Chapter 2.

PMMC Instruments
An instrument used for measuring electrical quantities like current voltage, resistance and power is called a
meter. Meters are of different types:

1) Ammeter – used for measuring current

2). Voltmeter – used for measuring voltage

3) Ohmmeter -used for measuring resistance

4) Wattmeter - used for measuring power.

Basically all the meters are current meters and mainly use magnetic or heating effect of current to measure.
The current meters are modified to measure other quantities like -voltage resistance etc.

The meters are of two types based on construction:

1) Moving coil meters

2) Moving Iron meters

Permanent Magnet Moving Coil meters (PMMC)

The PMMC meters are also called as D’Arsonval movement meters.

Principle: - When a current carrying coil is placed in a uniform magnetic field of a permanent magnet, an
electromagnetic torque is produced which causes the coil to rotate. This rotating coil moves the pointer on a
calibrated scale.

Construction - A moving call meter consists of current carrying-coil mounted on bearings between the poles
of a permanent magnet.

i) Armature: The coil is wound on a soft iron core called as the ARMATURE. The ARMATURE performs two
functions:
a) To make the field radial and uniform.
b) To decrease the reluctance of the air path between the poles and increase the magnetic flux.

ii) Pointer: An aluminium Pointer is attached to the coil. When the coil rotates, the pointer moves on a
graduated (calibrated) scale and indicates the value:

iii) Control springs: There are two spiralled springs attached to the Coil assembly, one at the top and the other
at the bottom. The springs perform the following functions:

a) They provide a path for the current to flow in and out of the coil.
b) The two springs are spiralled in opposite directions and thus neutralise the effect of temperature changes
c) When there is no current flowing through the coil, the springs keep the pointer at the lower end of the scale.
(zero position.). They provide a restoring torque when current flows through the coil.
iv) Permanent magnet: The coil is placed between the poles of a permanent magnet.

The magnet is in the shape of "Horse shoe” because this design provides the largest magnet in a given space
and is used when maximum flux in the air-gap is required. It also provides low power consumption and low
current required for full scale deflection.

v) Balancing weights: The entire moving system is balanced by three balanced weights and is supported by
jewel bearings so that the coil is evenly placed on the pivot

Working: When a current is passed through the coil, a magnetic flux is produced. A flux is also produced due
to the permanent magnet. The magnetic flux of the coil interacts with the flux of the permanent magnet and
produces a torque called DEFLECTING TORQUE. Due to the deflecting torque, the coil starts rotating and the
pointer which is attached to the coil also moves on the scale. As the coil rotates, the RESTORING TORQUE of
the spiral springs also goes an increasing. When the deflecting torque becomes equal to the restoring torque,
the coil stops rotating and the pointer comes to rest. The deflection of the pointer is proportional to the
current passed through the coil. The moving coil meters are used to measure DC currents only.

1) DC Ammeter

The basic movement of a DC Ammeter is a PMMC galvanometer. Since the coil winding of the basic movement
is small and light, it can carry only very small currents. When large currents are to be measured, it is necessary
to bypass the major part of the current through a resistance, called as SHUNT.

An Ammeter should have very low (negligible) resistance compared to the total resistance in the circuit so that
it does not alter the current flowing in the low value circuit. Hence, SHUNTS are connected in parallel to the
meter movement so that a large part of the current flows through it and only a small portion of the current
passes through the meter thereby preventing it from damage.

The value of the shunt resistance 𝑅𝑠ℎ can be calculated as follows:

Here, 𝑅𝑚 = internal resistance of the meter coil

𝑅𝑠ℎ = Shunt resistance
𝐼𝑚 = 𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑 = full scale deflection current of the meter
𝐼𝑠ℎ = current across the shunt
𝐼 = full scale current range to be measured
Since 𝑅𝑚 and 𝑅𝑠ℎ are in parallel, the voltage drop across both of them would be the same. Let ‘𝑉’ be the
voltage drop.

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑚 ⋅ 𝑅𝑚
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑠ℎ ⋅ 𝑅𝑠ℎ
𝐼𝑚 ⋅ 𝑅𝑚 = 𝐼𝑠ℎ ⋅ 𝑅𝑠ℎ
𝐼𝑚 ⋅ 𝑅𝑚
∴ 𝑅𝑠ℎ =
𝐼𝑠ℎ
 𝐼𝑚 ⋅ 𝑅𝑚
𝑅𝑠ℎ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐼𝑠ℎ = 𝐼 − 𝐼𝑚
𝐼 − 𝐼𝑚
For each value of required full scale current 𝐼 , we can solve for the value of shunt resistance required.

2) Multirange Ammeter or Extending the range of an Ammeter

A basic coil meter can measure only a small current i.e. only a few mA. Any current higher than the full scale
deflection 𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑 current will damage the meter. If we want to increase or extend the range of an ammeter, a
low value resistance called SHUNT is connected in parallel with the internal resistance of the meter. The shunts
are chosen in such a way that only Full scale deflection current 𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑 passes through the meter and the rest of
the current passes through the shunt.

The current range can be further extended by a number of shunts and a range selector switch. The desired
current range can be selected by the switch. Such a meter is called a Multirange Ammeter.

A multirange ammeter can be constructed in two ways:

1) Parallel shunt method

2) Ayrton Shunt method or Universal Shunt method

1) Parallel shunt method

In this method, the different shunts are connected in parallel to the meter movement. A rotary switch
‘S’ is used to select the different current ranges.

A diagram of Multirange ammeter using parallel shunt method is shown. Here,

𝑅𝑠ℎ1 , 𝑅𝑠ℎ2 , 𝑅𝑠ℎ3 , 𝑅𝑠ℎ4 are the different shunt resistances for the different ranges.

𝑅𝑚 = Internal resistance of the meter coil

𝐼𝑚 = 𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑 = full scale deflection current of the meter

𝐼𝑠ℎ = current across the shunts

𝐼 = full scale current range to be measured

The shunt values for the different ranges are calculated using the formula:
𝐼𝑚 ⋅ 𝑅𝑚
𝑅𝑠ℎ =
𝐼 − 𝐼𝑚
Disadvantages of Parallel shunt method :
1) The contact resistance of the rotary switch comes in series with the shunt resistance and this causes
errors it readings.
2) Since the meter is always connected to the supply, there is a danger of full current passing through
the meter when the range switch is moved from one position to the other.
3) For measuring large currents, we require very low shunt resistances, It is difficult to get such accurate
low value resistances.

2) Ayrton Shunt Method or Universal Shunt Method

The disadvantages of Parallel shunt method are removed if we use Ayrton Shunt Method for increasing the
range of an ammeter. In this method, the different resistances are connected in series - parallel arrangement
to provide the different current ranges. If we increase the meter resistance, then the value of the parallel
shunt required can be increased.

In Ayrton shunt method, the resistance gets divided into two parts. One part gets connected in series with the
meter movement and thus increases its value and the other part provides the parallel shunt to increase the
range of the Ammeter. The values of the resistances are calculated using the formula:
𝐼𝑚 . 𝑅𝑚
𝑅𝑠ℎ =
𝐼−𝐼𝑚

When the range switch is at position 3, the current divides into two parts. One part of the current flows
through the meter (Rm) and the other part flows through the shunt path consisting all three resistors
(𝑅3 +𝑅2 +𝑅1 ) in series.

When the switch is at position 2, the total resistance of the meter becomes (𝑅𝑚 +𝑅3 ) and the shunt resistance
becomes equal to (𝑅2 +𝑅1 ).

Similarly, at position 1, the meter resistance becomes equal to (𝑅𝑚 +𝑅3 +𝑅2 ) and shunt resistance is only 𝑅1 .

Thus, as we change the position of the switch, a part of the shunt branch resistance is cut off by the switch
and it gets added to the meter resistance. Thus the value of the Shunt resistances can be increased

Advantages:
1) In the Ayrton shunt method, the contact resistance of the switch is not in series with the shunt
resistance. Hence the readings are not affected much.
2) The meter is disconnected from the circuit when - We change the switch position from one range to
another. So there is no danger of full current flowing - through the meter.
3) The values of the shunt resistance needed can be higher.

Disadvantages: - The meter resistance increases which causes a larger voltage drop across the meter.
3) D.C VOLTMETER

A moving coil galvanometer can be used to measure voltage by connecting a high value resistance ‘𝑅𝑠𝑒 ’ in
series with the meter movement. This high resistance is called as MULTIPLIER. The multiplier resistance limits
the current through the meter movement so as not to exceed the full scale deflection current and thus
prevents the meter from damage. To get accurate voltage measurements, the multiplier resistance should be
very high compared to the meter resistance.

The value of the series multiplier resistance 𝑅𝑠𝑒 can be calculated as follows:

Here, 𝑅𝑚 = internal resistance of the meter coil

𝑅𝑠𝑒 = Series multiplier resistance

𝐼𝑚 = 𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑 = full scale deflection current of the meter

𝑉 = Voltage range to be measured

Since 𝑅𝑚 and 𝑅𝑠𝑒 are in series , the current 𝐼𝑚 across both of them would be the same. Let ‘𝑉’ be the total
voltage.

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑚 ⋅ 𝑅𝑠𝑒 + 𝐼𝑚 ⋅ 𝑅𝑚

𝐼𝑚 ⋅ 𝑅𝑠𝑒 = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑚 ⋅ 𝑅𝑚
𝑉 − 𝐼𝑚 ⋅ 𝑅𝑚
∴ 𝑅𝑠𝑒 =
𝐼𝑚
𝑉
𝑅𝑠𝑒 = − 𝑅𝑚
𝐼𝑚

For each value of required voltage range 𝑉 , we can solve for the value of multiplier resistance required.

4) Multirange Voltmeter or Extending the range of a Voltmeter

A moving coil meter is basically a current meter with very low resistance. To convert it into a voltmeter, the
resistance of the meter should be increased

Hence, a high value resistance called MULTIPLIER is connected in series with the PMMC meter movement to
form a voltmeter. The multiplier allows only full scale - deflection current to flow through the meter and the
excess current is dropped across the multiplier so that the meter is not damaged. The multiplier also multiplies
the voltage range. Different value resistors are connected in series string to get different voltage ranges. A
rotary switch is used to select the different ranges.
When the rotary switch is in position V1, resistance 𝑅𝑠𝑒1 comes in series with the meter movement. The total
resistance of the meter now becomes (𝑅𝑠𝑒1 + 𝑅𝑚 ) . Similarly, at position V4, the total resistance becomes
(𝑅𝑠𝑒4 + 𝑅𝑚 ). The value of the multiplier resistance 𝑅𝑠𝑒 can be found out by using the formula:
𝑉
𝑅𝑠𝑒 = − 𝑅𝑚
𝐼𝑚

5) AC Voltmeter
A D'Arsonval movement (PMMC) meter cannot be used for AC measurements because of the following
reasons:

1) An AC current has positive and negative half cycles. If an AC is applied to the moving coil, then the
driving torque would be in one direction during the +ve half cycle and in the other direction during
the -ve half cycle.
2) If the frequency of AC is very low, then the pointer would swing back and forth around the zero point
on the meter scale.
3) If the frequency of AC is very high, then the pointer cannot follow the rapid changes in the direction
of the driving torque and hence hovers around the zero mark vibrating slightly. However, if the AC is
converted into DC, then the coil moves in one direction and we can measure the AC Voltage. Such
meters are called AC voltmeters or RECTIFIER TYPE VOLTMETERS.
The bridge rectifier converts the AC voltage into DC voltage and is then given to the PMMC movement which
shows the deflection proportional to AC input. Since the AC voltage is measured in RMS values, the meter is
also calibrated in RMS values of a sinusoidal waveform. The series multiplier resistance 𝑅𝑠 protects the meter
from damage due to high currents.

Terms used in Voltmeter:

1) Voltmeter Sensitivity (S) or Ohms – Per – Volt (Ω/𝑽) rating of a voltmeter
In a voltmeter, full scale deflection current 𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑 flows on al voltage ranges when the corresponding full-scale
voltage is applied. For example: a current of 1 mA is obtained for voltages of 10v, 50v, 250V and 500v across
the meter terminals. This means, that the quotient of the total circuit resistance ′𝑅𝑇 ′ and the voltage range
′𝑉′ is always 1000 Ω/𝑽. This figure is often referred to as SENSITIVITY or Ohms-per-volt rating of the voltmeter.

The Ohms - per volt is defined as the resistance required by a voltmeter for full scale deflection when 1v is
applied across the meter.

Sensitivity is also defined as the reciprocal of the full scale deflection current 𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑 of a voltmeter and is
expressed in Ω/𝑽 .

If 𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑 = 50 uA,

2) Loading effect in a Voltmeter

The sensitivity of a DC Voltmeter is very important while selecting a meter for a certain voltage measurement.
A low sensitivity meter may give correct readings when measuring voltages in low-resistance circuits but
produces very unreliable readings in high resistance circuits. This is because, in a highly resistive circuit, the
voltmeter resistance acts as a shunt for that portion of the circuit and reduces the equivalent resistance in
that portion of the circuit. Such a voltmeter then gives a lower indication of the voltage drop than actually
existed before the meter was connected. This effect is called as 'Loading effect’ of the voltmeter.
For Example:

Case 1: In the above Fig. 1, When the voltmeter is not connected to the circuit, then voltage VR2 across R2 will
be,
𝑅2
VR2 =( 𝑅1+𝑅2 ) 𝑉𝑖 ( Using Voltage divider formula)
250 𝑀Ω
VR2 = ( 250 𝑀Ω+250 𝑀Ω ) 𝑥 24𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

VR2 = 12 volts

Case 2: In the above Fig. 2, When the voltmeter is connected to the circuit, then voltage VR2 across R2 will be,

Here, the voltmeter with internal resistance 10 MΩ is in parallel with resistance R2.

Therefore, Resistance R2 now becomes,

𝑅2 𝑥 𝑅𝑚 250 𝑀Ω 𝑥 250 𝑀Ω
R2 = ( 𝑅2+𝑅𝑚
) = 250 𝑀Ω+250 𝑀Ω
= 125 MΩ
𝑅2
VR2 =( 𝑅1+𝑅2 ) 𝑉𝑖 ( Using Voltage divider formula)
125 𝑀Ω
VR2 = ( 250 𝑀Ω+125 𝑀Ω ) 𝑥 24𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 Thus, VR2 = 8 volts

Thus, we see that the voltmeter instead of showing 12 volts will show 8 volts due to resistance of voltmeter
coming in parallel with circuit resistance. This is called as Loading effect of the voltmeter.

The loading effect is caused by low sensitivity voltmeter. Hence, a higher sensitivity voltmeter should be used
to give accurate results.

3) Full- Scale Deflection current ( 𝑰𝒇𝒔𝒅 ) : The maximum deflection that the pointer can indicate on the
meter scale is called as Full scale Deflection current 𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑 .

Ohmmeter
An Ohmmeter is an instrument used for resistance measurement. There are two types of Ohmmeters namely:

1) Series type Ohmmeter 2) Shunt type Ohmmeter

1) Series type ohmmeter

Construction: The Series Type Ohmmeter consists of a D'Arsonval movement connected in series with a
resistance and a battery to a pair of terminals. The unknown resistance 𝑅𝑥 is connected to the pair of
terminals. The current through the meter depends upon the magnitude of the unknown resistor and the meter
indication is proportional to the value of the unknown resistor.

A Series ohmmeter is shown below.

Working: When the unknown resistance 𝑅𝑥 = 0 Ω i.e. when terminals A and B are shorted, the circuit is
completed and maximum current flows through the circuit. Under this condition, the shunt resistance 𝑅2 is
adjusted until the meter shows full scale deflection current. This position is then marked as " 0Ω “on the scale.

When the unknown resistance 𝑅𝑥 = ∞ Ω i.e. terminals A and B are open, the circuit is not completed and no
current flows in the circuit. This position indicates zero current and is marked as “∞ Ω " on the scale. The
Intermediate markings are then done on the scale by connecting different known values of 𝑅𝑥 to the
instrument.

Advantages:
1) The circuit is simple in design and is extensively used in portable instruments for
general service work.
2) There is no need of an ON-OFF switch i.e. there is no drainage of battery current when
the meter is not in use.
3) It is used to measure medium value resistances.

Disadvantages:
1) The voltage of the internal battery E decreases with time and hence the meter does not show zero
deflection when terminals A and B are shorted. So zero adjustment is necessary which is done by adjusting
𝑅2 .
2) It does for show accurate readings for low value resistors.

2) Shunt Type Ohmmeter

Construction: It consists of a battery E in series with an adjustable resistor R1. The meter
is connected in parallel with the battery and resistor R1. The unknown resistance Rx whose value is to be found
is connected across terminals A and B, in parallel with the meter. Even when the circuit is not in use, a battery
current 𝐼𝑚 flows through the meter. Hence it is necessary to have an ON-OFF switch to disconnect the battery
from the circuit when the instrument is not used.

ON-OFF switch

Working:
When the unknown resistance 𝑅𝑥 = 0 Ω i.e. when terminals A and B are shorted, no current flows into the
meter as it is bypassed. So, this position is marked as " 0 Ω " on the scale.

When the unknown resistance 𝑅𝑥 = ∞ Ω i.e. when terminals A and B are open and switch s is closed, maximum
current flows through the circuit and the meter. This position is marked as “∞ Ω” on the scale. Thus a Shunt
ohmmeter has "zero mark on the left-hand side of the scale and infinite " mark on the right hand side of the
scale.
Advantages:
1) It gives very accurate values for low value resistances and hence is mostly used in laboratories and
special low-resistance applications.

Disadvantages:
1) It cannot be used for high value resistance measurements

2) An ON-OFF Switch is required to disconnect the battery from the circuit when not in use.