MUSCULAR SYSTEM o Large

 Flexing muscles look like mice scurrying beneath o Cigar-shaped

the skin. o Multinucleate cells
 A scientist long ago dubbed them muscles, from - They are the largest muscle fibers - some
the Latin word mus, meaning “little mouse.” ranging up to 30 cm (nearly 1 foot) in
 Muscle is also the dominant tissue in the heart length.
and in the walls of other hollow organs of the - Skeletal muscle is also known as:
body such as the intestines and blood vessels,  Striated muscle (because its
and it makes up nearly half the body’s mass. fibers have obvious stripes)
The essential function of muscle is to:  Voluntary muscle (because it is
1. Contract or shorten the only muscle type subject to
o A unique characteristic that sets it apart conscious control).
from other body tissues. - Skeletal muscle tissue can contract rapidly
o As a result the muscles are responsible and with great force, but it tires easily.
for all body movements and can be - Key words to remember:
viewed as the “machines” of the body.  Skeletal
Muscle Tissue Types  Striated
1. Skeletal  Voluntary
2. Smooth - Each muscle fiber is enclosed in
3. Cardiac endomysium.
Muscles differ in their: - Several fibers wrapped by perimysium
1. Cell structure form a fascicle.
2. Body location - Many fascicles bound together by
3. How they are stimulated to contract epimysium covering the entire muscle.
Similarities - Epimysium extends into tendons or
 Skeletal and smooth muscle cells are elongated. aponeuroses, attaching muscle to bone,
o For this reason, these types of muscle cartilage, or connective tissue.
cells (but not cardiac muscle cells) are - Tendons provide durability and conserve
called muscle fibers. space.
 The ability of muscle to shorten, or contract,
depends on two types of myofilaments, the  Smooth Muscle
muscle cell equivalents of the microfilaments of
the cytoskeleton.
 Terminology:
o Prefixes myo- or mys- (“muscle”) or
sarco- (“flesh”) refer to muscle.
o In muscle cells, the cytoplasm is called
sarcoplasm. - Smooth muscle has no striations and is
involuntary.
Muscle Tissue Types - Found mainly in walls of hollow visceral
 Skeletal Muscle organs such as:
o Stomach
o Urinary bladder
o Respiratory passages
- Think of smooth muscle as:
 Visceral
- Skeletal muscle fibers are packaged into  Nonstriated
organs called skeletal muscles that attach  Involuntary
to the skeleton. - Smooth muscle fibers are:
- As the skeletal muscles cover our bone  Spindle-shaped
and cartilage framework, they help form  Uninucleate
the smooth contours of the body.  Surrounded by scant
- Skeletal muscle fibers are: endomysium
 - Arranged in two layers: circular and Muscle Functions
longitudinal. All muscle types produce movement, but skeletal muscle
- Responsible for “housekeeping” activities plays three other important roles in the body as well:
such as moving food through digestive  It maintains posture and body position
tract and emptying bowels and bladder.  Stabilizes joints
- Smooth muscle contraction is slow and  Generates heat
sustained.
 PRODUCE MOVEMENT
 Cardiac Muscle o Skeletal muscles are responsible for our
body’s mobility:
o Including all locomotion (walking,
swimming, and cross-country skiing, for
instance)
o Manipulating things with your agile
- Cardiac muscle is found in only one place in upper limbs.
the body—the heart, where it forms the o They enable us to respond quickly to
bulk of the heart walls. changes in the external environment.
- Like skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle is o For example, their speed and power
striated, and like smooth muscle, it is enable us to jump out of the way of a
uninucleate and its control is involuntary. runaway car and then follow its flight
- Important key words for this muscle type with our eyes.
are: o They also allow us to express our
o Cardiac emotions with the silent language of
o Striated smiles and frowns.
o Involuntary o The smooth muscle of blood vessel walls
- Cardiac muscle fibers are branching cells and cardiac muscle of the heart, which
joined by special gap junctions called work together to circulate blood and
intercalated discs. maintain blood pressure.
- Cardiac muscle usually contracts at a fairly o The smooth muscle of other hollow
steady rate set by the heart’s “in-house” organs, which forces fluids (urine, bile)
pacemaker. and other substances (food, a baby)
- The nervous system can also stimulate the through internal body channels.
heart to shift into “high gear” for short  MAINTAIN POSTURE AND BODY POSITION
periods. o We are rarely aware of the workings of
the skeletal muscles that maintain body
posture.
o Yet they function almost continuously,
making one tiny adjustment after
another so that we maintain an erect or
seated posture, even when we slouch,
despite the never-ending downward pull
of gravity.
 STABILIZE JOINTS
o As skeletal muscles pull on bones to
cause movements, they also stabilize the
joints of the skeleton.
o Muscles and tendons are extremely
important in reinforcing and stabilizing
joints that have poorly articulating
surfaces, such as the shoulder and knee
joints.
 oPhysical therapy for knee injuries Sarcomeres
includes exercise to strengthen thigh 1. Myofibrils are chains of contractile units called
muscles because they support the knee. sarcomeres, the structural and functional units
 GENERATE HEAT of skeletal muscle.
o Muscle activity generates body heat as a o The sarcomeres are aligned end to end
by-product. like boxcars in a train.
o As ATP is used to power muscle 2. Striations are produced by the precise
contraction, nearly three-quarters of its arrangement of smaller structures called
energy escapes as heat. myofilaments.
o This heat is vital in maintaining normal Myofilaments Classification
body temperature. 1. Thick Filaments
o Skeletal muscle accounts for at least 40 - Made mostly of the protein myosin,
percent of body mass, so it is the muscle contain ATPase enzymes.
type most responsible for generating - Extend the entire length of the dark A
heat. band.
 ADDITIONAL FUNCTIONS - Midparts are smooth; ends are studded
o Muscles perform other important with myosin heads (cross bridges).
functions as well. - Myosin filaments are attached to the Z
o Smooth muscles form valves that discs by titin (elastic filaments).
regulate the passage of substances 2. Thin Filaments
through internal body openings, dilate - Composed of actin, plus regulatory
and constrict the pupils of our eyes, and proteins.
make up the arrector pili muscles that - Anchored to the Z disc.
cause our hairs to stand on end. - The light I band contains only thin
o Skeletal muscles form valves that are filaments.
under voluntary control, and they - Do not extend into the middle of a
enclose and protect fragile internal relaxed sarcomere; the H zone looks
organs. lighter.
- During contraction, thin filaments slide
Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle inward, H zones disappear, and actin and
myosin filaments completely overlap.
General Structure Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR)
- Skeletal muscle fibers (cells) are multinucleate. - Specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
- Many oval nuclei can be seen just beneath the - Surrounds every myofibril.
plasma membrane, the sarcolemma. - Major role: store calcium and release it on
- The nuclei are pushed aside by long ribbon like demand when the muscle fiber contracts.
organelles, the myofibrils, which nearly fill the - Calcium provides the final “go” signal for
cytoplasm. contraction.
- Alternating light (I) bands and dark (A) bands
give the muscle fiber its striated appearance.
- The light I band has a midline interruption, the Z
disc.
- The dark A band has a lighter central area, the H
zone.
- The M line in the center of the H zone contains
tiny protein rods that hold adjacent thick
filaments together.
Stimulation and Contraction of Single Skeletal Muscle
Fibers

Functional Properties of Muscle Fibers

1. Irritability (Responsiveness)
- The ability to receive and respond to a
stimulus.
2. Contractility Mechanism of Muscle Contraction: The Sliding Filament
- The ability to forcibly shorten when Theory Process
adequately stimulated.
- This property sets muscle apart from all
other tissue types.
3. Extensibility
- The ability of muscle fibers to stretch.
4. Elasticity
- The ability to recoil and resume their resting
length after being stretched.
The Nerve Stimulus and the Action Potential
- To contract, skeletal muscle fibers must be - What causes the filaments to slide? This question
stimulated by nerve impulses. brings us back to the myosin heads that protrude
- A motor unit consists of one neuron and all the all around the ends of the thick filaments.
skeletal muscle fibers it stimulates. - When the nervous system activates muscle
- Neuromuscular junctions contain synaptic fibers as just described, the myosin heads attach
vesicles filled with a neurotransmitter. to binding sites on the thin filaments, and the
- The specific neurotransmitter that stimulates sliding begins.
skeletal muscle fibers is acetylcholine (ACh). - Each cross bridge attaches and detaches several
- The gap between them, the synaptic cleft, is times during a contraction, generating tension
filled with interstitial fluid. that helps pull the thin filaments toward the
Steps of the Action Potential: center of the sarcomere.
- This “walking” of the myosin cross bridges, or
heads, along the thin filaments during muscle
shortening is much like a centipede’s gait.
- Some myosin heads (“legs”) are always in
contact with actin (“the ground”), so that the
thin filaments cannot slide backward, and this
cycle repeats again and again during contraction.
- As this event occurs simultaneously in
sarcomeres throughout the muscle fiber, the cell
shortens.
1. Calcium channels open, and calcium (Ca²⁺) - Notice that the myofilaments themselves do not
enters the terminal. shorten during contraction; they simply slide
2. Calcium entry causes release of acetylcholine. past each other.
3. Acetylcholine diffuses across the synaptic cleft Requirements
and attaches to sarcolemma receptors. - The formation of cross bridges—when the
4. Sodium (Na⁺) rushes in; potassium (K⁺) diffuses myosin heads attach to actin—requires calcium
out. More Na⁺ enters than K⁺ leaves → ions (Ca2+) and ATP (to “energize” the myosin
Depolarization. heads).
5. Generates an action potential that travels over Calcium Source and Role
the sarcolemma → contrac on of the muscle - Action potentials pass deep into the muscle
fiber. fiber along membranous tubules that fold
6. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) breaks down inward from the sarcolemma.
acetylcholine → one nerve impulse produces
one contraction.
 - Inside the cell, the action potentials stimulate Muscle Response to Stronger Stimuli
the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium  Tetanus produces stronger (more forceful)
ions into the cytoplasm. muscle contractions, but its primary role is to
- The calcium ions trigger the binding of myosin to produce smooth and prolonged muscle
actin, initiating filament sliding. contractions.
- When the action potential ends, calcium ions are  How forcefully a muscle contracts depends to a
immediately returned to the SR storage areas, large extent on how many of its cells are
the regulatory proteins return to their resting stimulated.
shape and block myosin binding sites, and the  When only a few cells are stimulated, the muscle
muscle fiber relaxes and settles back to its as a whole contracts only slightly.
original length.  When all the motor units are active and all the
Timing muscle fibers are stimulated, the muscle
- This whole series of events takes a few contraction is as strong as it can get.
thousandths of a second.  Thus, muscle contractions can range from slight
to vigorous depending on the work to be done.
Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a Whole
Graded Responses Providing Energy for Muscle Contraction
- In skeletal muscles, the “all-or-none” law of - As a muscle contracts, the bonds of ATP
muscle physiology applies to the muscle fiber, molecules are hydrolyzed to release the needed
not to the whole muscle. energy.
- It states that a muscle fiber will contract to its - Surprisingly, muscles store very limited supplies
fullest extent when it is stimulated adequately; it of ATP—only a few seconds’ worth, just enough
never partially contracts. to get you going.
- However, the whole muscle reacts to stimuli - Because ATP is the only energy source that can
with graded responses, or different degrees of be used directly to power muscle activity, ATP
shortening, which generate different amounts of must be regenerated continuously if contraction
force. is to continue.
- In general, graded muscle contractions can be - Working muscles use three pathways to
produced two ways: regenerate ATP.
1. By changing the frequency of muscle Direct Phosphorylation of ADP by Creatine Phosphate
stimulation - The unique high-energy molecule creatine
2. By changing the number of muscle fibers phosphate (CP) is found in muscle fibers but not
being stimulated at one time. other cell types.
Muscle Response to Increasingly Rapid Stimulation - As ATP is depleted, interactions between CP and
- In most types of muscle activity, nerve impulses ADP result in transfers of a high-energy
are delivered to the muscle at a very rapid rate— phosphate group from CP to ADP, thus
so rapid that the muscle does not get a chance to regenerating more ATP in a fraction of a second.
relax completely between stimuli. - Although muscle fibers store perhaps five times
- As a result, the effects of the successive as much CP as ATP, the CP supplies are also soon
contractions are “summed” (added) together, exhausted (in less than 15 seconds).
and the contractions of the muscle get stronger Aerobic Pathway
and smoother. - At rest and during light to moderate exercise,
- The muscle exhibits unfused tetanus some 95 percent of the ATP used for muscle
(incomplete tetanus). activity comes from aerobic respiration.
- When the muscle is stimulated so rapidly that no - Aerobic respiration occurs in the mitochondria
evidence of relaxation is seen and the and involves a series of metabolic pathways that
contractions are completely smooth and use oxygen.
sustained, the muscle is in fused tetanus, or - These pathways are collectively referred to as
complete tetanus, or in tetanic contraction. oxidative phosphorylation.
- During aerobic respiration, glucose is broken
down completely to carbon dioxide and water,
and some of the energy released as the bonds
 are broken is captured in the bonds of ATP - When muscles lack sufficient oxygen for aerobic
molecules. respiration, lactic acid begins to accumulate in
- Although aerobic respiration provides a rich ATP the muscle via the anaerobic pathway.
harvest (about 32 ATP per 1 glucose), it is fairly - The muscle’s ATP supply starts to run low, and
slow and requires continuous delivery of oxygen ionic imbalance tends to occur.
and nutrient fuels to the muscle to keep it going. - These factors cause the muscle to contract less
Anaerobic Glycolysis and Lactic Acid Formation and less effectively and finally to stop
- The initial steps of glucose breakdown occur via contracting altogether.
a pathway called glycolysis, which does not use - True muscle fatigue rarely occurs in most of us
oxygen and hence is anaerobic. because we feel tired and slow down before it
- During glycolysis, glucose is broken down to happens.
pyruvic acid, and small amounts of energy are - It does happen in marathon runners who
captured in ATP bonds (2 ATP per 1 glucose collapse when their muscles can no longer work.
molecule). - Oxygen deficit must be “paid back.”
- As long as enough oxygen is present, the pyruvic - During recovery, rapid and deep breathing
acid then enters the aerobic pathways within the continues until the muscles have received
mitochondria. oxygen to get rid of lactic acid and replenish ATP
- However, when muscle activity is intense, or and creatine phosphate reserves.
oxygen and glucose delivery is inadequate,
aerobic pathways cannot keep up. Types of Muscle Contractions
- Under these conditions, the pyruvic acid is Isotonic Contractions
converted to lactic acid, and the process is called - Myofilaments are successful in sliding
anaerobic glycolysis. movements.
- Anaerobic glycolysis produces only about 5 - The muscle shortens, and movement occurs.
percent as much ATP from each glucose - Examples: bending the knee, lifting weights,
molecule as aerobic respiration. smiling.
- However, it is about 2½ times faster, and it can Isometric Contractions
provide most of the ATP needed for 30 to 40 - Muscles do not shorten.
seconds of strenuous muscle activity. - Myosin filaments are “spinning their
- Two main shortcomings: wheels,” and tension keeps increasing.
1. It uses huge amounts of glucose for a - Example: pushing the palms of your hands
small ATP harvest. together in front of you.
2. The accumulating lactic acid promotes
muscle soreness. Muscle Tone
- Even when a muscle is voluntarily relaxed, some
Muscle Fatigue and Oxygen Deficit of its fibers are contracting.
- If we exercise our muscles strenuously for a long - The muscle remains firm, healthy, and constantly
time, muscle fatigue occurs. ready for action.
- A muscle is fatigued when it is unable to contract - This state of continuous partial contractions is
even though it is still being stimulated. called muscle tone.
- Without rest, a working muscle begins to tire and
contracts more weakly until it finally ceases Homeostatic Imbalance
reacting and stops contracting. - If the nerve supply to a muscle is destroyed, it
- Suspected causes are imbalances in ions (Ca2+, loses tone, becomes flaccid, and begins to
K+) and problems at the neuromuscular junction. atrophy. This is flaccid paralysis.
- The major factor is the oxygen deficit that occurs - In contrast, increased muscle tone until the
during prolonged muscle activity. muscle is no longer controllable (as in tetanus) is
- Oxygen deficit is not a total lack of oxygen; it spastic paralysis.
happens when a person is not able to take in
oxygen fast enough to keep the muscles
supplied.
Effect of Exercise on Muscles - The best exercise program for most people
General Effects includes both types of exercise.
- The amount of work a muscle does changes the
muscle. Types of Body Movements
- Muscle inactivity (due to a loss of nerve supply,
immobilization, or whatever the cause) always
leads to muscle weakness and wasting.
- Muscles are no exception to the saying “Use it or
lose it!”
- Regular exercise increases muscle size, strength, Flexion
and endurance. - Flexion is a movement, generally in the
Aerobic Exercise (endurance) sagittal plane, that decreases the angle of
- Results in stronger, more flexible muscles with the joint and brings two bones closer
greater resistance to fatigue. together.
- Blood supply to the muscles increases, fibers - Flexion is typical of hinge joints (bending the
form more mitochondria, and store more knee or elbow), but it is also common at ball-
oxygen. and-socket joints (bending forward at the
- Helps reach a steady rate of ATP production and hip).
improves aerobic respiration efficiency. - Extension
- Improves overall body metabolism, digestion, - Extension is the opposite of flexion, so it is a
elimination, neuromuscular coordination, and movement that increases the angle, or
strengthens the skeleton. distance, between two bones or parts of the
- The heart enlarges (hypertrophies) and pumps body.
out more blood, helping clear fat deposits from - Extension that is greater than 180° is called
vessel walls. Hyperextension.
- The lungs become more efficient in gas Rotation
exchange. - Rotation is movement of a bone around its
- Benefits may be permanent or temporary, longitudinal axis.
depending on frequency and intensity of - Rotation is a common movement of ball-
exercise. and-socket joints and describes the
- Aerobic exercise does not cause muscles to movement of the atlas around the dens of
increase much in size. the axis.
Resistance Exercise (Isometric) Abduction
- Produces bulging muscles (e.g., bodybuilder). - Abduction is moving a limb away from the
- Requires very little time and little or no midline of the body.
equipment; a few minutes every other day is - Applies also to the fanning movement of
sufficient. fingers or toes.
- The key is forcing muscles to contract with as Adduction
much force as possible. - Adduction is the opposite of abduction, so it
- Increased muscle size and strength are due is the movement of a limb toward the body
mainly to enlargement of fibers (more midline.
contractile myofilaments), not an increase in Circumduction
fiber number. - Circumduction is a combination of flexion,
- The amount of connective tissue reinforcing the extension, abduction, and adduction.
muscle also increases. - The proximal end of the limb is stationary,
Summary and its distal end moves in a circle.
- Endurance and resistance exercises produce
different patterns of muscle response.
- Lifting weights will not improve endurance for a
marathon.
- Jogging will not make you stronger for lifting
furniture.
 Special Movements Synergist
Dorsiflexion and Plantar Flexion - Synergists help prime movers by producing
- Lifting the foot so the superior surface the same movement or reducing undesirable
approaches the shin is Dorsiflexion. movements.
- Pointing the toes away from the head is - Example: Flexor muscles of the fingers
Plantar Flexion. stabilized by synergists at the wrist joints.
- Inversion and Eversion Fixator
- To invert the foot, turn the sole medially. - Fixators are specialized synergists that hold
- To evert the foot, turn the sole laterally. a bone still or stabilize the origin of a prime
Supination and Pronation mover.
- Supination occurs when the forearm - Example: Postural muscles stabilizing the
rotates laterally so the palm faces vertebral column; muscles anchoring the
anteriorly (radius and ulna parallel). scapulae.
- Pronation occurs when the forearm
rotates medially so the palm faces Naming Skeletal Muscles
posteriorly (radius across ulna, forms an
X). 1. Direction Of The Muscle Fibers
- Memory Trick: Lifting a cup of soup =  Muscles are named in reference to an
supinating (“soup”-inating). imaginary line (midline of the body or long
Opposition axis of a limb bone).
- Opposition of the thumb: moving the  Rectus (straight): Fibers run parallel to the
thumb to touch the tips of the other imaginary line (e.g., rectus femoris).
fingers.  Oblique: Fibers run obliquely (at a slant) to
- This action makes the human hand a fine the imaginary line.
tool for grasping and manipulating
objects.

Interactions of Skeletal Muscles

2. Relative Size Of The Muscle

 Terms used:
o maximus – largest
o minimus – smallest
- Muscles can’t push—they can only pull as they o longus – long
contract.  Example: gluteus maximus is the largest
- Groups of muscles that produce opposite muscle of the gluteus group.
movements lie on opposite sides of a joint.
Prime Mover
- The muscle that has the major responsibility
for causing a particular movement is called
the Prime Mover.
Antagonist
- Muscles that oppose or reverse a movement
are Antagonists.
- Example: Biceps Brachii (flexion)
antagonized by Triceps Brachii (extension).
 7. Action Of The Muscle
3. Location Of The Muscle  Named for their action using terms like
 Some muscles are named for the bone they flexor, extensor, adductor.
are associated with.  Examples: adductor muscles bring about
 Example: temporalis and frontalis overlie the adduction of the thigh; extensor muscles
temporal and frontal bones. extend the wrist.

Arrangement Of Fascicles
 Skeletal muscles consist of fascicles;
arrangements vary, producing different
structures and functional properties.
 Common patterns of fascicle arrangement:
1. Circular
 Fascicles arranged in concentric
4. Number Of Origins rings.
 Terms indicate number of origins:  Found surrounding external body
o biceps – two origins openings; contraction closes
o triceps – three origins openings (valve-like).
o quadriceps – four origins  Also called sphincters
 Example: biceps has two heads; triceps has (“squeezers”).
three.  Examples: Orbicularis muscles of
eyes and mouth.
2. Convergent
 Fascicles converge toward a single
insertion tendon.
 Triangular or fan-shaped.
 Example: Pectoralis major of the
anterior thorax.
3. Fusiform
 Modification of parallel
arrangement.
5. Location Of The Muscle’s Origin And Insertion  Spindle-shaped muscle with an
 Some muscles are named for their expanded belly (midsection).
attachment sites.  Example: Biceps brachii of the arm.
 Example: sternocleidomastoid—origin on 4. Parallel
sternum (sterno) and clavicle (cleido);  Fascicles run parallel to the long
insertion on axis of the muscle.
mastoid  Straplike muscles.
process.  Example: Sartorius of the anterior
thigh.

Pennate (“Feather”) Pattern

 Short fascicles attach obliquely to a central
tendon.
5. Multipennate
6. Shape Of The Muscle  Fascicles insert from several
 Some muscles are named for their distinctive different sides.
shape.
 Example: deltoid—triangular in shape 6. Bipennate
(deltoid means “triangular”).  Fascicles insert into opposite sides
of the tendon.

7. Unipennate
  Fascicles insert into one side of the o Closes eyes, squints, blinks, and
tendon (e.g., extensor digitorum). winks.
3. Orbicularis oris
Functional Notes: o Circular muscle of the lips.
 Fascicle arrangement determines range of o Closes mouth and protrudes lips
motion and power. (“kissing” muscle).
 Longer, parallel fascicles → greater shortening, 4. Buccinator
less power. o Runs horizontally across cheek;
 Power depends on total number of muscle inserts into orbicularis oris.
fibers. o Flattens cheek (whistling or
 Bipennate and multipennate muscles → very blowing).
powerful, shorten little. o Compresses cheek to hold food
between teeth while chewing.
5. Zygomaticus
Gross Anatomy Of Skeletal Muscles o Extends from mouth corner to
cheekbone.
Head And Neck Muscles o Raises corners of mouth (“smiling”
 Head muscles are grouped into two categories: muscle).
1. Facial muscles – insert into soft tissues 6. Masseter
(other muscles or skin); allow o Runs from zygomatic process to
expressions such as frowning and mandible; covers lower jaw angle.
smiling. o Closes jaw by elevating mandible.
2. Chewing muscles – begin breaking down 7. Temporalis
food. o Fan-shaped muscle overlying
 All head and neck muscles are paired except temporal bone.
platysma, orbicularis oris, frontalis, and o Inserts into mandible; synergist of
occipitalis. masseter in closing jaw.
Neck Muscles
Facial Muscles 1. Platysma
o Single sheetlike muscle covering
anterolateral neck.
o Origin: connective tissue covering
chest muscles.
o Insertion: area around the mouth.
o Pulls corners of mouth inferiorly
(“sad clown” face).
2. Sternocleidomastoid
o Paired, two-headed muscles on each
side of neck.
o Origins: one head from sternum, one
from clavicle.
1. Frontalis o Insertion: mastoid process of
o Covers the frontal bone; runs from temporal bone.
cranial aponeurosis to skin of o Both contract → flex neck (“prayer
eyebrows. muscles”).
o Raises eyebrows and wrinkles o One contracts → rotates face to
forehead. opposite shoulder, tilts head to own
o Occipitalis (posterior end) covers side.
the back of skull and pulls scalp Homeostatic Imbalance
posteriorly.  Injury at birth may cause torticollis
2. Orbicularis oculi (wryneck) due to sternocleidomastoid
o Circular fibers around the eyes. spasm.
Trunk Muscles Abdominal Muscles
 Include: 1. Rectus abdominis
1. Muscles moving the vertebral column o Paired, straplike superficial muscles
(posterior antigravity muscles). from pubis to rib cage.
2. Anterior thorax muscles (move ribs, o Flex vertebral column.
head, arms). o Compress abdominal contents
3. Abdominal wall muscles (form natural during defecation, childbirth, and
girdle; move vertebral column). forced breathing.
Anterior Muscles 2. External oblique
1. Pectoralis major o Paired superficial muscles forming
o Large fan-shaped muscle covering upper lateral abdominal walls.
chest. o Fibers run downward and medially
o Origin: sternum, shoulder girdle, first six from last eight ribs to ilium.
ribs. o Flex vertebral column; rotate trunk;
o Insertion: proximal humerus. bend laterally.
o Forms anterior wall of axilla; adducts 3. Internal oblique
and flexes arm. o Paired muscles deep to external
Intercostal Muscles obliques; fibers run at right angles.
o Origin: iliac crest.
o Insertion: last three ribs.
o Same functions as external obliques.
4. Transversus abdominis
o Deepest abdominal wall muscle;
fibers run horizontally.
o Origin: lower ribs and iliac crest.
o Insertion: pubis.
o Compresses abdominal contents.
1. Intercostal muscles
o Deep muscles between ribs. Posterior Muscles
o External intercostals – raise rib cage
(inhalation).
o Internal intercostals – depress rib cage
(forced exhalation).
Muscles of the Abdominal Girdle
 Anterior abdominal muscles form a natural
“girdle”:
1. Rectus abdominis
2. External obliques
3. Internal obliques
4. Transversus abdominis
 Fibers run in different directions for strength and 1. Trapezius
support of abdominal contents.  Most superficial muscles of the posterior neck
and upper trunk.
 Form a diamond- or kite-shaped muscle mass.
 Origin: Occipital bone → thoracic vertebrae.
 Insertion: Scapular spine and clavicle.
 Function: Extend the head (antagonists of
sternocleidomastoids).
 Also elevate, depress, adduct, and stabilize the
scapula.
2. Latissimus Dorsi
 Two large, flat muscles covering the lower back.
  Origin: Lower spine and ilium.  Named by action:
 Insertion: Proximal humerus.  Flexor carpi, Flexor
 Function: Extend and adduct the humerus. digitorum → flex
 Important in power strokes (e.g., swimming, wrist/fingers.
striking a blow).  Extensor carpi, Extensor
3. Erector Spinae digitorum → extend
 Prime mover of back extension; deep muscles of wrist/fingers.
the back. Muscles Causing Movement at the Elbow Joint
 Composed of three muscle columns spanning  All anterior muscles of the humerus cause elbow
the vertebral column: flexion.
1. Longissimus  In order of decreasing strength:
2. Iliocostalis 1. Brachialis
3. Spinalis 2. Biceps brachii
 Function: Powerful back extensors; provide 3. Brachioradialis
resistance when bending.
 Injury may cause spasms leading to lower back
pain.
4. Quadratus Lumborum
 Form part of the posterior abdominal wall.
 Origin: Iliac crests.
 Insertion: Upper lumbar vertebrae.
 Function (separately): Flex spine laterally.
 Function (together): Extend lumbar spine.
5. Deltoid
 Fleshy, triangle-shaped muscles forming
1. Biceps Brachii
rounded shoulders.
 Most familiar muscle; bulges when elbow is
 Common intramuscular injection site (under 5
flexed.
ml).
 Origin: Two heads from shoulder girdle.
 Origin: Spine of scapula → clavicle.
 Insertion: Radial tuberosity.
 Insertion: Proximal humerus.
 Function: Prime mover of forearm flexion;
 Function: Prime mover of arm abduction.
supinates forearm.
 Example: “Opening a bottle of wine” –
Muscles of the Upper Limb
supinates then flexes.
2. Brachialis
 Lies deep to biceps brachii.
 Prime mover in elbow flexion.
 Function: Lifts the ulna as the biceps lifts the
radius.
3. Brachioradialis
 Fairly weak muscle.
 Origin: Humerus.
 Three groups of upper limb muscles:  Insertion: Distal forearm.
1. Muscles arising from shoulder girdle →  Located mainly in the forearm.
humerus: 4. Triceps Brachii
 Pectoralis major  Only muscle on posterior humerus.
 Latissimus dorsi  Origin: Shoulder girdle and proximal
 Deltoid humerus.
2. Muscles causing movement at the  Insertion: Olecranon process of ulna.
elbow joint:  Function: Prime mover of elbow extension
 Enclose humerus and insert on (antagonist of biceps brachii and brachialis).
forearm bones.  Action: Straightens arm (e.g., delivering a
3. Muscles of the forearm → hand bones: boxing jab).
 Thin and spindle-shaped.
  Insertion: Lesser trochanter of femur.
Muscles of the Lower Limb  Function: Prime mover of hip flexion; prevents
 Act on hip, knee, and foot joints. upper body from falling backward when standing
 Largest and strongest muscles; specialized for erect.
walking and balance. 4. Adductor Muscles
 Pelvic girdle: Heavy, fused bones → minimal  Located on medial side of thigh.
movement (no fixator muscles needed).  Function: Adduct (press together) thighs.
 Many span two joints → can move both.  Easily become flabby (gravity assists movement).
 Origin/insertion may interchange based on  Require exercise to stay toned.
action.  Origin: Pelvis.
 Thigh muscles: Cause movement at hip joint,  Insertion: Proximal femur.
help hold body upright.
 Leg muscles: Form thigh flesh, cause knee Muscles Causing Movement at the Knee Joint
flexion/extension.
 Muscles of the leg also move ankle and foot.

Muscles Causing Movement at the Hip Joint

1. Hamstring Group
 The muscles forming the muscle mass of the
posterior thigh are the hamstrings.
 The group consists of three muscles:
1. Biceps Femoris
1. Gluteus Maximus 2. Semimembranosus
 Superficial hip muscle forming most of buttock 3. Semitendinosus
flesh.  Originate on the ischial tuberosity and run
 Powerful hip extensor; brings thigh in line with down the thigh to insert on both sides of the
pelvis. proximal tibia.
 Important in power movements (climbing,  Prime movers of thigh extension and knee
jumping). flexion.
 Origin: Sacrum and iliac bones.  Name comes from butchers using their
 Insertion: Gluteal tuberosity of femur and tendons to hang hams.
iliotibial tract.  Tendons can be felt at the back of the knee.
2. Gluteus Medius 2. Sartorius
 Runs from ilium to femur, beneath gluteus  Thin, strap-like muscle; most superficial
maximus. muscle of the thigh.
 Function: Hip abductor; steadies pelvis during  Runs obliquely across the thigh from the
walking. anterior iliac crest to the medial side of the
 Important intramuscular injection site (>5 ml). tibia.
 Safe injection: Superolateral quadrant of buttock  Weak thigh flexor.
(avoids sciatic nerve).  Commonly called the “tailor’s muscle”
 Injections near sciatic nerve can cause trauma or because it helps tailors sit with both legs
nerve degeneration. crossed.
3. Iliopsoas 3. Quadriceps Group
 Fused muscle of two parts:  The quadriceps group consists of four
1. Iliacus muscles that flesh out the anterior thigh:
2. Psoas major 1. Rectus Femoris
 Origin: Iliac bone and lower vertebrae. 2. Vastus Lateralis
 3. Vastus Medialis  Prime mover for plantar flexion of the foot
4. Vastus Intermedius (“toe dancer’s muscle”).
 Vastus intermedius is obscured by rectus  If the calcaneal tendon is damaged or cut,
femoris. walking is very difficult.
 Vastus muscles originate from the femur;  Foot drags because it cannot “push off” the
rectus femoris originates on the pelvis. toe.
 All four insert into the tibial tuberosity via 5. Soleus
the patellar ligament.  Deep to the gastrocnemius.
 Act to extend the knee powerfully, as when  Arises on the tibia and fibula; inserts into the
kicking a soccer ball. calcaneal tendon.
 Rectus femoris also helps flex the hip.  Strong plantar flexor of the foot; does not
 Vastus lateralis and rectus femoris are affect knee movement.
sometimes used as intramuscular injection
sites, particularly in infants.
Muscles Causing Movement at the Ankle and Foot

1. Tibialis Anterior
 Superficial muscle on the anterior leg.
 Arises from the upper tibia and parallels the
anterior crest as it runs to the tarsal bones,
inserting by a long tendon.
 Acts to dorsiflex and invert the foot.
2. Extensor Digitorum Longus
 Lateral to the tibialis anterior.
 Arises from the lateral tibial condyle and
proximal three-quarters of the fibula; inserts
into the phalanges of toes 2–5.
 Prime mover of toe extension.
3. Fibularis Muscles
 Found on the lateral part of the leg.
1. Fibularis Longus
2. Fibularis Brevis
3. Fibularis Tertius
 Arise from the fibula and insert into the
metatarsal bones.
 Group plantar flexes and everts the foot,
antagonistic to the tibialis anterior.
4. Gastrocnemius
 Two-bellied muscle forming the curved calf
of the posterior leg.
 Arises by two heads, one from each side of
the distal femur; inserts through the
calcaneal (Achilles) tendon into the heel.
Developmental Aspects of the Muscular System  Muscles atrophy if not used continually.
Learning Objectives  Regular exercise keeps the body operating at its
 Explain the importance of a nerve supply and best level.
exercise in keeping muscles healthy. Homeostatic Imbalance – Myasthenia Gravis
 Describe the changes that occur in aging  Rare autoimmune disease affecting adults.
muscles.  Characterized by:
 Muscular system is laid down in segments in the 1. Drooping upper eyelids
developing embryo; each segment is invaded by 2. Difficulty in swallowing and talking
nerves. 3. Generalized muscle weakness and
 Muscles of the thoracic and lumbar regions fatigability
become extensive to cover and move limb  Caused by shortage of acetylcholine receptors
bones. due to antibodies.
 Muscles and nervous system control develop  Antibodies mark receptors for destruction.
early in pregnancy.  Muscle fibers weaken progressively.
 Quickening (first fetal movements) usually occur  Death occurs when respiratory muscles fail.
by the 16th week of pregnancy. Aging and Muscles
Homeostatic Imbalance – Muscular Dystrophy  Connective tissue in muscles increases; muscle
 Very few congenital muscular problems occur. tissue decreases.
 Muscular dystrophy: group of inherited muscle-  Muscles become stringier and more sinewy.
destroying diseases that affect specific muscle  Body weight declines with muscle mass loss.
groups.  Muscle strength decreases about 50% by age 80.
 Muscles appear enlarged due to fat and  Regular exercise offsets effects of aging.
connective tissue deposits; fibers degenerate  Even frail older adults can rebuild muscle mass
and atrophy. and increase strength through resistance
 Most common and serious form: Duchenne’s training.
muscular dystrophy (expressed almost
exclusively in boys).
o Diagnosed between ages 2 and 7.
o Children become clumsy and fall
frequently as muscles weaken.
o Disease progresses from extremities
upward, affecting head and chest
muscles.
o Death usually occurs by early twenties
due to respiratory failure.
o Caused by lack of dystrophin, a protein
maintaining the sarcolemma.
Postnatal Muscle Development
 After birth, a baby’s movements are gross reflex
types.
 Nervous system must mature before voluntary
muscle control develops.
 Development proceeds superior to inferior;
gross movements precede fine ones.
 Babies raise heads before sitting; sit before
walking.
 Muscle control develops proximal to distal.
 Nervous system control becomes more precise
through childhood.
 Peak level of muscle control reached by mid-
adolescence; can be improved by training.
 Skeletal muscle resists infection and stays
healthy with good nutrition.