🪨 Rocks and minerals

ROCKS AND MINERALS

Formation of rocks:
Igneous Rocks: cooling of magma which solidifies to
form rocks. Slow cooling forms big crystals whereas
fast cooling forms small crystals.
★​ Ex: Basalt and Granite

Sedimentary Rocks: Through weathering of pre-existing

rocks they settle down as sediments. Over the years
more sediments such as remains of animals, mud, etc
form on top of the sediments which pressurizes the
sediments and compacts them together forming
sedimentary rocks.
★​ Eg: Shale, Limestone and Sandstone

Metamorphic Rocks: Due to exposure of heat and pressure

the pre-existing rocks get converted into metamorphic
rocks, this can change the chemical or/and physical
properties of the rocks.
★​ Eg: Marble and slate

Exploring for rocks:

Remote sensing: aerial photography covers more ground
than a human. It can also reach inaccessible areas.

Prospecting: Process of finding minerals through

examining the surface of the rocks

Radiation detection: Mineral deposits on the earth’s

surface form mineral dioxides can be detected by their unique radiation patterns.

Satellite signals: satellites send signals to the earth’s surface, the reflected signals are then collected and
indicate the presence of minerals.
Geophysics: A series of vibrations are sent through the earth’s surface, sensors are placed at different
distances from the source of vibrations on the earth’s surface. The vibrations go through the rock layers
and form shock waves, the waves are then reflected back to the surface.

Extraction of minerals:

Surface mining:
★​ Open-pit mining: the topsoil and vegetation are removed, the rocks are loosed up by explosives
and are removed using diggers. The rocks/ minerals are then extracted and tipped in trucks which
are then carried away in trucks.

★​ Strip mining: the overburden is removed in thin strips, this is mainly done to extract coal.

Sub- surface mining:

★​ A vertical shaft is built through the rock layers. They start to build the shaft horizontally in
continuation when the mineral layer is reached. The minerals are extracted by digging and are
then tipped into trucks and transported away

Advantages and disadvantages of Surface mining:

Advantages:
★​ Cheaper
★​ Easier to discover
★​ Safer for workers
★​ Quicker

Disadvantages:
★​ Visual pollution/ noise pollution/ air pollution/ water pollution
★​ Produces large waste
★​ Destroys habitats thus reduces biodiversity

How is surface mining more destructive than sub surface mining?

Surface mining removes the natural vegetation and topsoil (overburden) which disrupts the food chain of
animals living in the area, causing loss of biodiversity and habitat. A large area of land is used in surface
mining, the larger the land the more the waste is produced. More dust is produced causing more surface
run off which contributes to water pollution.

Factors affecting the decision to extract rocks and minerals:

★​ Geology: high grade ore yields more chemical required than low grade ore thus small amounts of
high grade ore are worth mining whereas low-grade ore which cannot be mined at a profit are left
as reserves
 ★​ Cost: Surface mining is cheaper than sub-surface mining thus only high grade ore is extracted
using sub-surface mining.

★​ Supply & Demand: When the demand is high then mines which were not profitable before
become worth mining whereas if demand is low then the value of the output will be much less
than it was when the demand was high.

★​ Environmental Impact Assessment: The company is provided with a license before it can start
mining and extracting minerals and rocks. The company must provide a restoration plan and plan
to keep the loss of habitat minimal. It should also state the fact that where it would store the waste
such as the overburden before the license is approved.

★​ Accessibility: Transporting the extracted rocks or minerals from the mine to the processing
plants is expensive, the cost of building roads and other infrastructure must be considered. This is
why the workers try to carry out as many processes as they can at the mine site only. The
government and the mining company should also come up with an agreement in which the
government wont raise taxes rapidly making the mine unprofitable.

★​ Climate: climate also affects the decision for mining since some resources might not be available
in the given region or climate. Natural disasters can cause destruction of infrastructure which will
increase the cost of halt operations.

Impact of rock and mineral extraction:

Positive:
★​ Increases employment
★​ Improvement in infrastructure and facilities
★​ Improvement in national and local economies where they can earn foreign exchange by
exportation.

Negative:
★​ Noise pollution due to machinery and explosives
★​ Water pollution since water might be polluted due to leaching of heavy metals
★​ Loss of vegetation and habitat due to removal of topsoil (overburden)

Bioaccumulation: when harmful substances, like heavy metals or pesticides, build up in an

organism over time because they are absorbed faster than the organism can get rid of them.

Biomagnification: the increasing buildup of toxins, like heavy metals and pesticides, in
organisms at higher levels of a food chain because these toxic substances are not easily broken
down or excreted by the body.
 Managing the impacts of rocks and mineral extraction:
★​ Land restoration in which mine waste can be covered by a layer of soil and enriched with
fertilizers which also helps dispose of mine waste safely.
★​ Microorganisms like bacteria can absorb the pollutants and metabolize them into less
harmful substances, this process is known as Bioremediation.
★​ Use the mine site as a landfill.
★​ Making lakes and natural reserves.
★​ Planting more trees to enhance the ecosystem.

Sustainable use of rocks and minerals:

★​ Recycling since it reduces pollution as it requires less energy than extracting new ones.
★​ Increase the efficiency of use of rocks and minerals using engineering solutions that
would save rocks and minerals
★​ Increased efficiency of the extraction of rocks
🗺️ Energy and the Environment
 ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT
What are fossil fuels?
★​ They are non-renewable
★​ They are finite resources
★​ They are made from the remains of dead plants and animals
★​ They are being used up too quickly before they can be replenished, once they have been
all used up they cannot be replaced.
★​ They are no longer being made anymore or being made too slowly.

How is crude oil and natural gas formed?

Millions of years ago the sea creatures who died settled at the bottom of the sea as sediment.
Over the years more and more sediments formed on top of the remains of the animals which
created heat and pressure and compacted all of them together. It altered the remains of the
animals chemically and formed crude oil and natural gas. The oil moves upwards through the
permeable rocks until it tries to pass through an impermeable rock and fails, it gets stuck in the
rock. Oil companies have to drill through these rocks to extract the oil. These are then turned into
products such as petrol and diesel.

How is coal formed?

The plants and vegetation of a forest dies, they decay and form a thick layer known as peat. Over
the years more and more sediments deposit over the peat, this forms heat and pressure and
compacts it together and forms coal.

Energy resources:
Can be classified into 2 parts:
★​ Renewable energy: energy which can be generated again once all used up.
★​ Non-renewable energy: energy which cannot be generated again once used up.

Non- renewable sources of energy:

Non-renewable energy Advantages Disadvantages Procedure

Coal Coal is a ready-made fuel When burned coal gives Coal is burnt which
which is easier to extract off atmospheric produces heat. This
and generate electricity. It pollutants and heats up water and turns
lasts longer than fuel. greenhouse gases it into steam, it is run
through a turbine and
then through a generator
 producing electricity.

Oil Oil is a ready-made fuel There is a limited Oil is burnt which

which is cheap to extract. supply of oil. When it is produces heat. This
It is used in transportation burned it produces heats up water and turns
and industry atmospheric pollutants it into steam, it is run
including greenhouse through a turbine and
gases. then through a generator
producing electricity.

Natural Gas It is a ready-made fuel When burnt it produces Natural gas is burnt
and is cheap to extract. It atmospheric pollutants, which produces heat.
is used in cooking and including greenhouse This heats up water and
heating and is relatively gases. There is a limited turns it into steam, it is
cleaner than oil and coal. supply of gas. run through a turbine
and then through a
generator producing
electricity.

Nuclear Energy Does not produce Carbon It is non-renewable and Uranium is broken
dioxide or Sulphur if we keep using it it down which releases a
dioxide, it produces a will run out. The waste large amount of heat.
large amount of energy produced is extremely
This heats up the water
through a little amount of radioactive and will
fuel. remain harmful to our and produces steam, the
health for thousands of steam is run through a
years. If there is an turbine which converts
accident then large kinetic energy into
amounts of radioactive mechanical energy and
energy will be released is then run through a
in the environment.
generator which
converts it from
mechanical to electrical
energy.

Renewable Energy:

Renewable energy Advantages Disadvantages Procedure

Wind energy Wind energy is a Wind farms are noisy and Wind is produced
renewable source of can also cause visual through large moments
energy so there is no fuel pollution for people of the air and energy
cost and no harmful living nearby. It also driven by the sun. The
gases are being produced. generates electricity only wind contains kinetic
 if wind is present energy which makes the
meaning if there is no turbines spin and
wind electricity wont be converts it into
generated. mechanical energy. This
is then run through a
generator which converts
it into electricity.

Tide energy It is a renewable energy Tidal barrage destroys A tidal barrage is placed
source, it does not require habitats of estuary on a river estuary which
any fuels to function and species, including consists of generators
does not produce any wading birds. Dams which are driven by the
atmospheric pollutants. flood its nearby areas and water running through
Tidal barrages and push people out of their the tubes of the barrage.
hydroelectric power homes. Rotting
Hydroelectric energy stations are very reliable vegetation under the The water behind the
and can be easily turned water produces methane dam consists of
on. which is a greenhouse gravitational potential
gas. energy, when the gates of
the dam is opened it
converts into kinetic
energy. The dam consists
of generators which get
activated when water
passes through the tubes
in the dam.

Geothermal energy It is a renewable source Most parts of the world Cold water is sent
of energy and does not don't have places where through a pipe into the
produce any harmful geothermal energy can be earth’s surface, the hot
atmospheric gases. It exploited magma heats up the
does not require any fuel water and turns it into
to generate electricity. steam which is sent back
to the earth’s surface
through another pipe.
The steam is run through
a turbine which converts
it into mechanical energy
and is then run through a
generator which is then
converted into electricity.
 Solar energy It is infinitely available, it Solar panels are It is produced by solar
doesn't require any fuels expensive and inefficient panels, they consist of
and doesn't produce any when it's cloudy and photovoltaic cells which
atmospheric pollutants don't work at night. converts sunlight into
and it is a renewable electric energy
source of energy.

Biofuels It is renewable, helps When burnt produces It is generated from

grow more trees thus CO2. reduces decay of plants and
helps lower down CO2 biodiversity and loss of animals or organic
and air pollution habitat. matter. It is burnt to
generate electricity.

How to make sure heat loss doesn't occur in households:

1.​ Install cavity walls
2.​ Double glaze windows/ triple glaze (can be too expensive)
3.​ Electrical devices should be turned off when not in use
4.​ Use of more energy efficient devices

Why do some countries refuse to invest in renewable sources of energy?

★​ Might be too expensive
★​ inefficient
★​ Country might have abundant supply of fossil fuels
★​ Some countries don't think pollution is an issue

Ways in which government can conserve fossil fuels:

★​ Taxation on fuel
★​ Use newer models of cars since older models need more fuel
★​ improve public transportation because it's cheaper than using cars
★​ Use renewable biofuels rather than fossil fuels.

How to generate energy from waste cooking oil: Break it down anaerobically using
bacteria, in a sealed container it releases methane which is a biofuel, it is then used to heat water
which turns into steam, it is run through a turbine which converts it into mechanical energy and
then run through a generator which is turned into electricity.

Fracking: A hole is drilled into a shale rock, water, sand and chemicals are pumped down due
to high pressure into the rock, the rock becomes fractured and releases oil and natural gas which
is then collected and stored. Advantages for this can be that it provides job opportunities, helps
collect oil and natural gas, less pollution than burning coal. Disadvantages can be that it can
cause water scarcity, land and air pollution and toxic chemicals from fracking can enter water
sources.

Why does the world rely on oil as a form of energy?:

★​ Relatively cleaner than coal
★​ Is ready made and easily available
★​ It is easier to store and transport
★​ Can be turned into many different products

Main causes of marine oil spills:

★​ Collision and damage to containers containing oil
★​ Leakage in the oil pipework
★​ Leakage from the rigs

Organisms or habitats Impacts of oil spills

Phytoplankton Oil floats on the surface and blocks sunlight from entering, this
restricts the ability of phytoplanktons to photosynthesize and thus
dies.

Marine mammals Food sources are depleted, oil coating will affect their skin.
Mammals might also swallow oil while feeding (toxic)

birds Will experience shortage of food since fishes and other animals
died, if it eats the fish then oil will enter its body (toxic). If it comes
in contact with oil then it will affect their ability to fly.

Coral reefs Complete devastation of coral reefs since lack of oxygen (species
die). Areas might be covered in oil.

Beaches Oil might be washed away by tides (coat rocks). Nearby animal
species will be impacted by the oil. It will affect tourism.

Fish Restricts oxygen from entering thus fishes die, shortage of food
since it affects phytoplanktons as well. (affects food chain). Direct
contact with the fish will block its gills.

Reducing oil spills:

★​ Use double-hulled containers
★​ Increase use of GPS and development of more clearly defined routes so there are less
collisions.
Minimizing the impact of oil spills:
★​ Use floating booms (prevents oil from spreading)
★​ Detergent spray dissolves the oil
★​ Skimmers removes oil from seawater
🌽 Agriculture & Environment
Agriculture & Environment
Types of agriculture:
★​ Subsistence: This type of farming is practiced on small patches and the production is low. The
cultivation of crops provides enough food for the farmers and their families.

★​ Commercial: This type of farming is practiced on a large scale, the production is high. Modern
technology is used and the cultivation of crops is with the aim of selling them at a profit.

★​ Arable: Production of plants for consumption by humans.

★​ Pastoral: Production of animals or animal related products

What is soil made out of?

★​ Organic Material
★​ Air
★​ Water
★​ Mineral Particles

The proportion of soil components depends on type of soil, local climate conditions & size of mineral
particles.

Types of Soil:
★​ Sand: ranges between 2 - 0.02 mm
★​ Slit: ranges between 0.02 - 0.002 mm
★​ Clay: ranges between less than 0.002mm

Sand Clay

Drains well Poor drainage

Less fertile More fertile

Has more air spaces Less air spaces

Less water content More water content

Easier to cultivate Hard to cultivate

 Increase Agricultural Yield Process

Crop rotation Growing different types of plants in different plots each year.

Fertilizers They contain nitrogen, potassium, & phosphorus which increases

the rate of growth.

Irrigation Essential for cell activities.

Pest control Use of insecticides and herbicides will kill insects and useless
weeds.

Mechanisms Larger areas can be cultivated.

Controlled environment Use of green houses to ensure optimum conditions for plants to
grow.

Selective breeding Choosing parents with desirable features and raising their
offspring, then select the best offspring with the best features.

Water Application Methods Advantages Disadvantages

Flood irrigation ★​ Inexpensive ★​ Damages the structure of

★​ Covers large area soil
★​ Inefficient use of water

Trickle drip system ★​ It is placed at the base of ★​ Inflexible

the plant ★​ Needs filters to avoid grit
★​ Reduces risk of leaching which blocks the tubes
★​ Correct volume of water ★​ Expensive to install
supplied

Overhead sprinklers ★​ Can cover a large area ★​ Droplets can be blown away
★​ Easy to set up by the wind
★​ Droplets land on leaves
which evaporate quickly.
★​ Large droplets may cap the
soil.

Clay pot irrigation system ★​ Simple technology ★​ Large labour costs

★​ Easy to check the amount ★​ Only suitable for permanent
of water plants

Advantages of crop rotation:

★​ Pests need to find new site
★​ Soil consists essential nutrients
★​ Diseases affecting soil are left behind
★​ Crops are harvested at different times of the year
Advantages of Herbisites:
★​ Results are predictable
★​ Easy to manage
★​ Cheap
★​ Effect is rapid

Why must weed be controlled?

★​ Might be poisonous
★​ Competes with plants for sunlight and nutrients
★​ Makes cultivation difficult
★​ Can be a carrier of pests and diseases

Genetically modified organisms: DNA is extracted from one organism and inserted into another.

Advantages Disadvantages

1.​ Higher yield from crops 1.​ Reduction in gene pool

2.​ Crops can be made drought resistant 2.​ Reduce biodiversity
3.​ Lesser area needed to produce crops 3.​ Unknown impacts of the new characteristics
4.​ Crops can be made with longer storage lives on human health because the product is not
natural.

Hydroponics: Growing plants without soil, dissolving the nutrients required for the plant to grow in
water

Advantages Disadvantages

1.​ Water can be recycled 1.​ Expensive to set up

2.​ Easy to harvest 2.​ Suitable for small productions
3.​ No need for soil 3.​ Diseases may spread rapidly
4.​ Reduces number of pests 4.​ Technical knowledge required
5.​ Can be used anywhere

Impacts of Agriculture
★​ Overuse of herbiscites and insecticides: toxic effect on marine lives, overuse can cause air
pollution, destroy biodiversity & food web is disturbed, increase the number of pests, and can
remain in the environment for generations.

★​ Overuse of fertilizers: excess water dissolved fertilizers seep into nearby waterbodies and cause
eutrophication, this increases the growth of algae. This blocks sunlight and reduces
photosynthesis which causes the algae to die. The bacteria feed onto the dead algae and the
bacteria’s population increases which reduces oxygen which causes the marine animals to die.
 ★​ Overproduction & Waste: waste of overproduction, waste of storage space, waste of
transportation, waste of labour.

Mismanagement of irrigation:
★​ Causes salination
★​ Death of plant roots: Water logged soil prevents roots from getting enough oxygen
★​ Land becomes unusable: Salt is toxic and it makes the land unusable, lower yield is produced
★​ Soil is compacted: Damage to soil structure.
★​ Loss of nutrients: Dissolved and leached with water
★​ Increases soil erosion: surface run off causes soil erosion

Causes of Soil Erosion:

Removal of natural vegetation:
★​ The infiltration decreases so flash flooding and surface run off picks the soil and carries it away
★​ No more roots to bind the soil together
★​ Interception doesn't happen to precipitate.

Overcultivation:
★​ Ploughing breaks the soil into smaller and lighter particles which are then more easily carried
away by the wind

Overgrazing:
★​ Livestock leave the vegetation till ground level sometimes not even leaving the vegetation to bind
the soil.

Wind erosion:
★​ Deforestation makes it easier for soil to get eroded since its not binded by its roots anymore.

Water erosion:
★​ On a slope, excess run-off water erodes the soil
★​ Gully erosion forms deeper and deeper cracks
★​ Infiliteration is reduced by soil compaction

Impacts of soil erosion:

★​ Malnutrition and famine
★​ Desertification
★​ Silting of rivers
★​ Displacement of people
★​ Loss of habitat

What is sustainable agriculture?:

★​ Enough yield to feed all the people
★​ Using natural ways and farming techniques for farming.
★​ Making efficient use of non-renewable resources
How to maintain sustainable agriculture:
★​ Rainwater harvesting
★​ Trickle drip system
★​ Managed grazing
★​ Crop rotation
★​ Organic fertilizers
★​ Use of pest and drought resistant variety of crops

Managing soil erosion Ways to manage soil erosion

Terracing Flat surfaces made on hills. This slows the surface run off of water
and thus prevents soil from getting eroded.

Contour Ploughing Plough perpendicular to slopes. This slows surface runoff of water
and prevents soil erosion down hill.

Wind breaks Trees planted in a row to prevent soil erosion by wind.

Maintaining vegetation covers Tall trees are planted so they cover smaller crops which don't thrive
for sunlight. Provides a space for animals who feed onto pests.
Leaves fall on the ground which adds to the organic matter.

Crop rotation Planting a specific type of crop and then after harvesting planting a
different type of crop which gives time for the essential nutrients to
grow back so you can plant the first type of rock again.
🌊 Water and its Management
Water and its Management
Global water distribution:
97.2%: oceans and seas
0.6%: ground water
2.1%: snow and ice
0.1%: river and lakes

Water cycle:
1.​ Heat from the sun heats up water bodies which then evaporate and form water vapours
2.​ Plants transpire and release water vapours
3.​ Warm air rises above
4.​ Condensation happens
5.​ Clouds formed through sublimation
6.​ When water cools precipitation happens as water droplets become big and heavy
7.​ Precipitation soaks in the earth’s surface and seeps through its cracks and becomes ground water
8.​ The water seeps further into the earth’s surface which causes percoalition
9.​ The water follows through the ground, the same water in then intaken by plants
10.​ The surface water and ground water then go and merge with the water bodies

★​ Precipitation: moisture that reaches the earth’s surface in form of rain or snow

★​ Infiltration: precipitation soaked by the sub surface soil and the seeps into the rocks through
cracks and pore spaces

★​ Through flow: infiltration water that flows through the soil

★​ Ground water flow: infiltration water that follows through the rocks of the earth

★​ Interception: precipitation that does not reach the ground because of the obstruction of trees

★​ Surface run off: precipitation that flows over ground surface eventually finding its way to a
stream

Water supply:
★​ Surface water: water in rivers, lakes and swamps
★​ Ground water: water in soil and rocks under the earth’s surface
★​ Aquifers: water stored in porous rocks
★​ Desalination water: salt removed from seawater or reverse osmosis
★​ Reservoirs: artificial lakes created as a form of water supply, behind a dam
★​ Potable water: water that is safe to drink
How is water gained from aquifers:
★​ Water is trapped in permeable rocks between layers of permeable and impermeable rocks
★​ Permeable rocks on surface receive new supplies of water
★​ Limestone and sandstone stop water below the water course
★​ Water is risen to earth’s surface using mechanical pumps or human labour

Artisan Aquifier:
★​ Water from well is sunk into rocks known as artisan aquifer
★​ Water is under pressure
★​ Water in artisan aquifer will rise above without the help of a pump

Distillation:
★​ Water is evaporated leaving salt behind
★​ Water vapours are then condensed into water and can be used
★​ But this requires a lot of energy

Reverse osmosis:
★​ Water is pumped at high pressures through a fine membrane.
★​ Requires less energy than distillation

Advantages of desalinization:
★​ Safer since there are no heavy metals or water pollution
★​ Large supply since 97% of the earth’s water is salty
★​ Well known technology
★​ Provides job opportunities
★​ Reduces risk of water borne diseases

Disadvantages of desalinization:
★​ Requires skilled workers
★​ Expensive
★​ Some marine animals are killed in the desalinization plants
★​ Greenhouse gas emission can be released if fossil fuels are used

Water Usage
Domestic usage Industrial usage Agricultural usage

Gardening Power generation Mainly for irrigation

Washing clothes Mixing and making products For domestic animals

Washing and flushing toilets cooling

Cooking and cleaning

 Water Quality and water availability
Rich country Poor country

Larger area so more area for water to fall on Water might be frozen

Low population so low demand for water High population so high demand for water

High precipitation drought

Has large amounts of fresh water supplies Rocks may be impermeable so no ground water

Dams:
Multipurpose Dams: can be made for several purposes, for example: irrigation and electricity
Single purpose Dams: made for only one purpose, for example: irrigation or electricity

Choice of site:
★​ High precipitation so more water is supplied
★​ River and lakes nearby to provide water
★​ Built up high so more potential for hydroelectric power
★​ Low temperature to prevent evaporation
🌋 Managing Natural Hazards
Managing Natural Hazards
When is a natural hazard considered a disaster?:
★​ If it kills minimum of 10 people
★​ If it harms 100 people
★​ If the country declares a state of emergency
★​ If the government asked for international assistance

Types of crusts on earth:

Oceanic plate: very dense, made from basalt, can sink, thin
Continental plate: thick, made from granite, cannot be created nor be destroyed, light-weight, old

Factors that affect the strength of the disaster:

★​ Length of time people are exposed to it
★​ Area where people live in
★​ The ability of people to cope with it

What are plate tectonics?:

★​ Magma moves under the plates due to conventional currents, this can make the plates
move as well. They can move in the following directions:

Divergent Plate Boundaries: when two plates move away from each other, they are also known
as constructive because magma rises from the gap and forms volcanos

Convergent Plate Boundaries: when two plates move towards each other. Usually occurs between
oceanic and continental plates, the oceanic plate sinks beneath the continental plate and gets
stuck causing the plate to melt. This causes friction and leads to earthquakes. Magma can also
rise through the cracks. This can also occur between two continental plates, none sinks so both
are forced up and creates fold mountains.

Transform Plate Boundaries: when two plates slide against each other in opposite directions
which causes friction and can cause earthquakes.
Geological Hazards Characteristics Impact Strategies

Earthquake An earthquake starts at the The impact depends on the Prediction: use instruments
epicenter which is the point magnitude of the earthquake like seismometer to
under the ground, the focus and its distance, if it's closer measure shaking of the
is the point right above the to a poorly built building it earth.
epicenter. It may cause will cause more damage. If
liquefaction to the soil. It is it is at night or during Preparation & protection:
measured on the winters, more damage would smart meters to cut off gas
seismometer. be caused. The higher the supply to avoid fire, build
population the more deaths aseismic buildings, schools
will occur. Areas with & hospitals should be built
mountains may face in low-risk zones.
landslides, areas near oceans
may face tsunamis.

Volcano Pressure from hot, molten Lava can mix with water Satellites can be used to
rock (magma) and dissolved and form lahars, it also detect the increasing
gases deep within the Earth causes a lot of ash flow on temperature of the ground.
forces magma up through the surface of the earth. It We can monitor the
vents and cracks in the can cause destruction to emissions of steam and gas
Earth's surface. farmland causing famines. It from the volcano.
can cause tsunamis and Tiltmeters to monitor the
destroy sewage pipelines change in shape of
which will contaminate the volcanos. Seismometer to
water causing waterborne monitor the shaking of
diseases. It destroys habitat ground due to rising
and leaves people with a lot magma. Can build
of trauma. buildings with sloping
roofs to protect against
ashfall.

Cyclones The temperature must be at There is loss of wildlife. Track cyclones using
least 27*C. It should be at Buildings can be damaged satellites, build shelters,
least 60m deep. It occurs due due to strong winds. Heavy have buildings on stilts,
to change in wind speed or rainfall can lead to floods. grow mangrove swamps to
direction. They move Interruptions to electricity absorb energy of the storm
anticlockwise in the northern and transport can cause and slow down the
hemisphere and clockwise in water-borne diseases. cyclone.
the southern hemisphere.

Floods When the river reaches its Floods cause migrations, Plant more trees, widening
maximum infiltration water borne diseases, loss of and deepening a river and
capacity to hold water, crops causes food shortages removing plants and
usually due to heavy rain. and famines. vegetation to increase
When earthquakes occur water holding capacity.
 they can cause tsunamis
which causes flooding.
Flooding also occurs because
of the lack of trees.
Overgrazing makes soil
compact and unable to hold
water. Concrete and other
materials can't sustain water.
Melting of glaciers ends up
raising the water levels of the
sea.

Droughts Higher temperature due to People and animals will be Grow drought tolerant
direct sun rays and trade forced to migrate. There will crops, fencing to control
winds from the northern and be a loss of crops and overgrazing, government
southern hemisphere leads to animals, this causes collecting supplies such as
droughts. Sinking air is some unemployment to farmers. water, medicine and food.
higher pressure area that is This will cause conflicts Increase water supplies by
warmer, the sky will have no between countries and having reservoirs and using
clouds because the warm air people over water. This aquifers.
will make the water droplets causes desertification of
evaporate, this leads to no land
rain and sunny and dry
weather with dry winds.
Building dams defy the
natural current of water and
hereby reduce the flow of
water.

Why do people continue to live in areas with natural hazards?

★​ Soil is fertile because volcanic ash consists of rich nutrients and minerals.
★​ They might have been living there for a long period of time
★​ Too expensive to move
★​ friends/ family members living in that area
★​ Employment opportunities.
🌅 Atmosphere and Human Activities
 Atmosphere and Human Activities
Troposphere:
As the height increases, temperature decreases this is because the conduction and convention of
the earth decreases (7-16 km)

Stratosphere:
As the height increases, the temperature increases slightly, this is called temperature inversion.
The ozone layer is located here and it absorbs the harmful sun UV radiation (50 km).

Mesosphere:
Here the temperature decreases rapidly because there are no water vapors or ozone layer to
absorb the short wave radiation (80 km)

Thermosphere:
Here the temperature rises rapidly because of the absorption of Ultraviolet radiations by the
atomic oxygen (500 km)

Smog:
Atmospheric pollutants are released when fuels are burnt, when this comes in contact with the
heat of the sun smog is formed. Because of high pressure, lack of airflow and temperature
inversion a layer of smog is formed.

Temperature inversion:
A temperature condition in which the temperature increases with its altitude, the days are hot and
heated and the nights are cool and holds cold air on the ground because it is denser and unable to
rise. This layer traps the air pollutants increasing formation of fog and thus increasing smog. The
layer of temperature inversion increases on steeper side valleys.

Acid rain:
Burning of fossil fuels releases nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide, when these mix with water
vapors they form nitric and sulphuric acids. These are carried by the wind and causes acid rain

Ozone Depletion:
The CFC’s rise and reach the stratosphere and get broken down into chlorine because of UV
radiations. The chlorine reacts with the ozone layer breaking it down into chlorine monoxide and
oxygen, which depletes the ozone layer forming a hole in it.
Gases %: Importance
Nitrogen 78% Important for the growth of plants
Oxygen 21% Important for respiration and formed by the process of
photosynthesis
Argon 1% Creates an atmosphere around materials to not allow them to react
(traces) (traces) to oxygen or other gases
Carbon Vital for photosynthesis and green house gas
Dioxide
Water Important for precipitation; vital for existence; provides most
Vapours natural greenhouse gases

The Natural Greenhouse Effect: It is the process which helps keep the earth’s surface and
atmosphere warm. To do so, the sun sends short wave radiation to the earth. Half of it is
absorbed by the earth’s surface, 20% is absorbed by the atmosphere, 30% is reflected back by the
clouds and the earth’s surface, as the earth surface warms up the long wave radiations is emitted
back to the atmosphere, the greenhouse gases absorb some of this radiation and the rest is
deflected back to the earth. This process maintains the earth’s temperature at 33*C higher than
normal temperature

Natural greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, ozone and nitrous oxides

Artificial greenhouse gases: Chlorofluorocarbons

The more the concentration of the greenhouse gases the more effectively they will return the
radiation back to the earth

Enhanced Greenhouse Effect:

This happens because of the additional greenhouse gases in the atmosphere due to human
activities such as burning fossil fuels, as the short wave radiation reaches the earth surface and
reflected back most are reflected back from the ozone layer to the earth. The more greenhouse
gases the more the heat trapped. This warms up the earth causing global warming

Gases Increases Greenhouse Gases

Carbon Deforestation, burning of fossil fuels
Dioxide
Methane Mining, deforestation, melting of
permafrost
CFC’s Aerosol spray, air conditioning, fire
extinguisher
Nitrogen Vehicle exhaust, chemical fertilizers
oxides
Tropospheric Chemical reaction involving nitrogen
dioxide

Managing Atmospheric Pollution:

★​ Increase highway tax so there is reduce ownership of cars

★​ Build metro and tram systems which will use biofuels
★​ Reduce the use of CFC’s
★​ Reduce the use of fossil fuels by using renewable energy
★​ Use catalytic converters to reduce sulphur dioxide emissions

Impacts of Atmospheric Pollution:

Smog:
★​ Breathing difficulties
★​ Reduced photosynthesis
★​ Irritation to eye
★​ Respiratory diseases

Global Warming:
★​ Melting ice sheets
★​ Increase in sea levels
★​ Migration of people from where the flood is
★​ Loss of biodiversity

Acid Rain:
★​ Acidification of ground water
★​ Damage to buildings and infrastructure
★​ Fish dies
★​ Disruption of food chain

Ozone depletion:
★​ Sun burn
★​ Increased mutation
★​ Increase in skin cancer
★​ Loss of vegetation

Why is decreasing air pollution hard?

★​ No awareness with the public
★​ The technology that decreases air pollution is expensive
 ★​ Might impact the economy
★​ Abundance of fossil fuels

Ways of decreasing carbon emissions:

★​ Walking or cycling
★​ Having laws controlling the emissions produced by factories
★​ International laws
★​ Recyclable waste
★​ Renewable resources
💐 Human Population
 Human Population
What is the population?: population is a group of the same species living in an area at the same
time.

Phases of population:
★​ Lag Phase: this is when the organism is getting familiar to the surroundings.
★​ Log Phase: this is when the population of the organism grows exponentially and all
requirements are abundant.
★​ Stationary Phase: this is when the population reaches an equilibrium and reaches the
carrying capacity of the environment.

Birth Rate: the amount of live births over time

★​ If birth rate > death rate then population is increasing
Death Rate: the amount of live deaths over time
★​ If death rate > birth rate then population is decreasing

Factors affecting Birth Rates:

★​ Lack of education: when people lack education they don't use contraceptives and other
methods to prevent the population from rising. Women marry early and have children.
More children are preferred for a higher earning wage.

★​ Lack of medical facilities: in low economically developed countries medical facilities are
not developed, there is a high infant mortality rate thus families have more children
which raises the population.

★​ Expenses: it is affordable to have more children in low economically developed countries

than in more economically developed countries.

Migration: the movement from one country to another.

Urbanisation: Moving from a rural area to an urban setting.

Pull factors
★​ Better road and infrastructure
★​ Good water supply
★​ Better living standards
★​ Better wages
★​ Good quality education
★​ Good healthcare services
Push factors:
★​ Poor services
★​ Unemployment
★​ Natural disasters
★​ Desertification
★​ Poverty

Population Pyramid:
★​ The old people and the young people are the dependent population. They don't earn for
themselves and need someone to take care of their needs
★​ The people in the range 18-50 are the reproductive/ working population and contribute to
the country’s economy.

Pronatalist & Anti-natalist policies:

★​ Anti-natalist: make contraceptives more available, educate people about family planning,
implement government policies, prevent child labour.

★​ Pronatalist: introduce government schemes, spread awareness, give subsidies to families.