OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Optical instruments used primarily to assist the eye in viewing an object.

1. Microscope
It is an optical instrument used to increase the visual angle of neat objects which are too small to be
seen by naked eye.
1.1 Simple Microscope
The normal human eye can focus a sharp image of an object on the retina if the object is located
anywhere from infinity to a certain point called the near point (D). If you move the object closer to
the eye than the near point, the perceived retinal image becomes fuzzy. For an average viewer the
near point, D = 25 cm from the eye. When the object is at the eye’s near point, its image on the
retina is as large as it can be and still be in focus.
The apparent size of an object is determined by the size of its image on the retina. If the eye is
unaided, this size depends on the angle o subtended by the object at the eye, called its angular
size as shown in figure (a).

To look closely at a small object, such as an insect or a crystal, you bring it close to your eye,
making the subtended angle and the retinal image as large as possible. But your eye cannot focus
sharply on objects that are closer than the near point, so the angular size of an object is greatest
(that is, it subtends the largest possible viewing angle) when it is placed at the near point.
A converging lens can be used to form a virtual image that is larger and farther from the eye than
the object itself, as shown in figure (b). Then the object can be moved closer to the eye, and the
angular size of the image may be substantially larger than the angular size of the object at 25 cm
without the lens. A lens used in this way is called a simple microscope, otherwise known as a
magnifying glass.
The usefulness of the magnifier is given by its angular magnification.
(i) If the image is formed at infinity (normal adjustment): The virtual image is most comfortable
to view when it is placed at infinity, so that the ciliary muscle of the eye is relaxed; this means that
the object is placed at the focal point of the magnifier. In this case we find angular magnification.
Angular magnification or magnifying power (M) is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended by
the image (situated at infinity) at the eye to the angle subtended by the object seen directly at the
eye when situated at near point D.
In figure (a) the object is at the near point, where it subtends an angle o at the eye.
h
o  tan o  ...(1)
D
In figure (b) a magnifier in front of the eye forms an image at infinity, and the angle subtended at
the magnifier is i
h
i  tan i  ...(2)
f
 D
Angular magnification, M= i  ...(3)
o f
(ii) If the image is at formed at near point, D: The linear magnification ‘m’, for the image formed
at the near point D, by a simple microscope can be obtained by using the relation
h' v  v
m= =  1  ...(4)
h u  f
h is the size of the object and h’ is the size of the image
 D
m =  1  ...(5) (v =  D)
 f
 Angular magnification or magnifying power(M) is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended by
the image at the eye to the angle subtended by the object seen directly at the eye when both lie at
near point D.
In figure (c) a magnifier in front of the eye forms an image at D, and the angle subtended at the
magnifier is i

Example 1. A man with normal near point (25 cm) reads a book with small print using a magnifying thin convex
lens of focal length 5 cm. (a) What is the closest and farthest distance at which he can read the
book when viewing through the magnifying glass? (b) What is the maximum and minimum
magnifying power possible using the above simple microscope?
Solution : (a) As for normal eye far and near point are and 25 cm respectively, so for magnifier v max  
and v min  25 cm . However, for a lens as
1 1 1 f
  i.e., u
v u f f
 v  1
 
So u will be minimum when v min  25cm
5 25
i.e., u min    4.17 cm
 5  6
 25   1
 
And u will be maximum when v max  
So, the closest and farthest distance of the book from the magnifier (or eye) for clear viewing are
4.17 cm and 5 cm respectively.
D
(b) An in case of simple magnifier MP    . So MP will be minimum when umax = 5 cm
u
25  D
i.e. MP min  5  f 
5  
 25  25 D
And MP will be maximum when umin =   cm i.e., MP max  25  6   1  
 6     f
 
6
 
1.2 Compound Microscope
When we need greater magnification than what we can get with a simple magnifier, the instrument
that we usually use is a compound microscope.
The essential parts of a compound microscope are two convex lenses of different focal length
placed coaxially. These lenses are referred to as:
(a) Objective lens or objective: It is a lens of small aperture and small focal length placed facing the
object.
(b) Eye piece: It is a lens of large aperture and small focal length placed facing the object.
The object O to be viewed is placed just beyond the first focal point of the objective lens that forms
a real and enlarged image ´ as shown in figure. In a properly designed instrument this image lies
just inside the first focal point of the eyepiece. The eyepiece acts as a simple magnifier, and forms
a final virtual image of . The position of may be anywhere between the near and far points of the
eye.
In figure (a) the object is at the near point, where it subtends an angle o at the eye.
 h
o  tan o  ...(1)
D
(i) When image is formed at near point, D: Let i be the angle subtended by the final image at the
eye as shown in figure (b).

Angular magnification or magnifying power (M) is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended by
the final image at the eye to the angle subtended by the object seen directly at the eye when both
lie at near point D.
The angular magnification produced is,
 tan i
M i  ...(2)
o tan o
hi h
  i  tan i = = i (  ve = D in magnitude)
ve D
h
o  tan o 
D
hi
M= ...(3)
h
hi
Linear magnification, m= = mo  me ...(4)
h
M = mome (from eq. (3) and eq. (4))
vo
where mo = linear magnification produced by objective lens = ...(5)
uo
ve
me = linear magnification produced by eye piece =
ue
1 1 1
using lens formula for eye piece,  
v e ue fe
ve v D
me = = 1 e = 1 ...(6) ( ve   D )
ue fe fe

From equations (3), (4) and (6) we have

v  D
M = o 1  , ...(7)
uo  fe 
In practice, the focal length of objective lens is very small and the object is just placed outside the
focus of the objective lens,
uo =  f o
 Since the focal length of the eye lens is also small, the distance of image I’ from objective lens is
nearly equal to the length of the microscope tube, L
vo = L
substituting in equation (7),
L  D
M =  1 
fo  fe 
This equation shows that a compound microscope will have high magnifying power, if the objective
lens and the eye piece both have small focal length. The negative sign shows that final image will
be inverted w.r.t. object.

(ii) When image is formed at infinity: The magnifying power of compound microscope is given by
M = mo  me
vo
Magnification produced by objective lens, mo =
uo
The eye lens produces the final image at infinity. Then,
D
me = (as discussed in case of simple microscope)
fe
vo D
Therefore, M = ,
uo fe
LD
M=
fo fe

Example 2. The focal length of the objective and eyepiece of a microscope are 2 cm and 5 cm respectively and
the distance between them is 20 cm. Find the distance of object from the objective, when the final
image seen by the eye is 25 cm from the eyepiece. Also find the magnifying power.
Solution : Given f0 = 2 cm, fe = 5 cm
| vo | + | ue | = 20 cm
   ve = – 25 cm
1 1 1
From lens formula  
fe v o ue
1 1 1 1 1
   
u v e fe 25 5
25
 ue = – cm
6
Distance of real image from objective
25 120  25 95
vo = 20 – | ue | = 20 –   cm
6 6 6
1 1 1
Now  
fo v o uo
1 1 1 1 1 1 6 1 12  95 83
given     i.e.,    
uo v o fo (95 / 6) 2 uo 95 2 190 190
190
  uo = – = – 2.3 cm
83
v  D 95 / 6  25 
Magnifying power M = – o  1     1  = – 41.5
uo  fe  (190 / 83)  3 
2. Telescope
2.1 Astronomical Telescope
It is an optical instrument used to increase the visual angle of distant large objects such as a star a
planet or a cliff etc. Astronomical telescope consists of two converging lens. The one facing the
object is called objective and has large focal length and aperture. Other lens is called eye piece. It
has small aperture and is of small focal length. The distance between the two lenses is adjustable.
The objective forms a real and inverted image at its focal plane of the distant object. The distance
of the eye piece is adjusted, till the final image is formed at the near point, D. In case, the position
of the eye piece is so adjusted that final image is formed at infinity, the telescope is said to be in
normal adjustment.
(i) When the image is formed at infinity (Normal adjustment)
When a parallel beam of light rays from a distant object falls on objective, its real and inverted
image ´ is formed on the other side of the objective and at a distance f o. If the position of the eye
piece is adjusted, so that the image ´ lies at its focus, then the final highly magnified image will be
formed at infinity.

Angular magnification or magnifying power (M) here is defined as the ratio of the angle
subtended by the final image at the eye as seen through the telescope to the angle subtended by
the object, seen directly at the eye when both the object and the image lie at infinity.
 tan i
M= i  (for small angle tan )
o tan o
h' h'
From figure (a), tani = , tano =
C ' C'  '
C ' f
M= = o (C’ = fo, C’’ = fe)
C'  ' fe
If fo is large and fe is small, the magnification will be high. In normal adjustment the length of tube
L   f0  ue 
(ii) If the final image is formed at D (near point)
When a parallel beam of light rays from a distant object falls on objective, its real and inverted
image ´ is formed on the other side of the objective and at a distance f o. If the position of the eye
piece is adjusted, so that the final image  is formed at near point D.
Angular magnification or magnifying power (M) here is defined as the ratio of the angle
subtended by the final image formed at near point at the eye to the angle subtended by the object
lying at infinity seen directly at the eye.
 tan i
M= i  (for small angle tan )
o tan o

h' h'
From figure (b), tan o = , tan i =
C ' C'  '
 C ' f
M= =  o
C'  ' ue
1 1 1
For eye lens,   ,
v e ue fe
1 1 1
  (  ue =  ue, ve =  D)
ue fe D
fo  f 
M=   1 e 
fe  D 
If fo is large and fe is small, the magnification will be high.
Example 3. A telescope consists of two convex lens of focal length 16 cm and 2 cm. What is angular
magnification of telescope for relaxed eye? What is the separation between the lenses? If object
subtends an angle of 0.5º on the eye, what will be angle subtended by its image ?
Solution : Angular magnification
 F 16
M=    8 cm
 f 2
Separation between lenses = F + f = 16 + 2 = 18 cm
Here = 0.5º
Angular subtended by image
 = M = 8 × 0.5º = 4º
Example 4. The magnifying power of the telescope if found to be 9 and the separation between the lenses is 20
cm for relaxed eye. What are the focal lengths of component lenses ?
F
Solution : Magnification M =
f
Separation between lenses
d=F+f
F
Given = 9 i.e., F = 9f ......(1)
f
and F + f = 20 ......(2)
Putting value of F from (1) in (2), we get
20
9f + f = 20  10 f = 20  f =  2cm
10
  F = 9f = 9 × 2 = 18 cm
 F = 18 cm, f = 2 cm
Comparison between Compound - Microscope & Astronomical - Telescope
[Link]. Compound - Microscope Astronomical - Telescope
1. It is used to increase visual angle It is used to increase visual angle of distant
of near tiny object. large objects.
2. In it field and eye lens both are convergent, In it field lens is of large focal length and
of short focal length and aperture. aperture while eye lens of short focal length
and aperture and both are convergent.
3. Final image is inverted. virtual and enlarged Final image in inverted, virtual and
and at a distance D to from the eye. enlarged at a distance D to from the eye
4. MP does not change appreciably if field and MP becomes (1/m2) times of its initial value if
eye lens are interchanged [MP ~ (LD/f 0 fe)] field and eye-lenses are interchanged as MP
~[f0/fe]
5. MP is increased by decreasing the focal MP is increased by increasing the focal length
of length of both the lenses viz. find and field of field lens (and decreasing the focal
length eye lens. of eye lens.)
6. RP is increased by decreasing the wavelength RP is increased by increasing the aperture of
of light used. objective.
RESOLVING POWER (R.P.)
(1) Microscope : In reference to a microscope, the minimum distance between two lines at which they are just
distinct is called Resolving limit (RL) and it's reciprocal is called Resolving power (RPO)
 2 sin  1
R.L. = and R.P. =  R.P. 
2 sin   

= Wavelength of light used to illuminate the object

 = Refractive index of the medium between object and objective.
= Half angle of the cone of light from the point object, sin = Numerical aperture.

(2) Telescope : Smallest angular separations (d) between two distant object, whose images are separated in
1.22 
the telescope is called resolving limit. So resolving limit d = and resolving power
a
1 a 1
(RP) = = R.P.   where a = aperture of objective.
d 1.22  

Example 5 Find the half angular width of the central bright maximum in the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern of
a slit of width 12 × 10–5 cm when the slit is illuminated by monochromatic light of wavelength
6000Å.

Solution. Here sin  
a
Where  is half angular width of the central maximum.
A = 12 × 10–5 cm,  = 6000Å = 6 × 10–5cm.
 6  10 5
 sin     0.50
a 12  10 5
or  = 30°

Example 6 In Fraunhofer diffraction due to a narrow slit a screen is placed 2 m away from the lens to
obtain the pattern. If the slit width is 0.2 mm and the first minima lie 5 mm on either side of the
central maximum, find the wavelength of light.
Solution. In the case of Fraunhofer diffraction at a narrow rectangular aperature,
a sin = n
n=1
 a sin  = 
x
sin =
D
ax
 
D
ax

D
Here a = 0.2 mm = 00.2cm
x = 5 mm = 0.5 cm
D = 2m = 200 cm
0.02  0.5
 
200
 = 5 × 10–5 cm
L = 5000Å
Example 7. Light of wavelength 6000Å is incident on a slit of width 0.30 nm. The screen is placed 2m from
the slit. Find : (a) the position of the first dark fringe and (b) the width of the central bright
fringe.
Solution. The first dark fringe is on either side of the central bright fringe.
Here, n = ±1, D = 2m
 = 6000Å = 6 × 10–7m
x
sin  =
D
a = 0.30 mm = 3 × 10–4 m
a sin  = n
n D
(a) x=
a
 1 6  10 7  2 
x=±  4 
 3  10 
x = ±4 × 10–3m
The positive and negative signs correspond to the dark fringes on either side of the central
bright fringe.
(b) The width of the central bright fringe,
y = 2x
= 2 × 4 × 10–3
= 8 × 10–3 m = 8 mm

Example 8. A signal slit of width 0.14 mm is illuminated normally by monochromatic light and diffraction
bands are observed on a screen 2m away. If the centre of the second dark band is 1.6 cm from
the middle of the central bright band, deduce the wavelength of light used.
Solution. In the case of Fraunhofer diffraction at a narrow rectangular slit,
a sin  = n
Here  gives the directions of the minimum
n=2, =?
a = 0.14 mm = 0.14 × 10–3 m
D=2m
x = 1.6 cm = 1.6 × 10–2 m
x n xa
sin  =   =
D a nD
1.6  10 2  0.14  10 3
= = 5.6 × 10–7 m = 5600Å
2.2

Example 9. A screen is placed 2m away from a narrow slit which is illuminated with light of wavelength
6000Å. If the first minimum lies 50 mm on either side of the central maximum, calculate the slit
width.
Solution. In the case of Fraunhofer diffraction at a narrow slit,
a sin  = n
x ax
sin  =  = n
D D
Here width of the slit = a = ?
x = 5 mm = 5 × 10–3 m
D = 2m
 = 6000Å = 6 × 10–7m
n=1
 nD 
a=  
 x 
 1 6  107  2 
a=  3 
 5  10 
a = 2.4 × 10–4 m
a = 0.24 mm
Example 10. Find the angular width of the central bright maximum in the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern of a
slit of width 12 × 10–5 cm when the slit is illuminated by monochromatic light of wavelength
6000Å.

Solution. Here sin =
a
where  is the half angular width of the central maximum
a = 12 × 10–5 cm = 12 × 10–7 m
 = 6000Å = 6 × 10–7 m

6  10 7
sin = = 0.5
12  10 7
 = 30°
Angular width of the central maximum.
2 = 60°

Example 11. Diffraction pattern of a signal slit of width 0.5 cm is formed by a lens of focal length 40 cm.
Calculate the distance between the first dark and the next bright fringe from the axis. Wave
length = 4890Å.
Solution. For minimum intensity
a sin n = n
x
sin n = 1  n = 1
f'
x1 

f a
Here  = 4890Å = 4890 × 10–10 m
a = 0.5 cm = 5 × 10–3 m
f = 40 cm = 0.4 m
f
x1 =
a
x1 =
x1 = 3.912 × 10–5 m
For secondary maximum
0.4  4890  10 10
a sin n =
5  10 3
For the first secondary maximum
n=1
(2n  1)
sin n =
2
x 2 3

f 2a
3f
x2 =
2a
3  4890  10 10  0.4
x2 =
2  5  10 5
x2 = 5.868 × 10–5 m
Difference,
x2 – x1 = 5.868 × 10–5 – 3.912 × 10–5
= 1.956 × 10–5 m
= 1.596 × 10–2 mm

Example 12. Find the separation of two points on the moon that can be resolved by a 500 cm telescope. The
distance of the moon is 3.8 × 105 km. The eye is most sensitive to light of wavelength 5500 Å.
Solution. The limit of resolution of a telescope is given by
1.22
d =
a
Here  = 5500 × 10–8cm, a = 500 cm
1.22  5500  10 8
  d =
500
  d = 13.42 × 10–8 radian
Let the distance between the two point be x
x
 d =
R
Here R = 3.8 × 1010 cm
x = R.d
= 3.8 × 1010 × 13.42 × 10–8
= 50.996 × 102 cm = 50.996 meters
Example 13. Calculate the aperture of the objective of a telescope which may by used to resolve stars
separated by 4.88 × 10–6 radian for light of wavelength 6000Å
Solution. Here  = 6000Å = 6 × 10–5 cm,  = 4.88 × 10–6 radian
D=?
1.22
=

1.22 1.22  6  105
or D=   15cm
 4.88  10 8

Example 16. Two pin holes 1.5 mm apart are placed in front of a source of light of wavelength 5.5 × 10–5 cm
and seen through a telescope with its objectives stopped down to a diameter of 0.4 cm. Find
the maximum distance from the telescope at which the pin holes can be resolved.
Solution. Here,  = 5.5 × 10–5 cm
a = 0.4 cm
1.22
d =
a
x
Also d =
d
x = 1.5 mm = 0.15 cm
x 1.22
  
d a
xa
d=
1.22
0.15  0.4
d= cm
1.22  5.5  105
d = 894.2 cm = 8.942 m