Introduction to Universal Algebra

George Voutsadakis1

1 Mathematics and Computer Science

Lake Superior State University

LSSU Math 400

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 Outline

1 Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products

Definition and Examples of Algebras
Isomorphic Algebras and Subalgebras
Algebraic Lattices and Subuniverses
Congruences and Quotient Algebras
Homomorphisms and the Homomorphism Theorems
Direct Products and Factor Congruences
Subdirect Products and Simple Algebras

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Definition and Examples of Algebras

Subsection 1

Definition and Examples of Algebras

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Definition and Examples of Algebras

Operations

Definition
For A a nonempty set and n a nonnegative integer, we define A0 = {;} and,
for n > 0, An is the set of n-tuples of elements from A.
An n-ary operation (or function) on A is any function f from An to A; n
is the arity (or rank) of f . A finitary operation is an n-ary operation, for
some n.
The image of 〈a1 , . . . , an 〉 under an n-ary operation f is denoted by
f (a1 , . . . , an ).
An operation f on A is called a nullary operation (or constant) if its arity
is zero; it is completely determined by the image f (;) in A of the only
element ; in A0 . As such it is convenient to identify it with the element
f (;). Thus a nullary operation is thought of as an element of A.
An operation f on A is unary, binary or ternary if its arity is 1,2, or 3,
respectively.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Definition and Examples of Algebras

Languages and Algebras

Definition
A language (or type) of algebras is a set F of function symbols such
that a nonnegative integer n is assigned to each member f of F . This
integer is called the arity (or rank) of f , and f is said to be an n-ary
function symbol. The subset of n-ary function symbols in F is denoted
by Fn .
Definition
If F is a language of algebras, then an algebra A of type F is an ordered
pair 〈A, F 〉, where:
A is a nonempty set;
F is a family of finitary operations on A indexed by the language F ,
such that corresponding to each n-ary function symbol f in F , there
is an n-ary operation f A on A.
The set A is called the universe (or underlying set) of A = 〈A, F 〉.
The f A ’s are called the fundamental operations of A.
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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Definition and Examples of Algebras

More Algebraic Notation and Terminology

If F is finite, say F = {f1 , . . . , fk }, we often write 〈A, f1 , . . . , fk 〉 for

〈A, F 〉, usually adopting the convention:

arityf1 ≥ arityf2 ≥ · · · ≥ arityfk .

An algebra A is unary if all of its operations are unary.

It is mono-unary if it has just one unary operation.
A is a groupoid if it has just one binary operation. The operation is
usually denoted by + or ·, and we write a + b or a · b (or just ab) for
the image of 〈a, b 〉 under this operation and call it the sum or
product of a and b, respectively.
An algebra A is finite if |A| is finite.
An algebra A is trivial if |A| = 1.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Definition and Examples of Algebras

Groups and Abelian Groups

A group G is an algebra 〈G , ·, −1 , 1〉 with a binary, a unary, and a

nullary operation in which the following identities are true:
G1 x · (y · z) ≈ (x · y ) · z;
G2 x · 1 ≈ 1 · x ≈ x;
G3 x · x −1 ≈ x −1 · x ≈ 1.
A group G is Abelian (or commutative) if the following identity is
true:
G4 x · y ≈ y · x.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Definition and Examples of Algebras

Monoids and Quasigroups

Groups are generalized to semigroups and monoids in one direction,

and to quasigroups and loops in another direction.
A semigroup is a groupoid 〈G , ·〉 in which (G1) is true.
It is commutative (or Abelian) if (G4) holds.
A monoid is an algebra 〈M , ·, 1〉 with a binary and a nullary operation
satisfying (G1) and (G2).
± ²
A quasigroup is an algebra 〈Q , , ·, 〉 with three binary operations
satisfying the following identities:
² ±
Q1 x (x ²· y ) ≈ y ; (x ±· y ) y ≈ x;
Q2 x · (x y ) ≈ y ; (x y ) · y ≈ x.
± ²
A loop is a quasigroup with identity, i.e., an algebra 〈Q , , ·, , 1〉 which
satisfies (Q1), (Q2) and (G2).

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Definition and Examples of Algebras

Rings

A ring is an algebra 〈R , +, ·, −, 0〉, where + and · are binary, − is unary

and 0 is nullary, satisfying the following conditions:
R1 〈R , +, −, 0〉 is an Abelian group;
R2 〈R , ·〉 is a semigroup;
R3 x · (y + z) ≈ (x · y ) + (x · z)
(x + y ) · z ≈ (x · z) + (y · z).
A ring with identity is an algebra 〈R , +, ·, −, 0, 1〉, such that (R1)-(R3)
and (G2) hold.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Definition and Examples of Algebras

Modules and Algebras Over a (Fixed) Ring

Let R be a given ring. A (left) R-module is an algebra

〈M , +, −, 0, (fr )r ∈R 〉, where + is binary, − is unary, 0 is nullary, and
each fr is unary, such that the following hold:
M1 〈M , +, −, 0〉 is an Abelian group;
M2 fr (x + y ) ≈ fr (x) + fr (y ), for r ∈ R;
M3 fr +s (x) ≈ fr (x) + fs (x) for r , s ∈ R;
M4 fr (fs (x)) ≈ frs (x), for r , s ∈ R.
Let R be a ring with identity. A unitary R-module is an algebra as
above satisfying (M1)-(M4) and:
M5 f1 (x) ≈ x.
Let R be a ring with identity. An algebra over R is an algebra
〈A, +, ·, −, 0, (fr )r ∈R 〉, such that the following hold:
A1 〈A, +, −, 0, (fr )r ∈R 〉 is a unitary R-module;
A2 〈A, +, ·, −, 0〉 is a ring;
A3 fr (x · y ) ≈ (fr (x)) · y ≈ x · fr (y ), for r ∈ R.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Definition and Examples of Algebras

Semilattices and Lattices

A semilattice is a semigroup 〈S , ·〉 which satisfies the commutative
law (G4) and the idempotent law
S1 x · x ≈ x.
A lattice is an algebra 〈L, ∨, ∧〉, with two binary operations which
satisfies
L1 (commutative laws) L3 (idempotent laws)
(a) x ∨ y ≈ y ∨ x; (a) x ∨ x ≈ x;
(b) x ∧ y ≈ y ∧ x; (b) x ∧ x ≈ x;
L2 (associative laws) L4 (absorption laws)
(a) x ∨ (y ∨ z) ≈ (x ∨ y ) ∨ z; (a) x ≈ x ∨ (x ∧ y );
(b) x ∧ (y ∧ z) ≈ (x ∧ y ) ∧ z; (b) x ≈ x ∧ (x ∨ y ).
An algebra 〈L, ∨, ∧, 0, 1〉, with two binary and two nullary operations is
a bounded lattice if it satisfies:
BL1 〈L, ∨, ∧〉 is a lattice;
BL2 x ∧ 0 ≈ 0; x ∨ 1 ≈ 1.
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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Isomorphic Algebras and Subalgebras

Subsection 2

Isomorphic Algebras and Subalgebras

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Isomorphic Algebras and Subalgebras

Isomorphism
Definition
Let A and B be two algebras of the same type F . Then a function
α : A → B is an isomorphism from A to B if:
α is one-to-one and onto;
for every n-ary f ∈ F and for all a1 , . . . , an ∈ A, we have

α(f A (a1 , . . . , an )) = f B (α(a1 ), . . . , α(an )).

We say A is isomorphic to B, written A ∼

= B, if there is an isomorphism
from A to B.
The properties of algebras that are invariant under isomorphism are
called algebraic properties.
Isomorphic algebras can be regarded as equal or the same, having the
same algebraic structure, and differing only in the nature of the
elements: The phrase “equal up to isomorphism” is often used.
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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Isomorphic Algebras and Subalgebras

Subalgebras and Subuniverses

Definition
Let A and B be two algebras of the same type. Then B is a subalgebra of
A if B ⊆ A and every fundamental operation of B is the restriction of the
corresponding operation of A; i.e., for each function symbol f , f B is f A
restricted to B. We write simply B ≤ A.
A subuniverse of A is a subset B of A which is closed under the
fundamental operations of A; i.e., if f is a fundamental n-ary operation of
A and a1 , . . . , an ∈ B we would require f (a1 , . . . , an ) ∈ B.

Thus, if B is a subalgebra of A, then B is a subuniverse of A.

The empty set may be a subuniverse, but it is not the underlying set
of any subalgebra.
If A has nullary operations then every subuniverse contains them as
well.
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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Isomorphic Algebras and Subalgebras

Embeddings (or Monomorphisms)

Definition
Let A and B be of the same type. A function α : A → B is an embedding
of A into B if α is one-to-one and satisfies
α(f A (a1 , . . . , an )) = f B (α(a1 ), . . . , α(an )).
Such an α is also called a monomorphism. For brevity we simply say
“ α : A → B is an embedding”. We say A can be embedded in B if there is
an embedding of A into B.
Theorem
If α : A → B is an embedding, then α(A) is a subuniverse of B.
Let α : A → B be an embedding. Then, for an n-ary function symbol f
and a1 , . . . , an ∈ A, f B (α(a1 ), . . . , α(an )) = α(f A (a1 , . . . , an )) ∈ α(A).
Definition
If α : A → B is an embedding, α(A) denotes the subalgebra of B with
universe α(A).
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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Isomorphic Algebras and Subalgebras

Structure Theorems in Algebra

Let K be a class of algebras and let K1 be a proper subclass of K .

In practice, K may have been obtained from the process of abstraction
of certain properties of K1 ; or K1 may be obtained from K by certain
additional, more desirable, properties.
Two basic questions arise in the quest for structure theorems:
(1) Is every member of K isomorphic to some member of K1 ?
(2) Is every member of K embeddable in some member of K1 ?
Examples:
Every Boolean algebra is isomorphic to a field of sets.
Every group is isomorphic to a group of permutations.
A finite Abelian group is isomorphic to a direct product of cyclic
groups.
A finite distributive lattice can be embedded in a power of the
two-element distributive lattice.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Algebraic Lattices and Subuniverses

Subsection 3

Algebraic Lattices and Subuniverses

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Algebraic Lattices and Subuniverses

Generated Subuniverses
Definition
Given an algebra A, define, for every X ⊆ A,
\
Sg(X ) = {B : X ⊆ B and B is a subuniverse of A}.

We read Sg(X ) as “the subuniverse generated by X ”.

Theorem
If we are given an algebra A, then Sg is an algebraic closure operator on A.
Observe that an arbitrary intersection of subuniverses of A is again a
subuniverse. Hence Sg is a closure operator on A whose closed sets
are precisely the subuniverses of A. Now, for any X ⊆ A, define
E (X ) = X ∪ {f (a1 , . . . , an ) : f is a fundamental n-ary operation
on A, n ∈ ω, and a1 , . . . , an ∈ X }.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Algebraic Lattices and Subuniverses

Generated Subuniverses (Algebraicity)

We defined, for X ⊆ A,

E (X ) = X ∪ {f (a1 , . . . , an ) : f is a fundamental n-ary operation

on A, n ∈ ω, and a1 , . . . , an ∈ X }.

Then define E n (X ), for n ≥ 0, by induction, as follows:

E 0 (X ) = X , E n+1 (X ) = E (E n (X )).

As all the fundamental operations on A are finitary and

X ⊆ E (X ) ⊆ E 2 (X ) ⊆ · · ·, we can show that

Sg(X ) = X ∪ E (X ) ∪ E 2 (X ) ∪ · · · .

Therefore, if a ∈ Sg(X ), then a ∈ E n (X ), for some n ∈ ω. Hence, for

some finite Y ⊆ X , a ∈ E n (Y ). Thus, a ∈ Sg(Y ). But this says Sg is
an algebraic closure operator.
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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Algebraic Lattices and Subuniverses

The Lattice of Subuniverses

Corollary
If A is an algebra then LSg , the lattice of subuniverses of A is an algebraic
lattice.

The corollary says that the subuniverses of A, with ⊆ as the partial

order, form an algebraic lattice.
Definition
Given an algebra A, Sub(A) denotes the set of subuniverses of A, and
Sub(A) is the corresponding algebraic lattice, the lattice of subuniverses
of A.
For X ⊆ A, we say X generates A (or A is generated by X ; or X is a set
of generators of A) if Sg(X ) = A.
The algebra A is finitely generated if it has a finite set of generators.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Algebraic Lattices and Subuniverses

Algebraic Lattices and Lattices of Subuniverses

Every algebraic lattice is isomorphic to the lattice of subuniverses of
some algebra:
Theorem (Birkhoff and Frink)
If L is an algebraic lattice, then L ∼
= Sub(A), for some algebra A.
Let C be an algebraic closure operator on a set A, such that L ∼ = LC .
For each finite subset B of A and each b ∈ C (B), define an n-ary
function fB ,b on A, where n = |B |, by
b , if B = {a1 , . . . , an }
½
fB ,b (a1 , . . . , an ) = . Call the resulting algebra
a1 , otherwise
A. Then clearly fB ,b (a1 , . . . , an ) ∈ C ({a1 , . . . , an }). Hence, for X ⊆ A,
Sg(X ) ⊆ C (X ). On the other hand,
C (X ) = {C (B) : B ⊆ X and B is finite} and, for B finite,
S

C (B) = {fB ,b (a1 , . . . , an ) : B = {a1 , . . . , an }, b ∈ C (B)} ⊆ Sg(B) ⊆ Sg(X )

imply C (X ) ⊆ Sg(X ). Hence, C (X ) ⊆ Sg(X ). Thus, LC = Sub(A). So
Sub(A) ∼ = L.
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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Algebraic Lattices and Subuniverses

Algebras Generated by Sets of Specific Cardinality

For a given type there cannot be “too many” algebras (up to
isomorphism) generated by sets no larger than a given cardinality.
Recall that ω is the smallest infinite cardinal.
Corollary
If A is an algebra and X ⊆ A, then

|Sg(X )| ≤ |X | + |F | + ω.

Using induction on n, one has

|E n (X )| ≤ |X | + |F | + ω.

|E 0 (X )| = |X | ≤ |X | + |F | + ω;
|E n+1 (X )| = |E (E n (X ))| ≤ |E n (X )| + |F | + ω ≤ |X | + |F | + ω.
So the result follows from Sg(X ) = X ∪ E (X ) ∪ E 2 (X ) ∪ · · ·.
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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Algebraic Lattices and Subuniverses

n-ary Closure Operators

Definition
Let C be a closure operator on A. For n < ω, let Cn be the function defined
on Su(A) by [
Cn (X ) = {C (Y ) : Y ⊆ X , |Y | ≤ n}.
We say that C is n-ary, if

C (X ) = Cn (X ) ∪ Cn2 (X ) ∪ · · · ,

where:
Cn1 (X ) = Cn (X );
Cnk +1 (X ) = Cn (Cnk (X )).

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Algebraic Lattices and Subuniverses

Generation and n-ary Closure Operators

Lemma
Let A be an algebra all of whose fundamental operations have arity at most
n. Then Sg is an n-ary closure operator on A.

Recall the definition

E (X ) = X ∪ {f (a1 , . . . , an ) : f is a fundamental n-ary operation
on A, n ∈ ω, and a1 , . . . , an ∈ X }.

Note that E (X ) ⊆ Sgn (X ) ⊆ Sg(X ). Hence,

Sg(X ) = X ∪ E (X ) ∪ E 2 (X ) ∪ · · ·
⊆ Sgn (X ) ∪ Sg2n (X ) ∪ · · ·
⊆ Sg(X ).

So Sg(X ) = Sgn (X ) ∪ Sg 2n (X ) ∪ · · ·.
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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Congruences and Quotient Algebras

Subsection 4

Congruences and Quotient Algebras

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Congruences and Quotient Algebras

The Compatibility Condition

Definition
Let A be an algebra of type F and let θ ∈ Eq(A). Then θ is a congruence
on A if θ satisfies the following compatibility property:
CP For each n-ary function symbol f ∈ F , and elements ai , bi ∈ A, if
ai θ bi holds, for 1 ≤ i ≤ n, then f A (a1 , . . . , an ) θ f A (b1 , . . . , bn ) holds.

The compatibility property allows introducing an algebraic structure

on the set of equivalence classes A/θ:
If a1 , . . . , an are elements of A and f is an n-ary symbol in F , then the
easiest choice of an equivalence class to be the value of f applied to
〈a1 /θ, . . . , an /θ〉 is f A (a1 , . . . , an )/θ .
This will indeed define a function on A/θ iff (CP) holds.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Congruences and Quotient Algebras

Illustration of the Algebraic Structure on A/θ

The Compatibility Condition for a binary operation is illustrated below:

A is subdivided into the equivalence classes of θ.

Then selecting a1 , b1 in the same equivalence class and a2 , b2 in the
same equivalence class, we want f A (a1 , a2 ) and f A (b1 , b2 ) to be in the
same equivalence class.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Congruences and Quotient Algebras

Quotient Algebras

Definition
The set of all congruences on an algebra A is denoted by ConA. Let θ be a
congruence on an algebra A. Then the quotient algebra of A by θ,
written A/θ, is the algebra whose universe is A/θ and whose fundamental
operations satisfy

f A/θ (a1 /θ, . . . , an /θ) = f A (a1 , . . . , an )/θ,

where a1 , . . . , an ∈ A and f is an n-ary function symbol in F .

Note that quotient algebras of A are of the same type as A.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Congruences and Quotient Algebras

Group Congruences and Normal Subgroups

Let G be a group.
Then one can establish the following connection between congruences
on G and normal subgroups of G:
(a) If θ ∈ ConG, then 1/θ is the universe of a normal subgroup of G;
For a, b ∈ G , we have 〈a, b 〉 ∈ θ iff 〈a · b −1 , 1〉 ∈ θ iff a · b −1 ∈ 1/θ.
(b) If N is a normal subgroup of G, then the binary relation defined on G
by
〈a, b 〉 ∈ θ iff a · b −1 ∈ N
is a congruence on G, with 1/θ = N.
Thus, the mapping θ 7→ 1/θ is an order-preserving bijection between
congruences on G and normal subgroups of G.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Congruences and Quotient Algebras

Ring Congruences and Ideals

Let R be a ring.
The following establishes a similar connection between the
congruences on R and ideals of R:
(a) If θ ∈ ConR, then 0/θ is an ideal of R;
For a, b ∈ R, we have 〈a, b 〉 ∈ θ iff 〈a − b , 0〉 ∈ θ iff a − b ∈ 0/θ.
(b) If I is an ideal of R, then the binary relation θ defined on R by

〈a , b 〉 ∈ θ iff a − b ∈ I

is a congruence on R, with 0/θ = I .

Thus the mapping θ 7→ 0/θ is an order-preserving bijection between
congruences on R and ideals of R.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Congruences and Quotient Algebras

Lattice Congruences

In the preceding two examples any congruence on the algebra (group

or ring) was determined by a single equivalence class of the
congruence (1/θ and 0/θ, respectively).
The next example shows this need not be the case:
Let L be a lattice which is a chain, and let θ be an equivalence relation
on L, such that the equivalence classes of θ are convex subsets of L
(i.e., if a θ b and a ≤ c ≤ b, then a θ c.) Then θ is a congruence on L.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Congruences and Quotient Algebras

Lattice Structure of ConA

Theorem
〈ConA, ⊆〉 is a complete sublattice of 〈Eq(A), ⊆〉, the lattice of equivalence
relations on A.
ConA is closed under arbitrary intersections. For arbitrary joins in
ConA suppose θi ∈ ConA for i ∈ I . Then, if f is a fundamental n-ary
operation of A and _
〈a1 , b1 〉, . . . , 〈an , bn 〉 ∈ θi ,
i ∈I
where is the join of Eq(A), then, there exist i0 , . . . , ik ∈ I , for some
W

k ∈ ω, such that
〈aj , bj 〉 ∈ θi0 ◦ θi1 ◦ · · · ◦ θik , 1 ≤ j ≤ n.
That is, for all j = 1, . . . , n, there exist cj 0 , . . . , cj (k −1) ∈ A, such that
aj θi0 cj 0 θi1 · · · θik −1 cj (k −1) θik bj .

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Congruences and Quotient Algebras

Lattice Structure of ConA (Cont’d)

For all j = 1, . . . , n, there exist cj 0 , . . . , cj (k −1) ∈ A, such that
aj θi0 cj 0 θi1 · · · θik −1 cj (k −1) θik bj .
Since θi ∈ ConA, for all i ∈ I , we get
f (a1 , . . . , an ) θi0 f (c10 , . . . , cn0 ) θi1 · · ·
θik −1 f (c1(k −1) , . . . , cn(k −1) ) θik f (b1 , . . . , bn ).
Hence
_
〈f (a1 , . . . , an ), f (b1 , . . . , bn )〉 ∈ θi0 ◦ θi1 ◦ · · · ◦ θik ⊆ θi .
i ∈I
Therefore, is a congruence relation on A.
W
i ∈I θi

Definition
The congruence lattice of A denoted by ConA, is the lattice whose
universe is ConA, and meets and joins are calculated the same as when
working with equivalence relations.
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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Congruences and Quotient Algebras

Congruence Lattices of Algebras

Theorem
For A an algebra, there is an algebraic closure operator Θ on A × A, such
that the closed subsets of A × A are precisely the congruences on A. Hence
ConA is an algebraic lattice.

We define an algebraic structure on A × A. For each n-ary function

symbol f in the type of A, define a corresponding n-ary function f on
A × A by f (〈a1 , b1 〉, . . . , 〈an , bn 〉) = 〈f A (a1 , . . . , an ), f A (b1 , . . . , bn )〉. Then
we add:
the nullary operations 〈a, a〉, for each a ∈ A;
a unary operation s, defined by s(〈a, b 〉) = 〈b , a〉; ½
〈a, d 〉, if b = c
a binary operation t defined by t(〈a, b 〉, 〈c , d 〉) = .
〈a, b 〉, otherwise
Now we can verify that B is a subuniverse of this new algebra iff B is
a congruence on A. Let Θ be the Sg closure operator on A × A for the
algebra we have just described. Thus, ConA is an algebraic lattice.
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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Congruences and Quotient Algebras

Compact Elements of ConA and Congruence Generation

The compact members of ConA are the finitely generated members

Θ(〈a1 , b1 〉, . . . , 〈an , bn 〉) of ConA.

Definition
For A an algebra and a1 , . . . , an ∈ A, let Θ(a1 , . . . , an ) denote the congruence
generated by {〈ai , aj 〉 : 1 ≤ i , j ≤ n}, i.e., the smallest congruence such that
a1 , . . . , an are in the same equivalence class. The congruence Θ(a1 , a2 ) is
called a principal congruence. For arbitrary X ⊆ A, let Θ(X ) be defined
to mean the congruence generated by X × X .

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Congruences and Quotient Algebras

The Case of Groups and Rings

(1) If G is a group and a, b , c , d ∈ G , then 〈a, b 〉 ∈ Θ(c , d) iff ab −1 is a

product of conjugates of cd −1 and conjugates of dc −1 .
This follows from the fact that the smallest normal subgroup of G
containing a given element u has as its universe the set of all products
of conjugates of u and conjugates of u −1 .
(2) If R is a ring with unity and a, b , c , d ∈ R, then 〈a, b 〉 ∈ Θ(c , d) iff a − b
is of the form 1≤i ≤n ri (c − d)si , where ri , si ∈ R.
P

This follows from the fact that the smallest ideal of R containing a
given element e of R is precisely the set { 1≤i ≤n ri esi : ri , si ∈ R , n ≥ 1}.
P

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Congruences and Quotient Algebras

Properties of Congruences

Theorem
Let A be an algebra, and suppose a1 , b1 , . . . , an , bn ∈ A and θ ∈ ConA. Then:
(a) Θ(a1 , b1 ) = Θ(b1 , a1 );
(b) Θ(〈a1 , b1 〉, . . . , 〈an , bn 〉) = Θ(a1 , b1 ) ∨ · · · ∨ Θ(an , bn );
(c) Θ(a1 , . . . , an ) = Θ(a1 , a2 ) ∨ Θ(a2 , a3 ) ∨ · · · ∨ Θ(an−1 , an );
(d) θ = {Θ(a, b) : 〈a, b 〉 ∈ θ} = {Θ(a, b) : 〈a, b 〉 ∈ θ};
S W

(e) θ = {Θ(〈a1 , b1 〉, . . ., 〈an , bn 〉) : 〈ai , bi 〉 ∈ θ, n ≥ 1}.

S

(a) 〈b1 , a1 〉 ∈ Θ(a1 , b1 ). Hence, Θ(b1 , a1 ) ⊆ Θ(a1 , b1 ). By symmetry,

Θ(a1 , b1 ) = Θ(b1 , a1 ).
(b) For 1 ≤ i ≤ n, 〈ai , bi 〉 ∈ Θ(〈a1 , b1 〉, . . . , 〈an , bn 〉). Hence
Θ(ai , bi ) ⊆ Θ(〈a1 , b1 〉, . . . , 〈an , bn 〉), whence
Θ(a1 , b1 ) ∨ · · · ∨ Θ(an , bn ) ⊆ Θ(〈a1 , b1 〉, . . ., 〈an , bn 〉).

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Congruences and Quotient Algebras

Properties of Congruences (Cont’d)

On the other hand, for 1 ≤ i ≤ n,

〈ai , bi 〉 ∈ Θ(ai , bi ) ⊆ Θ(a1 , b1 ) ∨ · · · ∨ Θ(an , bn ). So
{〈a1 , b1 〉, . . . , 〈an , bn 〉} ⊆ Θ(a1 , b1 ) ∨ · · · ∨ Θ(an , bn ). Hence,
Θ(〈a1 , b1 〉, . . . , 〈an , bn 〉) ⊆ Θ(a1 , b1 ) ∨ · · · ∨ Θ(an , bn ). So
Θ(〈a1 , b1 〉, . . . , 〈an , bn 〉) = Θ(a1 , b1 ) ∨ · · · ∨ Θ(an , bn ).
(c) For 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1, 〈ai , ai +1 〉 ∈ Θ(a1 , . . . , an ). So Θ(ai , ai +1 ) ⊆ Θ(a1 , . . . , an ).
Hence, Θ(a1 , a2 ) ∨ · · · ∨ Θ(an−1 , an ) ⊆ Θ(a1 , . . . , an ).
Conversely, for 1 ≤ i < j ≤ n, 〈ai , aj 〉 ∈ Θ(ai , ai +1 ) ◦ · · · ◦ Θ(aj −1 , aj ). So,
〈ai , aj 〉 ∈ Θ(ai , ai +1 ) ∨ · · · ∨ Θ(aj −1 , aj ). Hence,
〈ai , aj 〉 ∈ Θ(a1 , a2 ) ∨ · · · ∨ Θ(an−1 , an ). By Part (a),
Θ(a1 , . . . , an ) ⊆ Θ(a1 , a2 ) ∨ · · · ∨ Θ(an−1 , an ). Therefore,
Θ(a1 , . . . , an ) = Θ(a1 , a2 ) ∨ · · · ∨ Θ(an−1 , an ).

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Congruences and Quotient Algebras

Properties of Congruences (Conclusion)

(d) For 〈a, b 〉 ∈ θ, 〈a, b 〉 ∈ Θ(a, b) ⊆ θ. So

θ ⊆ {Θ(a, b) : 〈a, b 〉 ∈ θ} ⊆ {Θ(a, b) : 〈a, b 〉 ∈ θ} ⊆ θ. Hence
S W

θ = {Θ(a, b) : 〈a, b 〉 ∈ θ} = {Θ(a, b) : 〈a, b 〉 ∈ θ}.

S W

(e) For 〈a, b 〉 ∈ θ,

〈a, b 〉 ∈ Θ(a, b) ⊆ {Θ(〈a1 , b1 〉, . . . , 〈an , bn 〉) : 〈ai , bi 〉 ∈ θ, n ≥ 1}. So
S

θ ⊆ {Θ(〈a1 , b1 〉, . . ., 〈an , bn 〉) : 〈ai , bi 〉 ∈ θ, n ≥ 1}.

S

Conversely, if n ≥ 1 and 〈ai , bi 〉 ∈ θ, for all 1 ≤ i ≤ n, then

Θ(〈a1 , b1 〉, . . . , 〈an , bn 〉) ⊆ θ . Hence,
{Θ(〈a1 , b1 〉, . . . , 〈an , bn 〉) : 〈ai , bi 〉 ∈ θ, n ≥ 1} ⊆ θ .
S

Therefore, θ = {Θ(〈a1 , b1 〉, . . . , 〈an , bn 〉) : 〈ai , bi 〉 ∈ θ, n ≥ 1}.

S

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Congruences and Quotient Algebras

On Properties of Congruence Lattices

In 1963 Grätzer and Schmidt proved:

For every algebraic lattice L, there is an algebra A, such that L ∼
= ConA.
For particular classes of algebras one might find that some additional
properties hold for the corresponding classes of congruence lattices:
The congruence lattices of lattices satisfy the distributive law;
The congruence lattices of groups (or rings) satisfy the modular law.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Congruences and Quotient Algebras

Congruence-Distributivity and Congruence-Permutability

Definition
An algebra A is congruence-distributive (congruence-modular) if
ConA is a distributive (modular) lattice.
If θ1 , θ2 ∈ ConA and
θ1 ◦ θ2 = θ2 ◦ θ1 ,
then we say θ1 and θ2 are permutable, or θ1 and θ2 permute.
A is congruence-permutable if every pair of congruences on A permutes.
A class K of algebras is congruence-distributive, congruence-modular,
respectively congruence-permutable iff every algebra in K has the desired
property.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Congruences and Quotient Algebras

Characterization of Congruence Permutability

Theorem
Let A be an algebra and suppose θ1 , θ2 ∈ ConA. Then the following are
equivalent:
(a) θ1 ◦ θ2 = θ2 ◦ θ1 ;
(b) θ1 ∨ θ2 = θ1 ◦ θ2 ;
(c) θ1 ◦ θ2 ⊆ θ2 ◦ θ1 .

(a)⇒(b): Recall that

θ1 ∨ θ2 = θ1 ∪ (θ1 ◦ θ2 ) ∪ (θ1 ◦ θ2 ◦ θ1 ) ∪ · · · .

By hypothesis, since, for any equivalence relation θ, we have θ ◦ θ = θ,

we get θ1 ∨ θ2 = θ1 ∪ (θ1 ◦ θ2 ) = θ1 ◦ θ2 .

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Congruences and Quotient Algebras

Characterization of Congruence Permutability (Cont’d)

(c)⇒(a): Suppose θ1 ◦ θ2 ⊆ θ2 ◦ θ1 . Apply the relational inverse

operation ∨ to get (θ1 ◦ θ2 )∨ ⊆ (θ2 ◦ θ1 )∨ . Hence, we get
θ2∨ ◦ θ1∨ ⊆ θ1∨ ◦ θ2∨ . But the inverse of an equivalence relation is just that
equivalence relation, whence θ2 ◦ θ1 ⊆ θ1 ◦ θ2 . We conclude that
θ1 ◦ θ2 = θ2 ◦ θ1 .
(b)⇒(c): We have θ2 ◦ θ1 ⊆ θ1 ∨ θ2 . Thus, from (b) we deduce
θ2 ◦ θ1 ⊆ θ1 ◦ θ2 . Then, from (c)⇒(a) it follows that θ2 ◦ θ1 = θ1 ◦ θ2 .
Hence (c) holds.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Congruences and Quotient Algebras

Congruence-Permutability Implies Congruence-Modularity

Theorem (Birkhoff)
If A is congruence-permutable, then A is congruence-modular.

Let θ1 , θ2 , θ3 ∈ ConA, with θ1 ⊆ θ2 . We want to show that

θ2 ∩ (θ1 ∨ θ3 ) ⊆ θ1 ∨ (θ2 ∩ θ3 ).

Suppose 〈a, b 〉 ∈ θ2 ∩ (θ1 ∨ θ3 ). Then, since θ1 ∨ θ3 = θ1 ◦ θ3 , there is a

c, such that a θ1 c θ3 b. By symmetry, 〈c , a〉 ∈ θ1 . Hence 〈c , a〉 ∈ θ2 .
Then, by transitivity, 〈c , b 〉 ∈ θ2 . Thus, 〈c , b 〉 ∈ θ2 ∩ θ3 . So we get
a θ1 c (θ2 ∩ θ3 ) b. Therefore,

〈a, b 〉 ∈ θ1 ◦ (θ2 ∩ θ3 ) ⊆ θ1 ∨ (θ2 ∩ θ3 ).

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Homomorphisms and the Homomorphism Theorems

Subsection 5

Homomorphisms and the Homomorphism Theorems

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Homomorphisms and the Homomorphism Theorems

Homomorphisms
Definition
Suppose A and B are two algebras of the same type F . A mapping
α : A → B is called a homomorphism from A to B if

α(f A (a1 , . . . , an )) = f B (α(a1 ), . . . , α(an )),

for each n-ary f in F and each sequence a1 , . . . , an from A.

If, in addition, the mapping α is onto, then α is called an epimorphism
and B is said to be a homomorphic image of A. In this terminology an
isomorphism is a homomorphism which is one-to-one and onto.
In case A = B, a homomorphism is also called an endomorphism and an
isomorphism is referred to as an automorphism.
The phrase “ α : A → B is a homomorphism” is often used to express the
fact that α is a homomorphism from A to B.
Example: Lattice, group, ring, module, and monoid homomorphisms
are all special cases of homomorphisms as defined above.
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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Homomorphisms and the Homomorphism Theorems

Equality of Homomorphisms
Theorem
Let A be an algebra generated by a set X . If α : A → B and β : A → B are
two homomorphisms which agree on X (i.e., α(a) = β(a), for a ∈ X ), then
α = β.

Recall the definition of E :

E (X ) = X ∪ {f (a1 , . . . , an ) : f is a fundamental n-ary operation
on A, n ∈ ω, and a1 , . . . , an ∈ X }.
Note that if α and β agree on X , then α and β agree on E (X ): If f is
an n-ary function symbol and a1 , . . . , an ∈ X , then
α(f A (a1 , . . . , an ))
f B (α(a1 ), . . . , α(an ))
=
f B (β(a1 ), . . . , β(an ))
=
β(f A (a1 , . . . , an )).
=
Thus, by induction, if α and β agree on X , then they agree on
E n (X ), for n < ω. Hence, they agree on Sg(X ).
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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Homomorphisms and the Homomorphism Theorems

Images and Inverse Images of Subuniverses

Theorem
Let α : A → B be a homomorphism. Then the image of a subuniverse of A
under α is a subuniverse of B, and the inverse image of a subuniverse of B
is a subuniverse of A.
Let S be a subuniverse of A. Let f be an n-ary member of F and let
a1 , . . . , an ∈ S. Then f B (α(a1 ), . . . , α(an )) = α(f A (a1 , . . . , an )) ∈ α(S). So
α(S) is a subuniverse of B.
If S is a subuniverse of B and α(a1 ), . . . , α(an ) ∈ S, then, by the
preceding equation, α(f A (a1 , . . . , an )) ∈ S. So f A (a1 , . . . , an ) is in
α−1 (S). Thus, α−1 (S) is a subuniverse of A.

Definition
If α : A → B is a homomorphism and C ≤ A, D ≤ B, let α(C) be the
subalgebra of B, with universe α(C ), and let α−1 (D) be the subalgebra of
A, with universe α−1 (D), provided α−1 (D) 6= ;.
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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Homomorphisms and the Homomorphism Theorems

Composition of Homomorphisms

Theorem
Suppose α : A → B and β : B → C are homomorphisms. Then the
composition β ◦ α is a homomorphism from A to C.

For f an n-ary function symbol and a1 , . . . , an ∈ A, we have

(β ◦ α)(f A (a1 , . . . , an )) = β(α(f A (a1 , . . . , an )))

= β(f B (α(a1 ), . . . , α(an )))
= f C (β(α(a1 )), . . . , β(α(an )))
= f C ((β ◦ α)(a1 ), . . . , (β ◦ α)(an )).

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Homomorphisms and the Homomorphism Theorems

Homomorphisms and Generation

Theorem
If α : A → B is a homomorphism and X is a subset of A, then
α(Sg(X )) = Sg(α(X )).

We have, for all Y ⊆ A,

α(E (Y )) = α(Y ∪ {f A (a1 , . . . , an ) : f ∈ Fn , n ∈ ω, a1 , . . . , an ∈ Y })
= α(Y ) ∪ {α(f A (a1 , . . . , an )) : f ∈ Fn , n ∈ ω, a1 , . . . , an ∈ Y }
= α(Y ) ∪ {f B (α(a1 ), . . . , α(an )) : f ∈ Fn , n ∈ ω, a1 , . . . , an ∈ Y }
= α(Y ) ∪ {f B (b1 , . . . , bn ) : f ∈ Fn , n ∈ ω, b1 , . . . , bn ∈ α(Y )}
= E (α(Y )).
Thus, by induction on n, α(E n (X )) = E n (α(X )), for n ≥ 1. Hence
α(Sg(X )) = α(X ∪ E (X ) ∪ E 2 (X ) ∪ · · · )
= α(X ) ∪ α(E (X )) ∪ α(E 2 (X )) ∪ · · ·
= α(X ) ∪ E (α(X )) ∪ E 2 (α(X )) ∪ · · · = Sg(α(X )).
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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Homomorphisms and the Homomorphism Theorems

The Kernel of a Homomorphism

Definition
Let α : A → B be a homomorphism. Then the kernel of α, written ker(α),
and sometimes just kerα, is defined by
ker(α) = {〈a, b 〉 ∈ A2 : α(a) = α(b)}.

Theorem
Let α : A → B be a homomorphism. Then ker(α) is a congruence on A.

If 〈ai , bi 〉 ∈ ker(α), for 1 ≤ i ≤ n and f is n-ary in F , then

α(f A (a1 , . . . , an )) = f B (α(a1 ), . . . , α(an ))
= f B (α(b1 ), . . . , α(bn ))
= α(f A (b1 , . . . , bn )).

Hence 〈f A (a1 , . . . , an ), f A (b1 , . . . , bn )〉 ∈ ker(α). Clearly ker(α) is an

equivalence relation. Thus, ker(α) is actually a congruence on A.
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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Homomorphisms and the Homomorphism Theorems

The Natural Map

Definition
Let A be an algebra and let θ ∈ ConA. The natural map νθ : A → A/θ is
defined by
νθ (a) = a/θ.
When there is no ambiguity we write simply ν instead of νθ .

The figure shows how one might visualize the natural map:

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Homomorphisms and the Homomorphism Theorems

The Natural Homomorphism

Theorem
The natural map from an algebra to a quotient of the algebra is an onto
homomorphism.

Let θ ∈ ConA and let ν : A → A/θ be the natural map. Then, for f an
n-ary function symbol and a1 , . . . , an ∈ A, we have

ν(f A (a1 , . . . , an )) = f A (a1 , . . . , an )/θ

= f A/θ (a1 /θ, . . . , an /θ)
= f A/θ (ν(a1 ), . . . , ν(an )).

So ν is a homomorphism. Clearly ν is onto.

Definition
The natural homomorphism from an algebra to a quotient of the algebra
is given by the natural map.
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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Homomorphisms and the Homomorphism Theorems

The Homomorphism Theorem

Theorem (Homomorphism Theorem)

Suppose α : A → B is a homomorphism
onto B. Then there is an isomorphism β
from A/ker(α) to B defined by α = β◦ν,
where ν is the natural homomorphism
from A to A/ker(α).

First note that if α = β ◦ ν, then we must have β(a/θ) = α(a). The

second of these equalities does indeed define a function β and β
satisfies α = β ◦ ν. We verify that β is a bijection:
If b ∈ B, exists a ∈ A, such that b = α(a). Then β(a/kerα) = α(a) = b;
Suppose a, a′ ∈ A. Then β(a/kerα) = β(a′ /kerα) iff α(a) = α(a′ ) iff
〈a, a′ 〉 ∈ kerα iff a/kerα = a′ /kerα.
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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Homomorphisms and the Homomorphism Theorems

The Homomorphism Theorem (Cont’d)

To show that β is actually an isomorphism, suppose f is an n-ary

function symbol and a1 , . . . , an ∈ A. Then

β(f A/θ (a1 /θ, . . . , an /θ )) = β(f A (a1 , . . . , an )/θ )

= α(f A (a1 , . . . , an ))
= f B (α(a1 ), . . . , α(an ))
= f B (β(a1 /θ), . . . , β(an /θ)).

An algebra is a homomorphic image of an algebra A iff it is isomorphic

to a quotient of the algebra A.
Thus, the “external” problem of finding all homomorphic images of A
reduces to the “internal” problem of finding all congruences on A.
The Homomorphism Theorem is also called “The First Isomorphism
Theorem”.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Homomorphisms and the Homomorphism Theorems

Quotient of a Congruence by a Smaller Congruence

Definition
Suppose A is an algebra and φ, θ ∈ ConA, with θ ⊆ φ. Then, let

φ/θ = {〈a/θ, b/θ〉 ∈ (A/θ )2 : 〈a, b 〉 ∈ φ}.

Lemma
If φ, θ ∈ ConA and θ ⊆ φ, then φ/θ is a congruence on A/θ.

Let f be an n-ary function symbol and suppose 〈ai /θ, bi /θ〉 ∈ φ/θ, for
1 ≤ i ≤ n. Then 〈ai , bi 〉 ∈ φ. So 〈f A (a1 , . . . , an ), f A (b1 , . . . , bn )〉 ∈ φ, and,
thus, 〈f A (a1 , . . . , an )/θ, f A (b1 , . . . , bn )/θ〉 ∈ φ/θ. Therefore,
〈f A/θ (a1 /θ, . . . , an /θ ), f A/θ (b1 /θ, . . . , bn /θ )〉 ∈ φ/θ .

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Homomorphisms and the Homomorphism Theorems

Second Isomorphism Theorem

Theorem (Second Isomorphism Theorem)

If φ, θ ∈ ConA and θ ⊆ φ, then the
map α : (A/θ)/(φ/θ) → A/φ, de-
fined by

α((a/θ )/(φ/θ )) = a/φ

is an isomorphism from
(A/θ)/(φ/θ) to A/φ.

Let a, b ∈ A. From (a/θ)/(φ/θ) = (b/θ)/(φ/θ) iff a/φ = b/φ, it

follows that α is a well-defined bijection.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Homomorphisms and the Homomorphism Theorems

Second Isomorphism Theorem (Cont’d)

For f an n-ary function symbol and a1 , . . . , an ∈ A, we have

α(f (A/θ)/(φ/θ) ((a1 /θ )/(φ/θ ), . . . , (an /θ )/(φ/θ )))

= α(f A/θ (a1 /θ, . . . , an /θ )/(φ/θ ))
= α((f A (a1 , . . . , an )/θ )/(φ/θ ))
= f A (a1 , . . . , an )/φ
= f A/φ (a1 /φ, . . . , an /φ)
= f A/φ (α((a1 /θ )/(φ/θ )), . . . , α((an /θ )/(φ/θ ))).

So α is an isomorphism.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Homomorphisms and the Homomorphism Theorems

Restriction of a Congruence to a Subset

Definition
Let A be an algebra. Suppose B is a subset of A and θ is a congruence on
A. Let
B θ = {a ∈ A : B ∩ a/θ 6= ;}.
Let Bθ be the subalgebra of A generated by B θ . Also define θ↾B to be
θ ∩ B 2 , the restriction of θ to B.

The dashed-line subdivisions of A are

the equivalence classes of θ.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Homomorphisms and the Homomorphism Theorems

Lemma on the Restriction of a Congruence to a Subset

Lemma
If B is a subalgebra of A and θ ∈ ConA, then
(a) The universe of Bθ is B θ .
(b) θ↾B is a congruence on B.

(a) Suppose f is an n-ary function symbol. Let a1 , . . . , an ∈ B θ . Then one

can find b1 , . . . , bn ∈ B, such that 〈ai , bi 〉 ∈ θ, 1 ≤ i ≤ n. Hence,
〈f A (a1 , . . . , an ), f A (b1 , . . . , bn )〉 ∈ θ , so f A (a1 , . . . , an ) ∈ B θ . Thus, B θ is a
subuniverse of A.
(b) To verify that θ↾B is a congruence on B, let f be an n-ary function
symbol in F , a1 , . . . , an , b1 , . . . , bn ∈ B, such that 〈ai , bi 〉 ∈ θ, 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
Then
f B (a1 , . . . , an ) = f A (a1 , . . . , an ) θ f A (b1 , . . . , bn ) = f B (b1 , . . . , bn ).
Hence, 〈f B (a1 , . . . , an ), f B (b1 , . . . , bn )〉 ∈ θ↾B .
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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Homomorphisms and the Homomorphism Theorems

The Third Isomorphism Theorem

Theorem (Third Isomorphism Theorem)

If B is a subalgebra of A and θ ∈
ConA, then

B/θ↾B ∼ θ
= B /θ ↾B θ .

We can verify that the map α which is defined by

α(b/θ ↾B ) = b/θ ↾B θ

gives the desired isomorphism.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Homomorphisms and the Homomorphism Theorems

The Correspondence Theorem

If L is a lattice and a, b ∈ L, with a ≤ b, then the interval [a, b] is a

subuniverse of L.
Definition
For [a, b] a closed interval of a lattice L, where a ≤ b, let [a, b] denote the
corresponding sublattice of L.

Theorem (Correspondence Theorem)

Let A be an algebra and let θ ∈ ConA.
Then the mapping α defined on [θ, ∇A ] by
α(φ) = φ/θ
is a lattice isomorphism from [θ, ∇A ] to
ConA/θ, where [θ, ∇A ] is a sublattice of
ConA.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Homomorphisms and the Homomorphism Theorems

Proof of the Correspondence Theorem

To see that α is one-to-one, let φ, ψ ∈ [θ, ∇A ], with φ 6= ψ. Then,

without loss of generality, we can assume that there are elements
a, b ∈ A, with 〈a, b 〉 ∈ φ − ψ. Thus, 〈a/θ, b/θ〉 ∈ (φ/θ) − (ψ/θ). So
α(φ) 6= α(ψ).
To show that α is onto, let ψ ∈ ConA/θ. Define φ to be ker(νψ νθ ).
Then for a, b ∈ A,

〈a/θ, b/θ〉 ∈ φ/θ iff 〈a, b 〉 ∈ φ iff 〈a/θ, b/θ〉 ∈ ψ.

So φ/θ = ψ.
Finally, we will show that α is an isomorphism. If φ, ψ ∈ [θ, ∇A ], then it
is clear that
φ ⊆ ψ iff φ/θ ⊆ ψ/θ iff α(φ) ⊆ α(ψ).

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Direct Products and Factor Congruences

Subsection 6

Direct Products and Factor Congruences

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Direct Products and Factor Congruences

Direct Products
Subalgebras and quotient algebras, do not give a means of creating
algebras of larger cardinality than what we start with, or of combining
several algebras into one.
Definition
Let A1 and A2 be two algebras of the same type F . Define the (direct)
product A1 × A2 to be the algebra whose universe is the set A1 × A2 and
such that for f ∈ Fn and ai ∈ A1 , ai′ ∈ A2 , 1 ≤ i ≤ n,
f A1 ×A2 (〈a1 , a1′ 〉, . . . , 〈an , an′ 〉) = 〈f A1 (a1 , . . . , an ), f A2 (a1′ , . . . , an′ )〉.

In general neither A1 nor A2 is embeddable in A1 × A2 ; In special

cases, e.g., groups, this is possible because there is always a trivial
subalgebra.
Definition
The mapping πi : A1 × A2 → Ai , i ∈ {1, 2}, defined by πi (〈a1 , a2 〉) = ai , is
called the projection map on the i -th coordinate of A1 × A2 .
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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Direct Products and Factor Congruences

Properties of Projection Maps

Theorem
For i = 1 or 2, the mapping πi : A1 × A2 → Ai is a surjective homomorphism
from A = A1 × A2 to Ai . Furthermore, in ConA1 × A2 we have:
(a) kerπ1 × kerπ2 = ∆;
(b) kerπ1 and kerπ2 permute;
(c) kerπ1 ∨ kerπ2 = ∇.

Clearly πi is surjective. If f ∈ Fn and ai ∈ A1 , ai′ ∈ A2 , 1 ≤ i ≤ n, then

π1 (f A (〈a1 , a1′ 〉, . . . , 〈an , an′ 〉) = π1 (〈f A1 (a1 , . . . , an ), f A2 (a1′ , . . . , an′ )〉)

= f A1 (a1 , . . . , an )
= f A1 (π1 (〈a1 , a1′ 〉), . . . , π1 (〈an , an′ 〉)).

So π1 is a homomorphism. Similarly, π2 is a homomorphism.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Direct Products and Factor Congruences

Properties of Projection Maps (Cont’d)

We have
〈〈a1 , a2 〉, 〈b1 , b2 〉〉 ∈ kerπi iff πi (〈a1 , a2 〉) = πi (〈b1 , b2 〉)
iff ai = bi .

Thus, kerπ1 ∩ kerπ2 = ∆.

Also, if 〈a1 , a2 〉, 〈b1 , b2 〉 are any two elements of A1 × A2 , then

〈a1 , a2 〉 kerπ1 〈a1 , b2 〉 kerπ2 〈b1 , b2 〉.

So ∇ = kerπ1 ◦ kerπ2 . But then kerπ1 and kerπ2 permute, and their
join is ∇.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Direct Products and Factor Congruences

Factor Congruences

Definition
A congruence θ on A is a factor congruence if there is a congruence θ∗
on A, such that
θ ∩ θ ∗ = ∆, θ ∨ θ ∗ = ∇, θ permutes with θ ∗ .
The pair θ, θ∗ is called a pair of factor congruences on A.

Theorem
If θ, θ∗ is a pair of factor congruences on A, then A ∼
= A/θ × A/θ ∗ under
the map α(a) = 〈a/θ, a/θ∗ 〉.

If a, b ∈ A, and α(a) = α(b), then a/θ = b/θ and a/θ∗ = b/θ∗ , so

〈a, b 〉 ∈ θ and 〈a, b 〉 ∈ θ ∗ , whence a = b. Therefore, α is injective.
Next, given a, b ∈ A, there is a c ∈ A, with a θ c θ∗ b. Hence,
α(c) = 〈c/θ, c/θ ∗ 〉 = 〈a/θ, b/θ ∗ 〉, whence α is onto.
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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Direct Products and Factor Congruences

Factor Congruences (Cont’d)

Finally, for f ∈ Fn and a1 , . . . , an ∈ A,

α(f A (a1 , . . . , an )) = 〈f A (a1 , . . . , an )/θ, f A (a1 , . . . , an )/θ ∗ 〉

∗
= 〈f A/θ (a1 /θ, . . . , an /θ ), f A/θ (a1 /θ ∗ , . . . , an /θ ∗ )〉
∗
= f A/θ×A/θ (〈a1 /θ, a1 /θ∗ 〉, . . . , 〈an /θ, an /θ∗ 〉)
∗
= f A/θ×A/θ (α(a1 ), . . . , α(an )).

Hence α is indeed an isomorphism.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Direct Products and Factor Congruences

Direct Indecomposability

Definition
An algebra A is (directly) indecomposable if A is not isomorphic to a
direct product of two nontrivial algebras.

Example: Any finite algebra A, with |A| a prime number must be

directly indecomposable.
Corollary
A is directly indecomposable iff the only factor congruences on A are ∆
and ∇.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Direct Products and Factor Congruences

Direct Products in General

Definition
Let (Ai )i ∈I be an indexed family of algebras of type F . The (direct)
product A = i ∈I Ai is an algebra with universe i ∈I Ai and such that for
Q Q

f ∈ Fn and a1 , . . . , an ∈ i ∈I Ai ,
Q

f A (a1 , . . . , an )(i ) = f Ai (a1 (i ), . . . , an (i )), i ∈ I,

i.e., f A is defined coordinate-wise.

The empty product ; is the trivial algebra with universe {;}.
Q

As before, we have projection maps πj : i ∈I Ai → Aj , for j ∈ I , defined by

Q

πj (a) = a(j), which give surjective homomorphisms πj : i ∈I Ai → Aj .

Q

If I = {1, 2, . . . , n}, we also write A1 × · · · × An .

If I is arbitrary but Ai = A, for all i ∈ I , then we usually write AI for the
direct product, and call it a (direct) power of A. A; is a trivial algebra.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Direct Products and Factor Congruences

Visualization and Basic Properties of Direct Products

A direct product i ∈I Ai of sets is often visualized as a rectangle with
Q

base I and vertical cross sections Ai .

An element a of Ai is then a curve.

Q
i ∈I

Theorem
If A1 , A2 and A3 are of type F , then:
(a) A1 × A2 ∼
= A2 × A1 under α(〈a1 , a2 〉) = 〈a2 , a1 〉.
(b) A1 × (A2 × A3 ) ∼
= A1 × A2 × A3 under α(〈a1 , 〈a2 , a3 〉〉) = 〈a1 , a2 , a3 〉.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Direct Products and Factor Congruences

Direct Product Decomposition of Finite Algebras

Theorem
Every finite algebra is isomorphic to a direct product of directly
indecomposable algebras.
Let A be a finite algebra. We proceed by induction on |A|.
If A is trivial, then A is indecomposable.
Suppose A is a nontrivial finite algebra such that for every B, with
|B | < |A|, we know that B is isomorphic to a product of
indecomposable algebras.
If A is indecomposable we are finished.
If not, then A ∼ = A1 × A2 , with 1 < |A1 |,|A2 |. Then, |A1 |,|A2 | < |A|. So,
by the induction hypothesis, A1 ∼ = B 1 × · · · × B m ; A2 ∼
= C1 × · · · × Cn ,
where the Bi and Cj are indecomposable. Consequently,
A∼ = B1 × · · · × Bm × C1 × · · · × Cn .

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Direct Products and Factor Congruences

Combining Homomorphisms Using Products

Using direct products there are two obvious ways of combining families
of homomorphisms into single homomorphisms.
Definition
(i) If we are given maps αi : A → Ai , i ∈ I , then the natural map α : A → Ai
Q
i ∈I
is defined by (α(a))(i) = αi (a).
(ii) If we are given maps αi : Ai → Bi , i ∈ I , then the natural map
α : i ∈I Ai → i ∈I Bi is defined by (α(a))(i) = αi (a(i)).
Q Q

Theorem
(a) If αi : A → Ai , i ∈ I , is an indexed family of homomorphisms, then the
natural map α is a homomorphism from A to A∗ = i ∈I Ai .
Q

(b) If αi : Ai → Bi , i ∈ I , is an indexed family of homomorphisms, then the

natural map α is a homomorphism from A∗ = i ∈I Ai to B∗ = i ∈I Bi .
Q Q

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Direct Products and Factor Congruences

Proof of the Natural Map Theorem

Suppose αi : A → Ai is a homomorphism for i ∈ I . Then for
a1 , . . . , an ∈ A and f ∈ Fn , we have, for i ∈ I ,
(α(f A (a1 , . . . , an )))(i ) = αi (f A (a1 , . . . , an ))
= f Ai (αi (a1 ), . . . , αi (an ))
= f Ai ((α(a1 ))(i ), . . . , (α(an ))(i ))
∗
= f A (α(a1 ), . . . , α(an ))(i ).
∗
Hence, α(f A (a1 , . . . , an )) = f A (α(a1 ), . . . , α(an )), so α is indeed a
homomorphism.
Case (b) is a consequence of (a) using the homomorphisms αi ◦ πi :
πi αi
A∗ ✲ Ai ✲ Bi
✻
nat
ura
l
✲
B∗

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Direct Products and Factor Congruences

Separation of Points

Definition
If a1 , a2 ∈ A and α : A → B is a map, we say α separates a1 and a2 if

α(a1 ) 6= α(a2 ).

The maps αi : A → Ai , i ∈ I , separate points if for each a1 , a2 ∈ A, with

a1 6= a2 , there is an αi , such that αi (a1 ) 6= αi (a2 ).

Lemma
For an indexed family of maps αi : A → Ai , i ∈ I , the following are
equivalent:
(a) The maps αi separate points.
(b) The natural map α : A → Ai is injective.
Q
i ∈I
(c) kerαi = ∆.
T
i ∈I

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Direct Products and Factor Congruences

Proof of the Separation of Points Lema

(a)⇒(b): Suppose a1 , a2 ∈ A and a1 6= a2 . Then, for some i ,

αi (a1 ) 6= αi (a2 ). Hence (α(a1 ))(i ) 6= (α(a2 ))(i ). So α(a1 ) 6= α(a2 ).
(b)⇒(c): For a1 , a2 ∈ A, with a1 6= a2 , we have α(a1 ) 6= α(a2 ), hence
(α(a1 ))(i ) 6= (α(a2 ))(i ), for some i ; so αi (a1 ) 6= αi (a2 ), for some i ; and
this implies 〈a1 , a2 〉 6∈ kerαi , so i ∈I kerαi = ∆.
T

(c)⇒(a): For a1 , a2 ∈ A, with a1 6= a2 , 〈a1 , a2 〉 6∈ kerαi so, for some

T
i ∈I
i , 〈a1 , a2 〉 6∈ kerαi , hence αi (a1 ) 6= αi (a2 ).
Theorem
If we are given an indexed family of homomorphisms αi : A → Ai , i ∈ I , then
the natural homomorphism α : A → i ∈I Ai is an embedding iff
Q

i ∈I ker αi = ∆ iff the maps αi separate points.

T

This is immediate from the lemma.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Subdirect Products and Simple Algebras

Subsection 7

Subdirect Products and Simple Algebras

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Subdirect Products and Simple Algebras

Subdirect Products and Subdirect Embeddings

Definition
An algebra A is a subdirect product of an indexed family (Ai )i ∈I of
algebras if:
(i) A ≤ Ai ;
Q
i ∈I
(ii) πi (A) = Ai , for each i ∈ I .
An embedding α : A → Ai is subdirect if α(A) is a subdirect product
Q
i ∈I
of the Ai .

If I = ;, then A is a subdirect product of ; iff A = ;, a trivial

Q

algebra.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Subdirect Products and Simple Algebras

The Subdirect Embedding Lemma

Lemma
If θi ∈ ConA, for i ∈ I , and i ∈I θi = ∆, then the natural homomorphism
T

ν : A → i ∈I A/θi , defined by
Q

ν(a)(i ) = a/θi

is a subdirect embedding.

Let νi be the natural homomorphism from A to A/θi , for i ∈ I .

Since kerνi = θi and i ∈I θi = ∆, it follows that ν is an embedding.
T

Since each νi is surjective, ν is a subdirect embedding.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Subdirect Products and Simple Algebras

Subdirect Irreducibility
Definition
An algebra A is subdirectly irreducible if, for every subdirect embedding
Y
α:A→ Ai ,
i ∈I
there is an i ∈ I , such that πi ◦ α : A → Ai is an isomorphism.

Theorem
An algebra A is subdirectly irreducible iff A is trivial or
there is a minimum congruence in ConA − {∆}. In the
latter case the minimum element is (ConA − {∆}), a
T

principal congruence, and the congruence lattice of A

looks as in the diagram.

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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Subdirect Products and Simple Algebras

Subdirect Irreducibility (Cont’d)

(⇒): If A is not trivial and ConA − {∆} has no minimum element, then
(ConA − {∆}) = ∆. Let I = ConA − {∆}. Then the natural map
T

α : A → θ∈I A/θ is a subdirect embedding by the lemma. The natural

Q

map A → A/θ is not injective for θ ∈ I , whence A is not subdirectly

irreducible.
(⇐): If A is trivial and α : A → i ∈I Ai is a subdirect embedding then each
Q

Ai is trivial. Hence, each πi ◦ α is an isomorphism.

So suppose A is not trivial, and let θ = (ConA − {∆}) 6= ∆. Choose
T

〈a, b 〉 ∈ θ , a 6= b. If α : A → i ∈I Ai is a subdirect embedding, then for

Q

some i , (α(a))(i ) 6= (α(b))(i ). Hence (πi ◦ α)(a) 6= (πi ◦ α)(b). Thus,

〈a, b 〉 6∈ ker(πi ◦ α) so θ * ker(πi ◦ α). This implies ker(πi ◦ α) = ∆ so
πi ◦ α : A → Ai is an isomorphism. Consequently, A is subdirectly
irreducible.
If ConA − {∆} has a minimum element θ, then for a 6= b and 〈a, b 〉 ∈ θ,
we have Θ(a, b) ⊆ θ, whence θ = Θ(a, b).
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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Subdirect Products and Simple Algebras

Subdirect Irreducibility and Direct Indecomposability

Examples:
(1) A finite Abelian group G is subdirectly irreducible iff it is cyclic and
|G | = p n , for some prime p.
(2) Given a prime number p, the Prüfer p-group Zp ∞ , the group of p n -th
roots of unity, n ∈ ω, is subdirectly irreducible.
(3) Every simple group is subdirectly irreducible.
(4) A vector space over a field F is subdirectly irreducible iff it is trivial or
one-dimensional.
(5) Any two-element algebra is subdirectly irreducible.
A directly indecomposable algebra need not be subdirectly irreducible -
for example, a three-element chain as a lattice.
Theorem
A subdirectly irreducible algebra is directly indecomposable.
Clearly the only factor congruences on a subdirectly irreducible algebra
are ∆ and ∇. Such an algebra is directly indecomposable.
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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Subdirect Products and Simple Algebras

Subdirect Decomposability
Theorem (Birkhoff)
Every algebra A is isomorphic to a subdirect product of subdirectly
irreducible algebras (which are homomorphic images of A).
As trivial algebras are subdirectly irreducible, we only need to consider
the case of nontrivial A. For a, b ∈ A, with a 6= b, we can find, using
Zorn’s lemma, a congruence θa,b on A which is maximal with respect
to the property 〈a, b 〉 6∈ θa,b . Then clearly Θ(a, b) ∨ θa,b is the smallest
congruence in [θa,b , ∇] − {θa,b }, so we see that A/θa,b is subdirectly
irreducible. As {θa,b : a 6= b } = ∆, we can apply a preceding result to
T

show that A is subdirectly embeddable in the product of the indexed

family of subdirectly irreducible algebras (A/θa,b )a6=b .
Corollary
Every finite algebra is isomorphic to a subdirect product of a finite number
of subdirectly irreducible finite algebras.
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Algebras, Subalgebras, Homomorphisms & Direct Products Subdirect Products and Simple Algebras

Simple Algebras

Definition
An algebra A is simple if ConA = {∆, ∇}. A congruence θ on an algebra A
is maximal if the interval [θ, ∇] of ConA has exactly two elements.

We do not require that a simple algebra be nontrivial.

Just as the quotient of a group by a normal subgroup is simple and
nontrivial iff the normal subgroup if maximal, we have a similar result
for arbitrary algebras.
Theorem
Let θ ∈ ConA. Then A/θ is a simple algebra iff θ is a maximal congruence
on A or θ = ∇.
We know that ConA/θ ∼ = [θ, ∇A ]. So the theorem is an immediate
consequence of the definition.

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