Qualitative research method
Dr. Stemela-Zali
Lecture outline
1. Basic assumptions about qualitative research
2. Methods of data collection in qualitative research
3. Qualitative research rigor
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Basic assumptions about qualitative research
include the following:
• It is naturalistic; the research takes place in the natural setting of
the participants.
• The researcher plans and collects data without any preconceived
ideas, participants provide research data.
• The researcher utilizes “bracketing” which is putting biases,
assumptions and previous experiences aside.
• The researcher decides on the inclusion criteria for selecting
information rich participants e.g., using purposive sampling or
judgmental sampling.
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Basic assumptions about qualitative research
include the following:
• Language/words are utilized as the major vehicle of research.
• There are multiple realities in the field of research based on the
participants lived experiences, perceptions and views.
• The researcher continues until the data-saturation is achieved
which means until no new information is obtained.
• The research is contextual. The researcher makes no attempt to
generalise findings to other contexts.
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Qualitative research methods
A. Primary research:
1. Interviews
i. structured,
ii. Semi-structured
iii. unstructured
2. Focus group discussions (FGDs)
3. Participant observations (recording in detail what you have
seen, heard, or encountered).
B. Secondary research:
• Collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio
or video recordings.
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I. Structured interviews
• Structured interviews are verbally administered questionnaires,
in which a list of predetermined questions are asked, with little or
no variation and with no scope for follow-up questions.
• They are relatively quick and easy to administer and may be of
particular use if clarification of certain questions are required or if
there are likely to be literacy or numeracy problems with the
respondents.
• They only allow limited participant responses and are, therefore,
of little use if ‘depth’ is required.
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II. Semi-structured interviews
• Semi-structured interviews consist of several key questions that
help to define the areas to be explored, but also allows the
interviewer or interviewee to elaborate.
• This interview format is used most frequently in healthcare, as it
provides participants with some guidance on what to talk about.
• The flexibility of this approach, particularly compared to
• structured interviews, also allows for the discovery of information
that is important to both participants and researchers.
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III. Unstructured interviews
• Unstructured interviews are performed with little or no
organization/structure.
• Their use is considered where significant ‘depth’ is required, or
where virtually nothing is known about the subject area (or a
different perspective of a known subject area is required).
• They are usually very time-consuming (often lasting several
hours) and can be difficult to manage, and to participate in.
• The lack of predetermined interview questions provides little
guidance on what to talk about and may require an experienced
researcher.
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2. Focus group discussions (FGDs)
• An FGD is a discussion organized for research purposes. It is
guided, monitored and recorded by a researcher (who is refereed
to as a moderator or facilitator).
• Focus groups are used for generating information on collective
views, and the meanings that lie behind those views.
• Focus groups share many common features with less structured
interviews, but there is more to them than merely collecting
similar data from many participants at once.
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When to use FGDs
• As a standalone method, for research relating to group norms,
meanings and processes.
• In a multi-method design, to explore a topic or collect group
language or narratives to be used in later stages.
• To clarify, extend, qualify or challenge data collected through other
methods.
• To feedback results to research participants.
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When not to use FGDs
• If participants are uneasy with each other, and will therefore not
discuss their feelings and opinions openly
• If the topic of interest to the researcher is sensitive or not a topic
the participants can or wish to discuss collectively
• If statistical data is required. Focus groups give depth and insight
but cannot produce useful numerical results.
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Focus group composition
• The optimum size for a focus group is 6 to 8 participants (excluding
researchers) but focus groups can work successfully with as few as
3 and as many as 14 participants (Gill, P. et al. 2008).
• Groups that are too small are not good because they limit rich
discussion.
• Groups that are too large can be disordered, hard to manage for
the moderator and frustrating for participants who hardly get a
chance to speak.
• FGDs are usually between 60 to 90 minutes long.
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Selecting FGD Participants: Considerations
Gender: Will men and women feel comfortable discussing this topic
in a mixed-gender group?
Age: Will age affect the way that people react to this topic? For
example, a young person might feel uncomfortable talking about his
drinking habits if older people from his community are in the room.
Hierarchy: Will people of different hierarchical positions be able to
discuss this topic equally?
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The FGD guide and questions
• The FGD guide is often less structured with topics to be discussed.
There are two general principles to be considered:
• Questions should move from general to more specific questions
• Question order should be relative to the importance of issues in
the research agenda.
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FGD schedule and Moderating
Types of questions in a focus group discussion:
• Probe questions: these introduce participants to the discussion
topic, encourage deep though and make them feel more
comfortable sharing their opinion with the group. E.g.., How familiar
are you with our programs?
• Follow-up questions: delve further into the discussion topic and
the participants’ opinions. E.g.., What are your favorite and least favorite
aspects of Program A?
• Exit question: check to ensure that you didn’t miss anything. E.g., Is
there anything else you’d like to say about our programs?
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Moderator techniques
• Remain neutral to ensure that everyone feels comfortable
expressing their opinion.
• Elicit further information from shy participants with comments
like “Can you tell me more about that?”, “Help me understand
what you mean”, or “Can you give an example?”
• Deal with dominant participants by acknowledging their opinion
and soliciting other opinions. Sentences like “Thank you. What do
other people think?” can be helpful.
• Paraphrase or summarize long, unclear comments by participants.
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FGDs vs Interviews
Appropriate for Strength
FGDs FGDs provide a forum for open Elicits information on a range of
discussion and allow for the norms and opinions in a short
exploration of different time.
viewpoints.
Used for identifying group Group dynamic stimulate
norms. conversations and reactions
Interviews It gathers individual feelings, Elicits in-depth responses with
perceptions- and feelings nuances and contradictions
Addressing sensitive topics They are interpretative, i.e., they
study underlying connections
and relationships observed in a
particular phenomenon, event or
beliefs.
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Rigor in qualitative research includes:
1. Credibility (truth-value)
2. Transferability (applicability)
3. Dependability (consistency)
4. Confirmability (neutrality)
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1. Credibility
A study is a measure of the truth value of qualitative research, that
is, whether the study's findings are correct and accurate.
Examples of strategies used to establish credibility include:
• Reflexivity (how ones’ own beliefs, judgments and practices may influence
the research)
• Member checking (informant feedback)
• Peer debriefing (allowing a qualified, impartial peer to review and assess
your transcripts, methodology, and findings.
• Using the participants’ words in the final report
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2. Transferability
• The ability to transfer research findings or methods from one
group to another.
• Transferability in qualitative research is synonymous with
generalizability, or external validity, in quantitative research.
This can be done by:
• Providing a dense description of the population studied by
describing the demographics and geographic boundaries of the
study.
• Using the same data collection methods with different
demographic groups or geographical locations.
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3. Dependability
• Dependability occurs when another researcher can follow the
procedures used by the researcher to audit and critique the
research process. It refers to the consistency and reliability of the
research findings.
It can be achieved by:
• Having peers participate in the analysis process.
• Providing a detailed description of the research methods.
• Conducting a step-by-step repetition of the study to identify
similarities in results or to enhance findings.
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4. Confirmability
• Confirmability occurs once credibility, transferability and
dependability have been established. The researcher needs a self-
critical attitude to assess and monitor how his/her preconceptions
affect the research.
It can be achieved by:
• Keeping a record that identifies the codes and patterns identified
in analyses.
• Taking notes regarding personal feelings, biases and insights
immediately after an interview
• Following, rather than leading, the direction of interviews by
asking for clarifications when needed
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References
• Mack, N., Woodsong, C., MacQueen, K. M., & Guest, G. (2005).
Qualitative research methods handbook. Family Health
International.
• Busetto et al. Neurological Research and Practice (2020) 2:14
[Link]
• Gill, P., Stewart, K., Treasure, E. et al. Methods of data collection in
qualitative research: interviews and focus groups. Br Dent J 204,
291–295 (2008). [Link]
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