 Nucleus - the command centre of the cell.

This houses nearly all the genetic material of

the cell. Within the nucleus is a spherical structure called the nucleolus which makes
RNA and ribosomes.
 Cell Membrane - the border guard of the cell - this envelope surrounds the cell and
controls which substances can move in and out of the cell. Known as a fluid-mosaic
membrane as it moves like a fluid and is studded with glycoproteins and glycoplipds
giving it a mosaic-like appearance.
 Mitochondria - the power station of the cell. These sausage shaped organelles convert
glucose to ATP during respiration. ATP is the energy currency of the cell, used in almost
all energy-requiring cellular processes.
 Lysosomes - the cell's recycling plants. These spherical sacs contain powerful digestive
enzymes. Their role is to break down materials.
 Ribosomes - the factories of the cell. These tiny organelles are made up of two subunits
and are the site of protein synthesis.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) - made of a series of flattened, membrane-bound sacs
called cisternae. ER comes in two forms: Rough ER transports proteins that were made
on the attached ribosomes; Smooth ER is involved in lipid (fat) production.
 Golgi Apparatus/Body - the post office of the cell. These flattened sacs look a little like a
pile of pitta bread; the Golgi receives proteins from the ER, modifies and packages them
for transportation. From here the packaged proteins are either sent to other parts of the
cell, or sent to the cell membrane for secretion (think international exports).

Plant-only Organelles:

 Chloroplasts - the solar panels for a plant. These double-membraned organelles are the
site of photosynthesis in plant cells. Light energy is used to convert carbon dioxide (from
the air) and water into carbohydrate molecules such as glucose.
 Cell Wall - the defensive walls of the plant. They are made of cellulose and provide
structural rigidity for the plant.
 Vacuole - acts like the bladder inside a football. The large vacuole is filled with water
and various solutes. The pressure of the fluid inside this organelle ensures the cell wall is
held rigid (turgid). Ifa plant isn't watered for a few days, water is lost from the vacuole
and each cell becomes less turgid and more flaccid. This is why a plant wilts.
 Amyloplasts - the plant's food surplus warehouse. Extra glucose is converted into
insoluble starch grains and stored in amyloplasts for use when times are harder.
 Plasmodesmata - secret tunnels in the cell wall that allow neighbouring plant cells to
communicate.

Animal-only Organelles:

 Centrioles -The mechanical winch of the animal cell, these small tubes of protein fibres
are involved in moving chromosomes during cell division.
 1. Phylum Porifera - The Sponges:
 a.) Habitat: mainly marine (salt water)
 b.) Sponges have a porous body wall. The pores or holes allow water to pass through this
animal. Floating food
 particles are caught once they are inside the sponge.
 c.) Adult sponges are sessile feeders which means these animals are attached to shells or
rocks on the ocean
 floor as they feed.
 d.) Shape: asymmetrical which means no definite shape.
 2. Phylum Coelenterata – The Coelenterates: jellyfish, hydras, corals
 a.) Habitat: marine
 b.) Body wall: Their body wall is made of 2 cell layers called the ectoderm and
endoderm. The ectoderm is the
 outside layer while the endoderm is found on the inside layer. A jellylike material is
found between these 2
 layers.
 c.) Digestive System: The digestive system is incomplete which means that coelenterates
have just one opening
 to the digestive cavity. This single opening serves as both its mouth and anus.
 d.) Symmetry: radial
 e.) Specialized Cells: [Link] coelenterates have tentacles that contain stinging cells that
are used for protection
 and capturing food. 2. Their bodies contain a nerve network that allows movement of the
tentacles and
 body.
 3. Phylum Platyhelminthes – The Flatworms: planaria, tapeworms
 a.) Habitat: fresh and salt water; terrestrial(land)
 b.) Body Plan: These animals are given their name because of their flattened bodies.
Flatworms have 3 distinct
 tissue layers called the ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm or middle layer. Each layer
gives rise to the
 various organs and systems of this animal.
 c.) Digestive System: In free-living species of flatworms the digestive system is
incomplete which means that
 the digestive cavity has only a single opening. The parasitic tapeworm has no need for a
digestive system
 because it absorbs nutrients that are already digested by the host in which it lives.
 d.) Symmetry: Flatworms have bilateral symmetry and they have a definite head and tail
region.
 e.) Specialized Structures: 1. The planaria has a pair of eyespots at its anterior or front
end. These eyespots
 detect light which the planaria avoids so they are less visible to their predators. 2. The
tapeworm like other
 parasitic worms has a thick protective cuticle on the outside of its body. The cuticle
protects the worm from
 being digested by the strong digestive enzymes of its host.
 4. Phylum Nematoda – The Roundworms
 a.) Habitat: fresh and salt water; terrestrial
 b.) Body Plan: The body of a roundworm is long, smooth and unsegmented. Their
cylindrical bodies are
 tapered at both ends and are covered by a protective cuticle. Three tissue layers; ecto,
endo and mesoderm.
 c.) Digestive System: Roundworms have a complete digestive system which means their
digestive tract has 2
 openings; a mouth to ingest food and an anus to egest waste.
 d.) Symmetry: Bilateral symmetry with an anterior end and a posterior end.
 e.) Interesting Facts: 1. Free-living roundworms are extremely plentiful in soil and are
essential in producing
 quality soil. 2. Pinworms are common parasitic roundworms found in children.
 Cell Parts and Their Functions
 Nucleus
- Large Oval body near the centre of the cell.
- The control centre for all activity.
- Surrounded by a nuclear membrane.
 Nucleoplasm
- is the protoplasm in the nucleus.
- contains genetic material ---> CHROMOSOMES (DNA)
 Nucleolus
- is found in the nucleus.
- contains more genetic information (RNA)
 Cell Membrane
- the outer boundary of the cell.
- it separates the cell from other cells.
- it is porous ---> allows molecules to pass through.
 Cell Wall ( Plant Cells Only )
- non living structure that surrounds the plant cell.
- protects + supports the cell.
- made up of a tough fibre called cellulose.
 Cyto Plasm
- cell material outside the nucleus but within the cell membrane.
- clear thick fluid.
- contains structures called organelles.
 Vacuoles
- are clear fluid sacs that act as storage areas for food, minerals, and waste.
- in plant cell the vacuoles are large and mostly filled with water. This gives the plant
support.
- in animal cells the vacuoles are much smaller.
 Mitochondria
- power house of the cell.
- centre of respiration of the cell.
- they release energy for cell functions.
 Chloro Plasts ( Plant cells only )
- contains a green pigment known as chlorophyll which is important for photosynthesis.
 Ribosomes
- tiny spherical bodies that help make proteins.
- found in the cyto plasm or attached to the endo plasmic reticulum.
 Endo Plasmic Reticulum ( ER )
- systems of membranes throughout the cyto plasm.
- it connects the nuclear membrane to the cell membrane.
- passageway for material moving though the cell.
 Golgi Bodies
- tube like structures that have tiny sacs at their ends.
- they help package protein.
 Lysosomes
- " suicide sacs "
- small structures that contain enzymes which are used in digestion.
- if a lysosome were to burst it could destroy the cell.
 Both plant and animal cells are eukaryotic cells, i.e., they have complex structures but the
structures of both types of cells have major differences.
 Animal cells do not have rigid cell walls like plant cells. This allows animal cells to form
and adopt various shapes. A type of animal cell called the phagocytic cell can even
absorb other structures. This ability is not inherent in plant cells.
 Further, unlike animal cells, plant cells have chloroplasts for the utilization of sunlight
and this is what also gives plant cells their green color. It is with the help of chloroplasts
that contain chlorophyll, the plant cells perform the function of photosynthesis which is a
process absent in animal cells.
 Plant cells also contain a larger central vacuole (enclosed by a membrane) as compared to
animal cells. Also, while animal cells depend on an analogous system of gap-junctions
that allows communication between cells, the plant cells use linking pores in their cell
wall to connect to each other and pass information.
 Many types of plant cells, particularly in species like conifers and flowering plants, there
is an absence of flagellae and centrioles that are found in animal cells.
 Plant cells are also classified into three types. The parenchyma cells help in storage,
photosynthesis-support and other functions and collenchyma cells are only present during
the time of maturity and have only a primary wall. The sclerenchyma cells help in
mechanical support. When it comes to animal cells, there are 210 distinct types of these
in the human body.
 There is another major difference between plant and animal cells. While the former turn
carbon dioxide into sugar, it is the animal cells that break the sugar back down to carbon
dioxide to make energy. This also reflects the cyclic functions of Nature and the
interdependence of organisms through which Life on earth flourishes.

 The CELL THEORY, or cell doctrine, states that all organisms are
composed of similar units of organization, called cells. The concept
was formally articulated in 1839 by Schleiden & Schwann and has
remained as the foundation of modern biology. The idea predates
other great paradigms of biology including Darwin's theory of
evolution (1859), Mendel's laws of inheritance (1865), and the
establishment of comparative biochemistry (1940).
Ultrastructural research and modern molecular biology have
added many tenets to the cell theory, but it remains as the preeminent
 theory of biology. The Cell Theory is to Biology as Atomic Theory
is to Physics.

Formulation of the Cell Theory

In 1838, Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden were enjoying after-dinner coffee and
talking about their studies on cells. It has been suggested that when Schwann heard Schleiden
describe plant cells with nuclei, he was struck by the similarity of these plant cells to cells he had
observed in animal tissues. The two scientists went immediately to Schwann's lab to look at his
slides. Schwann published his book on animal and plant cells (Schwann 1839) the next year, a
treatise devoid of acknowledgments of anyone else's contribution, including that of Schleiden
(1838). He summarized his observations into three conclusions about cells:
1) The cell is the unit of structure, physiology, and organization in living things.
2) The cell retains a dual existence as a distinct entity and a building block in the
construction of organisms.
3) Cells form by free-cell formation, similar to the formation of crystals (spontaneous
generation).

We know today that the first two tenets are correct, but the third is clearly wrong. The correct
interpretation of cell formation by division was finally promoted by others and formally
enunciated in Rudolph Virchow's powerful dictum, "Omnis cellula e cellula"... "All cells only
arise from pre-existing cells".

The modern tenets of the Cell Theory include:

1. all known living things are made up of cells.
2. the cell is structural & functional unit of all living things.
3. all cells come from pre-existing cells by division.
(Spontaneous Generation does not occur).
4. cells contains hereditary information which is passed
from
cell to cell during cell division.
5. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition.
6. all energy flow (metabolism & biochemistry) of life
occurs
within cells.

As with any theory, its tenets are based upon previous observations and facts, which are
synthesized into a coherent whole via the scientific method. The Cell Theory is no different
being founded upon the observations of many. (Landmarks in the Study of Cells)

Credit for the first compound (more than one lens) microscope is usually given to Zacharias
Jansen, of Middleburg, Holland, around the year 1595. Since Jansen was very young at that time,
it's possible that his father Hans made the first one, but young Jansen perfected the production.
Details about the first Jansen microscopes are not clear, but there is some evidence which allows
us to make some guesses about them (Jansen microscopes).

In 1663 an English scientist, Robert Hooke, discovered cells in a piece of cork, which he
examined under his primitive microscope (figures). Actually, Hooke only observed cell walls
because cork cells are dead and without cytoplasmic contents. Hooke drew the cells he saw and
also coined the word CELL. The word cell is derived from the Latin word 'cellula' which means
small compartment. Hooke published his findings in his famous work, Micrographia:
Physiological Descriptions of Minute Bodies made by Magnifying Glasses (1665).

Ten years later Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723), a Dutch businessman and a
contemporary of Hooke used his own (single lens) monocular microscopes and was the first
person to observe bacteria and protozoa. Leeuwenhoek is known to have made over 500
"microscopes," of which fewer than ten have survived to the present day. In basic design,
probably all of Leeuwenhoek's instruments were simply powerful magnifying glasses, not
compound microscopes of the type used today. Leeuwenhoek's skill at grinding lenses, together
with his naturally acute eyesight and great care in adjusting the lighting where he worked,
enabled him to build microscopes that magnified over 200 times, with clearer and brighter
images than any of his colleagues at that time. In 1673, Leeuwenhoek began writing letters to the
newly formed Royal Society of London, describing what he had seen with his lenses. His first
letter contained some observations on the stings of bees. For the next fifty years he corresponded
with the Royal Society. His observations, written in Dutch, were translated into English or Latin
and printed in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. Leeuwenhoek looked at
animal and plant tissues, at mineral crystals, and at fossils. He was the first to see microscopic
single celled protists with shells, the foraminifera, which he described as "little cockles. . . no
bigger than a coarse sand-grain." He discovered blood cells, and was the first to see living sperm
cells of animals. He discovered microscopic animals such as nematodes (round worms) and
rotifers. The list of his discoveries is long. Leeuwenhoek soon became famous as his letters were
published and translated. In 1680 he was elected a full member of the Royal Society. After his
death on August 30, 1723, a member of the Royal Society wrote... "Antony van Leeuwenhoek
considered that what is true in natural philosophy can be most fruitfully investigated by the
experimental method, supported by the evidence of the senses; for which reason, by diligence
and tireless labour he made with his own hand certain most excellent lenses, with the aid of
which he discovered many secrets of Nature, now famous throughout the whole philosophical
World". No truer definition of the scientific method may be found.

Between 1680 and the early 1800's it appears that not much was accomplished in the study
of cell structure. This may be due to the lack of quality lens for microscopes and the dedication
to spend long hours of detailed observation over what microscopes existed at that time.
Leeuwenhoek did not record his methodology for grinding quality lenses and thus microscopy
suffered for over 100 years.

German natur-philosopher and microscopist, Lorenz Oken had been trained in medicine at
Freiburg University. He went on to become a renown philosopher and thinker of the 19th
century. It is reported that in 1805 Oken stated that "All living organisms originate from and
consist of cells"... which may have been the first statement of a cell theory.

Around 1833 Robert Brown reported the discovery of the nucleus. Brown was a naturalist who
visited the "colonies of Australia" from 1801 through 1805, where he cataloged and described
over 1,700 new species of plants. Brown was an accomplished technician and an extraordinarily
gifted observer of microscopic phenomena. It was Brown who identified the naked ovule in the
gymnospermae. This is a difficult observation to make even with a modern instrument and the
benefit of hindsight. But it was with the observation of the incessant agitation of minute
suspended particles that Brown's name became inextricably linked. The effect, since described as
Brownian Movement, was first noticed by him in 1827. Having worked on the ovum, it was
natural to direct attention to the structure of pollen and its Brown interrelationship with the
pistil. In the course of his microscopic studies of the epidermis of orchids, discovered in these
cells "an opaque spot," which he named the nucleus. Doubtless the same "spot" had been seen
often enough before by other observers, but Brown was the first to recognize it as a component
part of the vegetable cell and to give it a name. This nucleus (or areola as he called it) of the cell,
was not confined to the epidermis, being also found, in the pubescence of the surface and in the
parenchyma or internal cells of the tissue. This nucleus of the cell was not confined to only
orchids, but was equally manifest in many other monocotyledonous families and in the epidermis
of dicotyledonous plants, and even in the early stages of development of the pollen. In some
plants, as Tradascantia virginica, it was uncommonly distinct, especially in the tissue of the
stigma, in the cells of the ovum, even before impregnation, and in all the stages of formation of
the grains of pollen.
 It is upon the works of Hooke, Leeuwenhoek, Oken, and Brown that Schleiden and Schwann
built their Cell Theory. It was the German professor of botany at the University of Jena, Dr. M. J.
Schleiden, who brought the nucleus to popular attention, and to asserted its all-importance in the
function of a cell. Schleiden freely acknowledged his indebtedness to Brown for first knowledge
of the nucleus, but he soon carried out his own observations of the nucleus, far beyond those of
Brown. He came to believe that the nucleus is really the most important portion of the cell, in
that it is the original structure from which the remainder of the cell is developed. He called it the
cytoblast. He outlined his views in an epochal paper published in Muller's Archives in 1838,
under title of "Beitrage zur Phytogenesis." This paper is in itself of value, yet the most important
outgrowth of Schleiden's observations of the nucleus did not spring from his own labors, but
from those of a friend to whom he mentioned his discoveries the year previous to their
publication. This friend was Dr. Theodor Schwann, professor of physiology in the University of
Louvain.

Schwann was puzzling over certain details of animal histology which he could not clearly
explain. He had noted a strange resemblance of embryonic cord material, from which the spinal
column develops, to vegetable cells. Schwann recognized a cell-like character of certain animal
tissues. Schwann felt that this similarity could not be mere coincidence, and it seemed to fit when
Schleiden called his attention to the nucleus. Then at once he reasoned that if there really is the
correspondence between vegetable and animal tissues that he suspected, and if the nucleus is so
important in the vegetable cell as Schleiden believed, the nucleus should also be found in the
ultimate particles of animal tissues. A closer study of animal tissues under the microscope
showed, in particular in embryonic tissues, that the "opaque spots" that Schleiden described were
found in abundance. The location of these nuclei at comparatively regular intervals suggested
that they are found in definite compartments of the tissue, as Schleiden had shown to be the case
with vegetables; indeed, the walls that separated such cell-like compartments one from another
were in some cases visible. Soon Schwann was convinced that his original premise was right,
and that all animal tissues are composed of cells not unlike the cells of vegetables. Adopting the
same designation, Schwann propounded what soon became famous as the CELL THEORY. So
expeditious was his observations that he published a book early in 1839, only a few months after
the appearance of Schleiden's paper.

The main theme of his book was to unify vegetable and animal tissues. Accepting cell-
structure as the basis of all vegetable tissues, he sought to show that the same is true of animal
tissues.

And by cell Schwann meant, as did Schleiden also, what the word ordinarily implies--a cavity
walled in on all sides. He knew that the cell might be filled with fluid contents, but he regarded
these as relatively subordinate in importance to the nucleus and cell wall.

Their main thesis, the similarity of development of vegetable and animal tissues and the
cellular nature of life, was supported almost immediately by a mass of carefully gathered
evidence which a multitude of microscopists confirmed. So Schwann's work became a classic
almost from the moment of its publication. Various other workers disputed Schwann's claim to
priority of discovery, in particular an English microscopist, Valentin, who asserted that he was
working closely along the same lines. So did many others, such as Henle, Turpin, Du-mortier,
Purkinje, and Muller, all of whom Schwann himself had quoted in his work. Many physiologists
had, earlier than any of the above, foreshadowed the cell theory, including Kaspar Friedrich
Wolff around the close of the previous century, and Treviranus in 1807.

But, as we have seen in the scientific method, it is one thing to foreshadow a discovery, it is
quite another to give it full expression and make it the cornerstone of future discoveries. And
when Schwann put forward the explicit claim that "there is one universal principle of
development for the elementary parts, of organisms, however different, and this principle is the
formation of cells," he enunciated a doctrine which was for all practical purposes absolutely new
and opened up a novel field for the microscopist to enter. A most important era in Cell Biology
dates from the publication of his book in 1839.