1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

The development of fluid mechanics involves observation and study of the physical
phenomena which form the basis of the theory. Experimental aerodynamics serves to check
the existing theory and also its extension. On the other hand, theoretical developments
strongly influence experimental ones.
Experimental information useful for solving aerodynamic and hydrodynamic
problems may be obtained in a number of ways: from flight experiments, drop tests, rocket
sleds, water tunnels, whirling arms, shock tubes, water tables, rocket flights, flying scale
models, road tests, ballistic ranges, subsonic, near sonic, transonic. supersonic, and
hypersonic wind tunnels; and other methods leading to an almost endless list. Each device
has its own sphere of superiority, and no one device can be called "best".
The development of a new aircraft requires a vast amount of research, and
construction, the cost of which frequently runs into hundreds of thousands of dollars and
many months of time. Of course, any process that can reduce this expenditure of time and
money is vigorously pursued. Here, there is the justification for the wind tunnel; where in
small models are tested to save the design, construction, and completion of full scale
experiments. Many thousands of dollars and many man-hours are saved annually in this
manner. Lives too are saved, for designs that could prove dangerous later are sometimes
abandoned after wind tunnel test.
In the first place, what are wind tunnels, any kind of wind tunnels? In the most basic
sense, they are ground-based experimental facilities designed to produce flows of air or
gases which simulate natural flows occurring outside the laboratory.
The wind tunnel is an important available device for experimental work in
aerodynamics and it can be considered the main tool for aerodynamic design of aircrafts,
rockets, turbo machine, etc. Its main function is to provide a uniform and controllable air
flow through the test section.
Wind engineering is a field that has been evolving over centuries. A large portion
of wind engineering today relies directly or indirectly on wind tunnels. Wind tunnels are
used for a variety of different reasons such as their ability to test prototypes early in design
cycles, or because of their ability to record a large amount of data. Aerodynamicists use
wind tunnels to test models of proposed aircraft since the flow conditions can be carefully
controlled in the tunnel which affect the forces on the aircraft. For the most aerospace
engineering applications, wind tunnels are designed to simulate flows encountered in the
flight of airplanes, missiles, or space vehicle.
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1.1 Aim and Objectives

The main aim of this project is to design and construct the low-speed open-circuit
wind tunnel. For above requirements, following objectives are included in our project.
1. To study the various type of wind tunnels.
2. To design each section of wind tunnel by using the wind tunnel design
constraints.
3. To calculate the losses in each section of wind tunnel.
4. To determine the required power for wind tunnel.
5. To check the flow velocity and pressure distribution by ANSYS software.
6. To compare the numerical results with software results and flow testing
results.

1.2 Scope of the project

The scope of the open-circuit wind tunnel is to study the design and construction
of the low-speed subsonic wind tunnel. The design consideration is only for irrotational,
incompressible flow.
The design consideration, only the Quasi-one-dimensional flow is performed. The
governing flow equations for irrotational, incompressible flow are illustrated. The design
construction, testing and compared results are performed.

1.3 Outlines of the project

There are five chapters in this project.
Chapter 1 deals with introduction of wind tunnel.
Chapter 2 is written about literature review on wind tunnel which contains various type of
wind tunnel and calculation of wind tunnel and components of open-circuit wind tunnel.
Chapter 3 is discussed about design consideration and calculation of wind tunnel.
Chapter 4 is written about calculated results, software results and practical results of wind
tunnel.
Chapter 5 is written about discussion, conclusion and recommendation.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW ON WIND TUNNEL

2.1 Definition of Wind Tunnel

A wind tunnel is a specially design and protected space into which air is drawn, or
blown, by mechanical means in order to achieve a specified speed and predetermined flow
pattern at a given instant. The flow can be observed from outside the wind tunnel through
transparent window that enclose the test section and flow characteristics are measurable
using specialized instruments. An object, such as a model, or some full- scale engineering
structure, typically a vehicle, or part of it, can be immersed into the established flow by
disturbing it. The objectives of the immersion include being able to simulate, visualize,
observe, and measure how the flow around the immersed object affects.

2.2 Classification of Wind Tunnel

There are many types of wind tunnels and they can be classified depending on
their range of Mach number and illustrated in the following Table 2.1.

Range of Mach Number, M Name of flow, or condition

M<1 Subsonic
M=1 or near 1 Transonic
1<M<3 Supersonic
3<M<5 High supersonic
M>5 Hypersonic

Table 2.1 Types of Wind Tunnel Classified on Mach number

Mach number, named after Ernst Mach, is the ratio of the speed of the fluid, or of
any other object, and the speed of sound.
Subsonic or low-speed wind tunnels are the most common type of wind tunnel.
Transonic wind tunnels are common in the aircraft industry since most commercial aircraft
operate in this regime. Supersonic wind tunnel can be used to investigate the behavior of
the jet engines and military aircraft. Hypersonic wind tunnels use their application in rocket
and space vehicles.
Wind tunnel can be categorized into two different types, open-circuit and closed-
circuit wind tunnels. If the air drawn directly from the surrounding to the wind tunnel and
rejected back into the surrounding, the wind tunnel is called open-circuit wind tunnel. Is
the same air is circulated in such a way, the wind tunnel does neither draw air from
surrounding, the wind tunnel is said to be a closed-circuit wind tunnel.
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2.3 History of Wind Tunnels

The development of wind tunnels has played a crucial role in the advancement of
aerodynamics and aviation. Below is a historical overview of their evolution:
Early Concepts (15th - 18th Century)
Leonardo da Vinci (15th Century): He conceptualized the principles of aerodynamics but
lacked the means to test them systematically.
Sir Isaac Newton (17th Century): Proposed theories about air resistance and fluid dynamics
that later influenced wind tunnel development.
19th Century – Birth of Wind Tunnels
George Cayley (1800s): Conducted early studies on lift and drag, laying the groundwork
for wind tunnel development.
Francis Herbert Wenham (1871): Built the first recognized wind tunnel in the UK under
the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain. He used it to test airfoil designs.
Horatio Phillips (1884): Developed a narrow-channel wind tunnel to study wing profiles.
20th Century – Rapid Advancements
1901 – Wright Brothers: Built their own small wind tunnel to test over 200 wing designs,
leading to their first successful powered flight in 1903.
1920s – NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, USA): Established wind
tunnels for systematic aerodynamic research.
1930s – Germany & the USA: Large-scale wind tunnels were developed to test full-size
aircraft.
1940s – World War II: Wind tunnels were crucial for developing high-speed aircraft,
missiles, and jet engines.
1950s – Supersonic and Hypersonic Wind Tunnels: The advent of jet and space technology
led to the construction of supersonic and hypersonic wind tunnels for testing spacecraft and
missiles.
Modern Era (21st Century)
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD): Advances in computer simulations have
complemented wind tunnel testing.
High-Speed & Space Applications: Wind tunnels continue to be used for space exploration,
high-speed trains, and automotive research.
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Environmental Studies: Wind tunnels are now used in urban planning, bridge design, and
environmental engineering.
Wind tunnels remain an essential tool in engineering and scientific research, helping to
refine designs before real-world implementation.

2.4 Purpose of Wind Tunnels

1. To simulate and analyze the behavior of objects in different airspeeds and conditions.
2. To test and refine aircraft designs for improved performance and fuel efficiency.
3. To study vehicle aerodynamics for better speed, stability, and fuel economy.
4. To evaluate wind effects on buildings, bridges, and urban planning.
5. To conduct research in sports science for optimizing equipment and athlete performance.
Types of Wind Tunnels
1. Subsonic Wind Tunnel – Used for testing at low speeds (below the speed of sound, <
Mach 0.8).
2. Transonic Wind Tunnel – Used for testing at speeds close to the speed of sound (Mach
0.8 - 1.2).
3. Supersonic Wind Tunnel – Used for testing at speeds faster than sound (Mach 1.2 - 5.0).
4. Hypersonic Wind Tunnel – Used for extremely high-speed testing (Mach > 5.0).
5. Open-Circuit and Closed-Circuit Wind Tunnels – Differ based on whether the air is
recirculated or exhausted after use.

2.5 Open Circuit Wind Tunnel

An open circuit wind tunnel is a type of wind tunnel where air is drawn from the
surroundings, passes through the test section, and is then expelled back into the
atmosphere. It is also known as a "blow-down" or "Eiffel-type" wind tunnel.

Advantages of Open Circuit Wind Tunnels

• Cost-Effective: Cheaper to build and maintain compared to closed-circuit wind
tunnels.
• Simplicity: Easy to design and operate.
• No Recirculation Issues: No need for complex temperature and pressure control
systems.
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• Suitable for Small-Scale Testing: Ideal for academic research, aerodynamics

testing, and vehicle design.

Disadvantages of Open Circuit Wind Tunnels

• Energy Inefficient: Continuously draws in and expels air, leading to high power
consumption.
• Noisy Operation: The exhaust air creates noise pollution.
• Environmental Factors: External conditions (humidity, temperature) can affect test
results.
• Applications of Open Circuit Wind Tunnels
• Aircraft and Aerospace Testing: Small-scale model tests for aerodynamics.
• Automobile Industry: Vehicle drag and fuel efficiency optimization.
• Architecture and Civil Engineering: Wind effects on skyscrapers, bridges, and
stadiums.
• Sports Science: Testing sports equipment (e.g., cycling helmets, racing cars).

Open circuit wind tunnels are widely used due to their simplicity, affordability, and
effectiveness in aerodynamic testing. However, they are less energy-efficient than closed-
circuit wind tunnels. Despite this, they remain a crucial tool in research and development
across various industries.

Fig 2.1 Open-circuit Wind Tunnel

2.6 Closed-circuit Wind Tunnel

A closed-circuit wind tunnel is a type of wind tunnel in which the air is continuously
recirculated within the system instead of being expelled into the atmosphere. It is also
called a "return-flow" or "Gottingen-type" wind tunnel. This design improves efficiency
and allows for better control of airflow conditions.
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Advantages of Closed-circuit Wind Tunnels

• Energy Efficient: Since the air is recirculated, energy consumption is lower
compared to open circuit tunnels.
• Better Control of Airflow Conditions: Allows for precise control over speed,
temperature, and pressure.
• Less Environmental Influence: The recirculated air is not affected by external
weather conditions.
• Quieter Operation: Reduced noise since air is not continuously expelled into the
atmosphere.

Disadvantages of Closed-circuit Wind Tunnels

• High Initial Cost: More expensive to build and maintain than open circuit wind
tunnels.
• Complex Design: Requires careful engineering to ensure smooth airflow and
minimize turbulence.
• Heat Buildup: Continuous air recirculation can lead to heating, requiring additional
cooling systems.

Fig 2.2 Closed-circuit Wind Tunnel

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2.7 Components of Open-circuit Wind Tunnel

The wind tunnel is made of several distinct sections, the settling section, the
contraction cone, the test section, the diffuser and the driving section.
2.7.1 Settling Section
The settling section is a crucial component of an open circuit wind tunnel that helps
ensure smooth and uniform airflow before it enters the test section. It plays an important
role in reducing turbulence and creating a consistent flow of air, which is essential for
accurate aerodynamic testing.
Purpose
The primary purpose of the settling section is to prepare the incoming air by
reducing turbulence and ensuring that it is smooth and uniform. This allows for more
precise and reliable test results in the test section.
Screen
Screens are placed in the settling section to break up any large eddies or turbulent
airflow. These screens help convert irregular airflow into a more uniform pattern screens
typically have mesh or grid patterns to filter out larger air disturbances.
Honeycomb Structures
Honeycomb cells help to further reduce the swirling motion of the air and improve flow
uniformity. They are made up of a series of small, hexagonal cells, similar to a beehive,
that guide the air into a more uniform stream. Honeycombs also prevent large-scale air
turbulence from entering the test section.
Flow Straighteners
Flow straighteners are used to minimize any residual turbulence and further stabilize the
airflow. They often consist of thin, flat blades that direct the airflow in a uniform direction.
This ensures that the air entering the test section is as smooth as possible.
How the Settling Section Works
Air from the external environment is drawn into the wind tunnel. As it enters the
settling section, the air is turbulent and irregular.
The screens and honeycomb structure in the settling section break up large turbulent
eddies and direct the airflow into smaller, smoother flows.
After passing through the screens and honeycomb, the airflow becomes more
uniform and laminar, ready to enter the test section for precise testing.
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Square Shape Circular Shape Hexagonal Shape

Fig 2.3 Shapes of Honeycomb

2.7.2 Contraction Section

The Contraction Section of an open-circuit wind tunnel plays a vital role in shaping
the airflow and increasing its velocity before it enters the test section. Here's a detailed
explanation of the Contraction Section:
Purpose
Flow Acceleration: The primary purpose of the contraction section is to accelerate
the airflow and direct it into the test section with a uniform velocity profile. This is achieved
by gradually reducing the cross-sectional area of the flow path, which increases the flow
speed according to the Continuity Equation (A₁V₁ = A₂V₂).
Control of Flow Characteristics: It helps in reducing turbulence and ensuring that
the airflow reaching the test section is as smooth and uniform as possible. The air entering
the test section needs to be steady and free of large vortices or eddies for accurate
aerodynamic testing.
Design
Shape: The contraction section typically has a conical or diffuser-like shape. It
starts with a large cross-sectional area and gradually narrows down to the size of the test
section. The shape is carefully designed to ensure that the airflow accelerates smoothly
without causing too much turbulence or shockwaves.
Conical Contractions: These are simple and straightforward but can introduce some
flow separation if not designed properly.
Curved or Bell-shaped Contractions: These are designed to minimize flow
separation and provide a smoother transition, leading to a more uniform velocity profile.
Length: The length of the contraction section is generally designed to be long
enough to allow the airflow to stabilize and accelerate to the desired speed before entering
the test section.
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Velocity and Flow Considerations

As the air flows through the contraction section, its velocity increases due to
the conservation of mass (continuity equation). However, if the contraction is too abrupt,
it could lead to flow separation, creating turbulence that could disturb the uniformity of the
airflow entering the test section.
A slow and gradual contraction ensures the airflow is smoothly accelerated,
preventing the formation of large eddies or vortices that could disrupt testing.
The ideal contraction ratio (ratio of the cross-sectional area of the entrance to the
exit of the contraction) is usually designed such that the flow acceleration is controlled
without significant loss of pressure or introduction of turbulence.

Square Shape Polynomial Shape

Fig 2.4 Common Shapes of Contraction Section

2.7.3 Test Section

A test section in an open circuit wind tunnel is a crucial component where air is
directed through to simulate aerodynamic testing of objects or models. This is where
airflow characteristics are studied and measurements are taken to analyze the behavior of
models under various wind conditions. Here's a breakdown of the test section in an open
circuit wind tunnel:

Location and Structure:

The test section is the part of the wind tunnel where the airflow is directed through
a defined area and where the object being tested (such as an aircraft model, car, or other
aerodynamic structures) is placed.
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It is typically a rectangular or circular space and is located after the settling

chamber and before the diffuser in the wind tunnel system.
In an open circuit wind tunnel, air flows continuously through the tunnel, entering
from the surroundings, passing through various parts, and exiting to the environment after
passing through the test section.
Function:
The primary purpose of the test section is to provide a controlled, uniform flow of
air at a specified speed and turbulence level to simulate real-world aerodynamic conditions.
The objects placed in the test section undergo tests where parameters like drag, lift,
pressure distribution, and other aerodynamic forces can be measured.
The test section should be designed to maintain uniform airflow and minimize
disturbances, turbulence, or irregularities that could affect the accuracy of the test results.
Airflow Control:
Flow Conditioning: Before the air enters the test section, it passes through flow
straighteners, mesh, and sometimes a settling chamber to ensure uniformity in the flow.
This ensures that air reaches the test section with a relatively constant velocity and minimal
turbulence.
Velocity Control: Fans or motors located before the test section control the speed
of airflow, which can be adjusted to simulate different flight conditions or environmental
scenarios

2.7.4 Diffuser
In the design and operation of open-circuit wind tunnels, the diffuser plays a critical
role in the efficient flow of air through the system. The primary function of a diffuser is to
slow down the airflow and increase the static pressure of the air before it enters the fan or
exhaust section. This process is essential for maintaining a steady, controlled flow that
meets the specific requirements of aerodynamic testing.
An open-circuit wind tunnel, as the name suggests, has an inlet and an outlet that
are exposed to the external environment. The airflow in such a wind tunnel is drawn from
the outside and pushed through the test section by a fan located at the end of the tunnel.
For the system to work efficiently, it is crucial that the airflow conditions are stable and
controlled throughout the tunnel. This is where the diffuser comes into play.

Purpose and Function

The diffuser is typically located after the test section, and its main function is to
decelerate the high-speed air coming out of the test section. As the air moves through the
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diffuser, the cross-sectional area increases. According to the principles of fluid dynamics,
when the area increases, the velocity of the air decreases while the pressure increases. This
is known as the Bernoulli effect, and it is the core mechanism by which the diffuser
operates.
By slowing down the air, the diffuser reduces the load on the fan, as the fan needs
to exert less force to draw the air through the tunnel. Additionally, the increase in pressure
ensures that the airflow entering the fan is at the correct conditions for continued circulation
within the tunnel. This enables the wind tunnel to maintain a steady state of operation,
which is crucial for the accuracy and reliability of aerodynamic testing.

2.8 Uses of Wind Tunnel

A wind tunnel is a research tool used to simulate the effects of airflow on objects,
providing valuable insights into aerodynamics and fluid mechanics. The controlled
environment inside a wind tunnel allows scientists, engineers, and researchers to test
models of vehicles, buildings, aircraft, and other objects under various conditions. Here are
the main uses of wind tunnels across different industries:
Aerospace Engineering: Wind tunnels are most famously used in aerospace
engineering, where they are crucial in designing and testing aircraft and spacecraft. By
testing scale models or prototypes of airplanes, engineers can observe how air flows over
their surfaces, which helps optimize designs for performance, stability, and fuel efficiency.
They also enable testing at various speeds, from subsonic to supersonic flows, which is
vital for both commercial and military aircraft development.
Automotive Industry: In the automotive world, wind tunnels are used to test the
aerodynamics of vehicles, particularly to reduce drag and improve fuel efficiency. By
examining airflow around cars, researchers can identify areas of turbulence or resistance
that can be improved. Wind tunnels also help in testing the impact of different materials
and shapes on vehicle performance, which can lead to better handling, safety, and overall
speed.
Architectural Design: Wind tunnels are utilized in architecture to assess the effects
of wind on buildings, particularly in urban areas. This testing is important for ensuring the
safety and stability of high-rise structures by simulating how wind interacts with the
building's design. Additionally, these tests can help in the design of structures that are more
energy-efficient, such as optimizing airflow for natural ventilation and reducing wind-
induced vibrations.
Sports Science: Wind tunnels are increasingly used in sports science, especially for
optimizing the performance of athletes involved in high-speed sports, such as cycling,
racing, and skiing. For example, cyclists use wind tunnels to analyze their position on the
bike to minimize aerodynamic drag, helping them achieve faster speeds. Similarly, wind
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tunnels can be used to optimize the design of sports gear, like helmets and clothing, to
enhance performance and comfort.
Environmental Studies: Wind tunnels play a role in studying the movement of
pollutants in the atmosphere. By simulating wind conditions, researchers can observe how
contaminants such as smoke, dust, and industrial emissions spread in the air. This is
particularly helpful in designing more efficient pollution control systems and predicting
the environmental impact of different industrial processes.
Research and Development: Wind tunnels are integral to the R&D process in many
fields, allowing for controlled experimentation that would be difficult or impossible to
conduct in real-world conditions. They enable testing on prototypes of various objects,
including cars, planes, trains, and new materials, before full-scale production. This helps
reduce the cost and risk of design failures by identifying potential issues early in the
development process.
In conclusion, wind tunnels are invaluable tools for simulating real-world
aerodynamic conditions, offering detailed insights that lead to improved designs in a wide
range of industries. Their ability to test the behavior of objects under various airflow
conditions ensures that innovations in aerospace, automotive, architecture, sports, and
environmental research are optimized for performance, safety, and sustainability.
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CHAPTER 3
WIND TUNNEL DESIGN CONSIDERATION

In this Chapter, an approach to wind tunnel design is is presented that is appropriate

for general-purpose wind tunnels. The principles are the same for other types of tunnels. A
study of the basic aspects of wind tunnel design is useful for wind tunnel user and those
who may consider acquiring a wind tunnel. The material in this chapter will assist to gain
an understanding of principal features of wind tunnels.
The first step in the design of a tunnel is to determine the size and shape of the test
section based on the intended uses. Test section has various shapes, such as circular, square,
rectangular and octagonal. Test section is also called working section or jet. The primary
use of test section is vehicle and vehicle component testing, for example, model, etc. It is
also assumed that a major performance of the testing will be force testing, where
information is sought for performance, fuel efficiency, stability, or control of a vehicle that
may be an aircraft, an automobile, a submarine, a racing yacht, or possibly others. Sections
of wind tunnel instrumentation will, however, consider a full range of measurement
techniques for pressures, flow field variables, and other parameters. The cross-sectional
area of the test section basically determines the overall size of the facility.

3.1. Overall Calculated Design

The calculated design for main components of open-circuit wind tunnel is
listed below;
(a) Test Section
(b) Contraction Section
(c) Settling Section
(d) Diffuser
(e) Fan Section
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3.2 Test Section Design Consideration

The main purpose in the design of the test section is to maintain constant static
pressure approximately with slightly small change in the average Mach number throughout
the test section. There are various types of test section design such as square, circular,
rectangular, octagonal shapes. The cross section shape of maximum losses occurred in test
section is square shape and minimum is circular shape . But , only square shape was chosen
to optimize the available space inside the test section and it is easy to construct. And then
it is the least cost. The test section is the narrowest part of the circuit and it is also the part
where the air velocity is highest and the pressure is lowest.
"First of all, we need to start considering the test section size of the wind tunnel.
When considering the size, we need to know the main purpose for which we will use this
wind tunnel.
Our project objective is to construct a wind tunnel and compare the analytical data with
practical data.
There is no need to include detailed models with complex features. Therefore, we
are aiming to build a small, low-speed, subsonic wind tunnel.
Inside the test section, we will only place small test models for experimentation.
Additionally, since we want to use a little power, a large test section size is not necessary."
Finally, we decided the dimensions of test section as follow.
Our Test Section Design Dimensions
Length = 0.3048 m
Width = 0.1524 m
Height = 0.1524 m
Cross sectional area = 0.0232 𝑚2

3.3 Contraction Section Design Consideration

Contraction section is to accelerate the flow speed to reach the desirable level in
the test section, meanwhile reduce the turbulence intensity. It only designs to reach higher
velocity as convergent.
Contraction ratio must be in the range of 6 to 9 for low-speed subsonic wind tunnel.
The contraction ratio should be "as large as possible", to reduce the total-pressure loss
through the screens mounted between the setting chamber and the cone. The longer the
length of contraction, the more losses occurs. Construction ratio means area ratio of test
section inlet and construction section inlet.
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Contraction Section length should be 1 or 2 times of Inlet Diameter ( Side Length).

For our wind tunnel,
We choose
contraction ratio = 8.5 ( between 4 to 9 / as large as possible )
Contraction Length we took is 1 times or equal to the side length of contraction inlet.
Therefore,
Our Contraction Section Design Dimensions
• Cross sectional area = 0.1972 𝑚2
• Length = 0.444 m
• Shape = curve shape
There are several shapes for contraction section like circular shape, square shape, curve
shape.
All of them, curve shape is more effective and we choose this by the following reason.
To achieve uniform flow at the test section
Minimizing the boundary layer thickness at entrance to the test section
th
The coordinate points for the curve is calculated By Using 6 polynomial equation.
However, we did not calculate the curve coordinates using the equation, we took the
curve as a reference from a project paper which is considered to be the best.

3.4 Settling Section Design Consideration

The settling section is a critical part of a low-speed subsonic wind tunnel, as it
ensures uniform, low-turbulence airflow before entering the contraction section. Here are
the key design considerations:
Purpose of the Settling Section
• Reduces turbulence and swirl in the airflow.
• Straightens the flow using honeycomb structures or screens.
• Provides a smooth, uniform velocity distribution for accurate testing.
Flow Straighteners (Honeycomb)
• Purpose: Removes large-scale vortices and reduces swirl.
• Material: Thin-walled aluminum, plastic straws, or cardboard tubes.
• Cell Aspect Ratio (Length/Diameter): 6:1 to 8:1 (e.g., 1-inch diameter cells should
be 6 to 8 inches long).
• Thickness: Thin walls (~0.05 inch) to minimize resistance.
• Coverage: The honeycomb should cover the full cross-section.
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Screens (Turbulence Reduction)

• Purpose: Breaks down small turbulent eddies.
• Material: Fine mesh screens (stainless steel or nylon).
• Number of Screens: 2 to 4 screens spaced evenly.
• Mesh Size: 16 to 20 mesh per inch (smaller openings reduce turbulence but increase
pressure drop).
• Spacing: 1 to 2 inches apart between screens.
However, to reduce construction difficulties and costs, our settling section will include
only one honeycomb component, and screens will not be installed. Since it operates at low-
speed subsonic conditions, this factor will not have a significant effect.
𝐿
ratio should be between 6 to 8
𝐷
𝐿
6≤𝐷≤8

Where L=length of honeycomb

D=diameter of circle
Our Settling Section Design Dimensions
• Settling section length = 0.1016 m
• Honeycomb length = 0.0889 m
• Cell Diameter =0.0127 m
• ( L/D ratio = 7)

3.5 Diffuser design consideration

The diffuser in a low-speed subsonic tabletop wind tunnel plays a crucial role in
reducing airflow velocity and pressure losses while ensuring smooth flow transition. Here
are the key design considerations:
1. Expansion Ratio (Area Ratio)
The diffuser expands the flow from the test section to a larger exit area, reducing
velocity and recovering static pressure. A moderate expansion ratio (typically 1:2 to 1:4)
helps prevent flow separation and turbulence.
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2. Diffuser Angle
The half-angle of the diffuser should be small to avoid flow separation.
Recommended values: 5° to 10° for efficient pressure recovery.
If the angle is too large (>10°), boundary layer separation can occur, leading to losses.
3. Length-to-Diameter Ratio
A gradual expansion is preferred, with a length-to-inlet-diameter ratio of 3:1 to 6:1
for smooth diffusion.A longer diffuser minimizes pressure losses but increases the tunnel
size.
4. Wall Contour and Shape
Conical, straight-wall diffusers are simple but may cause separation at high angles.
Curved-wall (divergent) diffusers improve pressure recovery by guiding flow smoothly.
Our Diffuser Design Dimension
• Inlet cross sectional area = 0.0232 𝑚2
• Outlet cross sectional area = 0.0928𝑚2 (expansion ratio = 4:1)
• Length = 0.9114 m
• Diffuser Length to inlet Diameter ratio = 6
• Diffuser angle = 5 degree

3.6 Fan Selection

1. Fan Type Selection
• Axial Fans: Common for small, tabletop wind tunnels due to their high efficiency
and compact design.
• Centrifugal Fans: Used when higher pressure recovery and stability are needed,
though they are bulkier.
2. Fan Placement
• Blower (Upstream): Pushes air into the contraction section.
• Pro: Protects the fan from debris.
• Con: May introduce turbulence into the test section.
• Suction (Downstream): Pulls air through the tunnel, improving flow uniformity.
• Preferred for better flow quality and reduced turbulence in the test section.
3. Fan Size and Power
• Must provide adequate mass flow rate (Q) and static pressure (P) for desired test
conditions.
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• Fan diameter should match or exceed the tunnel cross-section.

• Typical velocity in a tabletop tunnel: 5–30 m/s (adjustable with fan speed control).
4. Fan Speed and Control
• Variable Speed Drive (VSD) allows precise control of airflow velocity.
• A dimmer switch or PWM controller can be used for DC fans.
5. Noise and Vibration Reduction
• Use anti-vibration mounts to reduce structural noise.
• Fans with aerodynamically optimized blades minimize noise.
• Consider acoustic insulation around the fan housing.
6. Flow Straightening and Turbulence Minimization
• Inlet Guide Vanes (IGVs): Reduce swirl and improve efficiency.
• Honeycomb and screens before the fan help straighten flow.
• A longer settling chamber ahead of the fan improves flow uniformity.
7. Diffuser-Fan Interaction
• The diffuser should provide even, low-turbulence airflow into the fan.
• A smooth transition from the diffuser to the fan reduces separation losses.
8. Energy Efficiency
• High-efficiency fans reduce power consumption.
• Aerodynamic fan blades optimize thrust-to-power ratio.
However, instead of building a fan that can generate the required power for our
wind tunnel, we have chosen to use the engine cooling fan from a Probox car, which closely
matches the power we need.
Our Fan Specification
• Diameter = 0.3048 m (1 ft)
• Maximum airflow rate = 0.566 𝑚3 /s
• Maximum revolution = 1200 rpm
• No. of blades = 5 blades
• Tip speed = 2π * Radius * RPM = 3.617 m/s (max )
• Fan efficiency = 70% ( 0.7)
• Power ( Max ) = around 60 W (DC fan)
• Operation Voltage = 12 V
 20

• Operation Current = 5 A
• Operation type = Suction type

3.7 Velocity Variations and Pressure Distributions (Calculation)

The cross sectional area should gradually increases in the flow direction to
compensate for the thickening of the boundary layer which cause the reduction in the static
pressure along the test section, so divergence angle for one pair of the walls will be made,
and this may be calculated by assuming the test section as fully turbulent and the boundary
layer begins at entrance.
Considering the test section with constant height, the upper and lower walls,
constant velocity, therefore, setting velocity in test section as 7 m/s. The expected velocity
in the working section is set at v₁ = 7 m/s, as a result the volume flow rate is known on its
entrance and exit; additionally the working section shares coincident surfaces with the
contraction nozzle and diffuser nozzle. Assuming that the fluid velocity remains constant
as it proceeds through the working section, the expected velocity at any cross section in the
wind tunnel can be solved for based on the continuity equation. The cross sectional areas
for the contraction nozzle entrance and the diffuser nozzle exit are known by the previous
design phase. Therefore, the unknown velocities at the entrance to the contraction nozzle
and at the exit of the diffuser nozzle are solved for.

𝑉𝑡𝑠 =7m/s
𝑉𝑡𝑠 𝐴𝑡𝑠
𝑉𝑛𝑜𝑧 = 𝐴𝑜𝑧

𝑉 𝐴𝑡𝑠
𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑓 = 𝐴𝑡𝑠
𝑑𝑖𝑓

These velocities are then used to predict the pressure at the respective control
surface. With the stated assumption that the flow is steady, incompressible, inviscid and
the frictional forces are negligible, Bernoulli's equation is valid.
Prior to the entrance of the contraction nozzle, the ambient velocity is zero, and the
pressure is the ambient pressure. Thus, this point is taken as the stagnation point. Knowing
the stagnation pressure, Bernoulli's equation is implemented to calculate the expected
pressure at the entrance to the contraction nozzle, in the working section, and at the exit of
the diffuser, respectively, as follows:
 21

𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 = 𝑃𝐴𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 =1.1013x105 =𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔1

2
𝓹𝑉𝑛𝑜𝑧
𝑃𝑛𝑜𝑧 =𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔1 - 2
2
𝓹𝑉𝑡𝑠
𝑃𝑡𝑠 =𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔1 - 2
2
𝓹𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑓
𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 =𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔1 - 2

3.8 Calculated Data of Our Wind Tunnel

Now, we got the calculated data of our wind tunnel as follows.

Settling Contraction
Test Section Diffuser
Section Section

Cross Section
0.1972 𝑚2 0.1972 𝑚2 0.0232 𝑚2 0.0928𝑚2
Area

Length 0.1016 m 0.441 m 0.3048 m 0.9114 m

Velocity
0.824 m/s 3.803 m/s 7 m/s 4.3 m/s
(Average)

Table 3.1 Calculated Data of Our Wind Tunnel

3.9 Losses Calculation

The purpose of this section is to evaluate the flow as inviscid to calculate the
successive pressure losses that eventually need to be balanced by by the fluid pump as a
realistic pressure recovery. The wind tunnel made three main sections. Each section
features different geometrics and different velocity conditions. The pressure loss is
calculated each section independently. The sum of each section's pressure he total pressure
loss.
 22

3.9.1 Losses Calculation for Settling Section

Known Data ;

• 𝐴𝑆𝑇 = 0.1972 𝑚2

• Honeycomb length = 0.0889 m ( 3.5in )

• Cell diameter, 𝑑ℎ = 0.0127 m ( 0.5 in )

• Volume flow rate, Q = 0.1624 𝑚3

Calculation;
𝑄
𝑉𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴 = 0.824 m/s (flow velovity )

𝑅𝑒 = 1027.3 (laminar)
64
For laminar flow, f = 𝑅 = 0.0623
𝑒

Using Dracy - Weisbach equation;

𝑳 𝓹𝑽𝟐
• Pressure losses ∆P = f x 𝒅 x = 0.1714 Pa
𝒉 𝟐

• Power losses = ∆P * Q = 0.0278 W

 23

3.9.2 Losses Calculation for Contraction Section

To calculate the total pressure losses and power losses, we need to consider both
friction losses and Dynamic pressure losses in the duct system. The key factors affecting
these losses are:
Known Data;

• Inlet Area, 𝐴1 = 0.1972 𝑚2 ,

• Outlet Area 𝐴2 = 0.0232 𝑚2 ,

• Length, 𝐿𝑐.𝑠 = 0.441 m,

• Flow rate, Q = 0.1624 𝑚3 /s

Calculation
𝑄
Inlet velocity, 𝑉1 = 𝐴 = 0.8235 m/s
1

𝑄
Outlet velocity, 𝑉2 = 𝐴 = 7 m/s (Test section velocity )
2

Friction Losses,
𝑳 𝓹.𝑽𝟐𝒂𝒗𝒈
∆P𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = f * *
𝑫𝒉 𝟐

𝑑ℎ1 +𝑑ℎ2
Hydraulic Diameter for square Duct, 𝐷ℎ = = 0.2982 m
2
4 ∗𝐴
1
( 𝑑ℎ1 = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 0.444 m

- Perimeter = 4 * inlet side length =0.444 m

4 ∗𝐴
2
𝑑ℎ2 = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 0.1523 m

- Perimeter = 4 * outlet side length = 0.6092 m)

𝑉1 +𝑉2
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = 3.911 m/s
2

Reynolds Number
𝓹.𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔. 𝐷ℎ
Re = = 78931.9747 , where µ = 1.81 ∗ 10−5
µ

𝑅𝑒 > 4000, the flow is turbulent.

For turbulent flow in rough ducts, the Blasius equation is:
f = 0.316 x 𝑅𝑒 −0.25 = 0.0189
∆P𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0.2619 Pa
 24

Dynamic pressure losses

𝓹
∆P𝐷𝑦𝑎𝑛𝑚𝑖𝑐 = * ( 𝑉2 2 - 𝑉1 2 ) = 29.5971 Pa
2

• Total Pressure Losses

∆P𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ∆P𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 + ∆P𝐷𝑦𝑎𝑛𝑚𝑖𝑐 = 29.859 Pa

• Power Losses
Power Losses = ∆P𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 * Q = 4.77 W

3.9.3 Losses Calculation for Test Section

4 ∗𝐴
𝑑ℎ = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 0.1524 m

Perimeter = 2 * ( width + Height ) = 0.6096 m

• Total Pressure Losses
𝐿 𝓹𝑉 2
∆P𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = f x 𝑑 * = 0.699 Pa
ℎ 2

• Power Losses
Power Losses = ∆P𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∗Q = 0.1136 W

3.9.4 Losses Calculation for Diffuser

Using continuity equation;
Q = 𝐴𝑖𝑛 x 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴𝑜𝑢𝑡 x 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1.612 m/s
So Outlet Velocity = 1.612 m/s
The calculation will be the same as contraction section,
• Total Pressure Losses
𝓅
Pressure losses; ∆P𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑟 = 2 * ( 𝑉𝑖𝑛 2 - 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 2 ) = 27.843 Pa

• Power Losses
Power Losses = ∆P𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑟 * Q = 4.51 W
 25

Pressure Losses
Power Losses (W)
(Pa)

Settling Section 0.1714 Pa 0.0278 W

Contraction
29.859 Pa 4.77 W
Section

Test Section 0.699 Pa 0.1136 W

Diffuser 27.843 Pa 4.51 W

Total losses 58.5724 Pa 9.42 W

Table 3.2 Calculated Losses Results in Each Section

 26

CHAPTER 4
CONSTRUCTION, TESTING AND RESULTS

This chapter contains the statistical comparison of the data points. Investigating the
results of the design with theory, software simulation and testing results with sensor, there
are several key factors that have to be checked carefully. The most important factors
concern mean flow variations in time and space over the test section area, the turbulence
fluctuation intensities, both in the stream wise and cross stream direction, temperature
variations in time and over the same cross section area. This analysis below was performed
using CFD ANSYS software. The data obtained from hand calculations was required to
ANSYS software and checked results whether it is correct or not specially velocity
variations and pressure distributions.

4.1 Required Materials

- Metal Plate
- Welding Equipment
- Fan
- Battery (12 /DC)
- Plastics straws
- Spray (Painting)
- LED light strips
- Plastic Sheet (Transparent)
- Glove (one time use glove)
- Measuring and Marking tools
- Smoke Generator ( Vape )
- Glue ( Super , 502 glue)
- Airline Tube
- Plastic Bottle
- Other Carpentry Tools Fig 4.1 Required Materials
 27

4.2 Construction of Settling Section

• Welding 4 metal plates (91.4 mm * 457.2 mm)

• For Honeycomb Structure, attach the plastic straws using Glue.
• Straw Length = 0.0889 m (3.5 in)
• Straw Pipe Diametre = 0.01 m (0.4 in)

Fig 4.2 Construction of Settling Section

4.3 Construction of Contraction Section

After cutting 4 metal sheets to the required dimensions, it is shaped into a curve and
welded.
Flange plates with screw holes are attached at the front and back of the contraction cone
to connect the parts using screw.

Fig 4.3 Construction of Contraction Section

 28

4.4 Construction of Test Section

• Welding 4 iron plates (304.8 mm*152.4 mm)

• Upper side is set up a door with hinge.

• Transparent acrylic sheet is installed to see inside the Test Section.

Fig 4.4 Construction of Test Section

4.5 Construction of Diffuser

• 4 metal sheets are cut to the calculated dimensions and welded together.

• One of the sheets has a hole for the fan wire to pass through.

• DC 12V fan is permanently installed at the back of the diffuser.

Fig 4.5 Construction of Diffuser

 29

4.6 Software Results

ANSYS is a general-purpose finite-element modeling package for numerically
solving a wide of mechanical problems. The problems include statics/dynamics, structural
analysis (both linear and nonlinear), heat transfer, fluid problems, as well as acoustic and
electromagnetic problems.
ANSYS is the short for analysis system. ANSYS provides a comprehensive suite
of computational fluid dynamics software for modeling fluid flow and other related
physical phenomena. It offers unparalleled fluid flow analysis capabilities, providing all
the tools needed to design and optimize new fluids equipment.
The purpose of this section is to evaluate the flow with ANSYS Software. The solid
model of the wind tunnel designated is build using Solid Works 2010. As shown in Fig:
4.1, the final assemble of the wind tunnel is made of three solid model parts, the contraction
nozzle. working section, and diffuser nozzle. The fluid flow simulation is performed with
CFD part of ANSYS Software. It is a flexible general-purpose computational fluid
dynamics package use to solve wide-ranging fluid flow problems.
There are two methods to use ANSYS. The first is by means of the graphical user
interface of GUI. This method follows the conventions of popular windows and X-
windows based programs. The GUI method is exclusively used in this calculation. The
second is by means of command files. In this calculation, the required model is draw by
command.
The command file approach has a steeper learning curve for many, but it has the
advantage that the entire analysis can be desired in a small text file, typically in less than
50 lines of commands. This approach enables easy model modifications and minimal file
space requirements. The command files for modeling and other many detailed results for
this calculation are written in CD.

4.6.1. Velocity Variation and Pressure Distribution ( CFD Analysis)

Flow velocity, pressure and turbulence simulation of the designed wind tunnel have
been performed and the following graphs have been obtained. Fig 4.1 shows the flow speed
changes within the wind tunnel. The lowest flow speed is occurred at the surfaces of the
entrance section, connection corners of the settling chamber-the contraction and the
diffuser exit. Flow speed accelerator while passing through the contraction, and it reaches
the highest value in the test chamber. It is remarkable that the flow rate increases
throughout the contraction and remains constant throughout the test chamber. Flow rate
gradually decreases as from the test chamber exit and, at the diffuser exit, it reaches the
same value with the wind tunnel entrance.
 30

Fig 4.6 Velocity Variations (CFD Analysis)

12
10.0210
10 9.52
8.52
8.02
8 7.52
7.02 7.02
Velocity (m/s)

6.51
6.01 6.01 5.9
6
4.51

4 3.013.31

2
0
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.8

Length of Wind Tunnel ( m )

Fig 4.7 Graphical Results for Velocity Variations

 31

Fig 4.8 Pressure Distribution (CFD Analysis )

20 15.28
10.07
10
0.76
Pressure ( Pa )

-2.35
0 -5.45
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.5 1.8
-10
-20.98
-20 -24.08
-30.29
-32.4
-30 -34.4
-36.5

-40
Length of Wind Tunnel (m)

Fig 4.9 Graphical Results for Pressure Distribution

 32

4.7 Comparison of Analytical Data and Practical Results

After completing all the CFD experiments and tunnel construction, we used an
anemometer to measure the velocity variation inside the tunnel.
The obtained results were carefully recorded and compared with the analytical data.
As we had expected, we obtained data results that closely matched the analytical results.

Settling Contraction
Velocity Test Section Diffuser
Section Section
Variation

Caculated 0.606 m/s 3.803 m/s 7 m/s 4.3 m/s

Data

CFD Result 0.606 m/s 5.01 m/s 10.02 m/s 6.01 m/s

Practical 0.306 m/s 3.1 m/s 6.5 m/s 3.8m/s

Result

Table 4.1 Comparison of Analytical Data and Practical Results

12

10

0
Setling Contraction Test Section Diffuser
Calculated CFD ANSYS Practical

Fig 4.10 Comparison of Analytical Data and Practical Results

 33

CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Discussion and Conclusion

Upon completion of the tunnel construction, we conducted multiple flow tests and
velocity measurements on various small-scale models and different airfoil shapes. For flow
visualization, we also carried out experiments using different types of smoke generators.
ANSYS software is used to check our results. In ANSYS, test section velocity is
10.2 m/s and our practical result is. at 6.5 m/s while our design value is 7 m/s. The results
are in acceptable condition. The pressure distributions can also be checked by CFD
ANSYS. Therefore, our wind tunnel can be practically used for fundamental teaching and
learning activities at the university. By installing additional manual setups or sensors, it is
also possible to experiment with lift, drag, and other aerodynamic forces.
5.2. Recommendation
Variation of Mach number cannot be used to get pressure and velocity changes in
test section. If we can manually change fan speed, pressure and velocity changes can be
got from variation of Mach number. Now, any sensors are used in our testing, so pressure
and temperature results cannot be got from test section.
However, the velocity variation was obtained through three approaches: by
calculation, from CFD results, and from actual measurements. In line with the project's
objective, we were able to conduct a comparative study. With more sufficient time and
support, we believe we would be able to construct an even better wind tunnel, which would
enable us to carry out more effective experimental studies in the practical areas of our
university.

REFERENCES

1. Alan Pope, M.S. Associate prof. of Aerodynamics Georgia Institute of

Technology.
2. Barlow, Jewel B. Rae Jr., William H. {p[e Alan Low Speed Wind Tunnel
 34

Design 3rd Edition John Wiley Sons Inc. New York, NY 1999,
3. Donald D. Baals, NASA Engineer, the Baals Wind Tunnel.
4. Prof. Dr. Ihsan .Hussain, Asst. Lect. Maki H. Majeed, Lect. Anmar H. Ali and
Lect. Wail S. Sarsam, Design, Construction and Testing of Low Speed Wind
Tunnel, Journal Of Engineering, No.6 Vol.7 December 2011.
5. John D Anderson, Jr., Introduction of Flight, Sixth Edition 2011.
6. Milan Vlajinace, S.B. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Design,
Construction and Evaluation of a Subsonic Wind Tunnel 1970.
7. R.D Mehta and P. Bradshaw, Design rules for small low speed wind tunnel
from the Aeronautical Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society, November
1979.
8. Mr. Robert C. Monroe, the Basics of Axial flow fans.
9. Peter John Arslanian, NASA / Computer Science Corporation and Dr,
Payammatin, University of Maryland, Eastern Shore, Undergraduate Research
on Conceptual Design of a Wind Tunnel for Instructional Purpose, 2012.
10. SerhatSenol, Ali Cinar, Design and Flow Simulation of Open-circuit Wind
Tunnel, October 2009.
11. Tsin, Hsue-Shen. On the Design of the Contraction cone for a Wind Tunnel,
Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, February 1943.
12. Design project,"Design and Construction of Low-speed Subsonic Open
Circuit Wind Tunnel"2012.
13. Project Design Report,"Design Constitution of Low-speed Subsonic Open
Circuit Wind Tunnel"2016.