permeability and porosity vary spatially. This would pro-
vide insights into fluid flow and heat transfer in more complex porous structures,
such as those found in geological formations or engineered materials.

• Advanced Nanofluids
Ternary and Hybrid Nanofluids: While the current study explores the be-
havior of ternary nanofluids, future work could investigate the effects of different
nanoparticle combinations, shapes, and concentrations on heat and mass transfer.
Additionally, the impact of nanoparticle aggregation, stability, and sedimenta-
tion in nanofluids could be studied to optimize their performance in various
applications.

• Chemical Reaction Kinetics

Higher-Order Chemical Reaction: The current study focuses on first-order
chemical reaction. Future research could explore the effects of higher-order
chemical reaction, including reversible and catalytic reactions, on fluid flow
and heat transfer. This would be particularly relevant in chemical engineering
applications where complex reaction kinetics play a crucial role.

• Experimental Validation
Laboratory and Field Experiments: While the current study provides theo-
retical and numerical insights, future work could include experimental validation
of the results. Laboratory experiments and field studies could be conducted to
validate the theoretical models and provide empirical data for further refinement
of the models.

• Environmental and Industrial Applications

Environmental Pollution Control: The insights gained from this study could
be applied to optimize environmental pollution control systems, such as the
dispersion of pollutants in stratified water bodies or the design of efficient air
filtration systems.
Industrial Cooling Systems: Future research could focus on applying the findings
to the design and optimization of industrial cooling systems, particularly in
high-temperature environments where thermal stratification and MHD effects
are significant.
 155

• Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Simulations

High-Fidelity CFD Models: Future work could involve the development of
high-fidelity CFD models to simulate the complex interactions between thermal
stratification, MHD effects, and porous media. These simulations could provide
more detailed insights into the flow dynamics and heat transfer mechanisms in
complex geometries.

• Multi-Physics Coupling
Coupled Thermal, Mechanical, and Electromagnetic Effects: Future
research could explore the coupling of thermal, mechanical, and electromagnetic
effects in stratified fluids. This would involve studying the interactions between
thermal gradients, fluid flow, and electromagnetic fields in multi-physics systems,
which are relevant in applications such as energy storage, geothermal systems,
and advanced manufacturing processes.

• Optimization and Control

Optimal Control Strategies: Future work could focus on developing optimal
control strategies for managing heat and mass transfer in stratified fluids under
MHD effects. This could involve the use of advanced control algorithms, such as
model predictive control (MPC), to optimize the performance of thermal systems
in real-time.

• Machine Learning and Data-Driven Approaches

Data-Driven Modeling: Future research could explore the use of machine
learning and data-driven approaches to model and predict the behavior of strat-
ified fluids under MHD effects. This could involve the use of neural networks,
Gaussian processes, or other machine learning techniques to develop predictive
models based on experimental or simulation data.

The future work outlined above aims to build on the foundational research presented
in this thesis, addressing some of the limitations and expanding the scope of the study.
By exploring these directions, future research can further enhance our understanding of
heat and mass transfer in stratified fluids, leading to improved designs and optimizations
in various engineering and environmental applications.
 80_Recommendation

“I would rather have questions that can’t be answered than answers that
can’t be questioned.” -Richard P. Feynman

This thesis offers a detailed and methodical study of heat and mass transfer in
MHD flows with stratification and chemical reactions through porous media. It
effectively integrates analytical methods (Laplace transform) and numerical approaches
(MATLAB’s bvp4c solver) to solve complex physical models. Each chapter builds
coherently on the last, deepening the understanding of thermal and mass stratification
effects alongside radiation, chemical reactions, and nanofluid dynamics. The innovative
modeling of MHD ternary nanofluid flow adds significant novelty, making this work
relevant for modern thermal engineering applications.
While the thesis demonstrates depth and breadth, there is room for enhance-
ment. Complex nonlinear scenarios could benefit from experimental or high-fidelity
numerical validation to improve real-world relevance. The presentation, though clear,
may be refined by reducing repetition and better integrating insights across chapters.
Additionally, the future directions in Chapter 8—such as data-driven modeling and
CFD simulation—highlight the potential for this research to expand into more ap-
plied, interdisciplinary fields, strengthening its impact in both academic and practical
contexts.

Digbash Sahu Prof. Rudra Kanta Deka

Gauhati University, Jalukabri Thesis Supervisor
August 2025
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