ENGINEERING DRAWING CHAPTER 7

CHAPTER 7
DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACES
7.1 Introduction
A development is the unfolded or unrolled flat or plane figure of a 3-D object.
When the complete surface of a solid is opened out and laid on a plane, the surface of
the solid is said to have been "developed" and the figure obtained is called
"development" of the surface. Every line on the development must be true length of
the corresponding line on the surface.

A developable surface is one which may be unfolded or unrolled so as to coincide

with a plane. Single curved surfaces such as of cones and cylinders can be
accurately developed. Warped and double curved surfaces such as of sphere,
torus, ellipsoid and hyperboloid are undevelopable. These can, however, be
approximately developed by dividing them into a number of parts.

In engineering practice an engineer is frequently required to have knowledge of

development of surfaces of an object in its design and manufacturing processes.
Practical applications of development occur in sheet-metal work, stone cutting and
pattern making.

The figure below shows the development of surfaces of prism, cylinder, pyramid and cone.
Here the complete surface of each solid is opened out.

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Fig 7.1 Development of surfaces of geometrical solids

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7.2 PRINCIPAL METHODS OF DEVELOPMENT

There are four principal methods of developments, based either on the type of surface
or the method used to create the development.

(i) Parallel-line development:

Parallel-line developments are made from common solids that are composed of
parallel lateral edges or elements. Prisms and cylinders are solids that can be
flatted or unrolled into a flat pattern, and all parallel lateral surfaces or elements
will retain their parallelism.
It is employed in cases of prisms and cylinders in which stretch-out line principle
is used. A stretch-out-1ine is the development of the end of the prism or the
cylinder.

(ii) Radial line development:

It is employed in case of pyramids and cones in which the true length of the
slant edge or generator is used as radius. In the development, all the elements of
the solid become radial lines that have the vertex as their origin.

(iii)Triangular development:
It is employed where the connecting surface is neither prismatic nor pyramidal. In
this method the various plane surfaces are divided into several triangular areas,
and each triangle is laid out in the development after the termination of its true
form.

(iv) Approximate Development:

It is employed where the surface of a solid is theoretically undevelopable.

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7.3 Parallel-line Development

1. Development of Prisms
Prisms are developed based on the parallel line development method. To develop a
prism, a stretch-out line, whose length is equal to the perimeter of the prism, is laid out
first. Then, points are marked on this line at an interval equal to the lengths of the
faces of the prism. Then, lines representing the fold lines are drawn perpendicular to
the stretch-out-line through these points. Finally, the lengths of the edges are
transferred from the front view of the prism.

To develop a full prism

1. Draw the front and top views of the prism.

2. On the top view, number the edges in the clockwise direction so as to ensure
the development will be made inside up. Also, number the edges on the front
view in agreement with the numbering on the top view.
3. Construct the stretch-out line 1-1 through the base of the front view.
4. Transfer the widths of the faces from the top view to the stretch-out-line,
locating points 1, 2, 3, etc. on the stretch-out line.
5. Draw lines perpendicular to the stretch-out line through points 1, 2, 3, etc.
6. Transfer the true lengths of the edges of the prism from the front view to the
corresponding line on the development, locating points 1’, 2’, 3’, etc. To do so
you may use either projectors or divider.
7. Complete the development by joining points 1’, 2’, 3’, etc. Also, attach the lower
base and the upper base of the prism to get the development of the entire
surface of the prism.

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(a) A rectangular prism

(b) Views of the prism (C) Development

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(a) A hexagonal Prism

(b) Views of the prism (C) Development

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Development a truncated prism

The same basic steps are used to create a truncated prism development as were
described in the full prism.

1. Draw the front and top views of the prism. Also, draw the auxiliary view of the
inclined surface.
2. On the top view, number the edges in the clockwise direction, starting from 1 at
the shortest edge of the prism. Also, number the edges on the front view in
agreement with the numbering on the top view.
3. Construct the stretch-out line 1-1 through the base of the front view.
4. Transfer the widths of the faces from the top view to the stretch-out-line,
locating points 1, 2, 3, etc. on the stretch-out line.
5. Draw lines perpendicular to the stretch-out line through points 1, 2, 3, etc.
6. Transfer the true lengths of the edges of the prism from the front view to the
corresponding line drawn in step 5; locating points 1’, 2’, 3’, etc. To do so you
may use either projectors or divider.
7. Complete the development by joining points 1’, 2’, 3’, etc. Also, attach the lower
base and the auxiliary view of the inclined face of the prism to get the
development of the entire surface of the prism.

(a) A truncated rectangular prism

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Development of Cylinders
(a)To develop a Full Right Cylinder
The development of cylinders is also based on the parallel-line development method
or stretch-out line method. In this case, the length of the stretch-out line is equal to the
circumference of the cylinder.

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A Cylinder

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(b)To develop a truncated Cylinder

1. Draw the front and top views of the truncated cylinder. Also, draw the
auxiliary view of the inclined face.
2. Divide the top view of the cylinder into appropriate number of equal parts.
Then, number the resulting surface line elements starting from 1 at the
shortest surface element. Also, number the elements on the front view in
agreement with the numbering on the top view.
3. Draw the stretch-out line and mark points A and B such that AB= 2πR (the
circumference of the cylinder).
4. Divide AB into the same number of equal parts as step 2, and mark points
1, 2, 3, etc.
5. Draw perpendicular lines to the stretch-out line through points 1, 2, 3, etc.
6. Transfer the true lengths of all line elements from the front view to the
corresponding line on the development to locate points 1’, 2’, 3’, etc.
7. Draw a smooth curve through points 1’, 2’, 3’, etc., using a French curve.
8. Attach the lower base and the inclined face to get the development of the
entire surface of the cylinder.

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Exercise:
Make the development of a truncated
cylinder shown below

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7.4 Radial Line Development

The development of an object tapering to an apex may be made by the radial line
development method. Examples of objects whose developments can be made by
radial line development method are pyramids and cones.

The radial line development method is based on the location of a series of lines which
radiate from the apex down the surface of the object to a base.

(a)Development of Pyramids

The development of a pyramid is based on the radial line development method. In the
process of developing a right pyramid, a large arc is made with radius equal to the
length of the edge of the pyramid. Then, points are marked on this arc using compass
by setting off arcs with radius equal to the true lengths of the sides of the base of the
pyramid. The true lengths of the edges of a pyramid are found by using the
triangulation method.

1. Full Pyramid Development

i. Draw the front and top views of the pyramid
ii. Number the edges of the pyramid on the top view in the clockwise direction.
Also, number the edges on the front view in agreement with the numbering on
the top view.
iii. Find the true lengths of the edges of the pyramid by triangulation method.
iv. Use the true lengths of one of the edges of the pyramid to draw an arc.
v. Use the true lengths of the sides of the base as radii to draw arcs that will
intersect the arc drawn in step 4 at points 1, 2, 3, etc. as shown in figure below.
vi. Join points 1, 2, 3, etc. to each other and to the center O of the arc drawn in
step 4. Also, attach the base of the pyramid to complete the development.

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True length by triangulation

The procedure to determine the true length of a line is the most important concept to
carry out radial line development. Triangulation method is used to find true length of
lines that are not parallel to any principal planes. Consider a line AB whose front and
top views are shown below. The true length of the line is the hypotenuse of the right-
angled triangle whose legs are equal to the top view of the line (a2b2) and the vertical
height (H) of the front view. Therefore, the true length of line AB can be found by
rotating the top view a2b2 about a2 until it becomes horizontal. Then, b2’ is projected to
the front view to locate b1’ in order to get a1b1’ which is the true length of line AB.

Fig: True length of an oblique line by triangulation method

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(a) A rectangular pyramid

(b) Views of the pyramid (c) Development

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(b) Development of a Truncated Pyramid

i. Draw the front and top views of the truncated pyramid. Also, draw the auxiliary
view of the inclined face.
ii. Number the edges of the pyramid on the top view in the clockwise direction.
Also, number the edges on the front view in agreement with the numbering on
the top view.
iii. Find the true lengths of all edges of the pyramid by triangulation method. Note
that once the true length view OA of the edges of the full pyramid has been
found, the other points B, C, etc. can be found horizontally projecting the end
points of the edges from the front view.
iv. With O as center and OA as radius draw arc.
v. Use the true lengths of the sides of the base as radii to draw arcs that will
intersect the arc drawn in step 4 at points 1, 2, 3, etc. as shown in figure below.
vi. Join points 1, 2, 3, etc. to each other and to the center O of the arc drawn
instep 4.
vii. Transfer the true lengths of the edges from the true length diagram to the
development, locating 1’, 2’, 3’, etc.
viii. Join 1’, 2’, 3’, etc. with straight lines, and attach the base face and the inclined
face to complete the development.

(a) A truncated rectangular Pyramid

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Exercise:

Make the development of the truncated

hexagonal pyramid shown

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Development of Cones
The development of cones is also based on the radial development method. The
cone may be considered as a pyramid that has infinite number of edges. Thus,
the development of a cone may be made in a similar manner to that of the
pyramid. The development of a right full cone is simply a sector whose radius is
equal to the hypotenuse of the cone and whose arc length is equal to the
circumference of the base of the cone. The subtended angle ø can be found
using the formula:

 r x 360o
s
Where r is the radius of the base of the cone and s is the hypotenuse of the cone.

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Fig: Development of right cone

Development of Truncated Cone

The intersection of a cone and a plane (that is neither perpendicular nor parallel to the
axis of the cone and that is not parallel to the surface elements) is an ellipse. The true
size of the ellipse is found by drawing its auxiliary view.

A truncated cone

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Note that the top view of the ellipse is found as follows:

1. Construct the front view of the truncated cone.

2. Extend the non-parallel lines to locate the apex of the full cone, and draw the top
view of the full cone.
3. Divide the top view into any appropriate number of equally spaced surface line
elements.
4. Project these surface elements to the front view, locating points a, b, c, etc. on the
line representing the edge view of the ellipse.
5. Project points a, b, c, etc. to the top view on the corresponding line elements,
locating a’, b’, c’, etc.
6. Draw a smooth curve through points a’, b’, c’, etc. to get the top view of the ellipse.

STEP 1 AND 2 STEP 3 AND 4

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STEP 5 STEP- 6

Development
1. Draw the front and top views of the truncated cone. Also, draw the auxiliary view
of the inclined surface, which is ellipse.
2. Divide the top view into any appropriate number of equal parts, say 12. Then,
number them in the clockwise direction, as shown in figure below.
3. Project the surface line elements from the top view to the front view, and
number them.

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4. Project points from the edge view of the ellipse to the true length line O-1 to get
the true lengths of all line elements.
5. Draw the development of the full cone. Then, divide into the same number of
equal parts as the number of surface line elements taken in step 2 and mark
points 1, 2, 3, etc.
6. Transfer the true lengths of all elements from the front view to the development,
locating points a, b, c, etc.
7. Draw a smooth curve through points a’, b’, c’, etc. and attach the base and the
inclined surface (the ellipse) to complete the development.

Fig: View of the truncated cone

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Fig: Development of the truncated cone.

Exercise:

1. Make the development of the truncated cone shown in the figure 1 below
2. Draw the views of the truncated cone in figure 2 below. Also, draw the
auxiliary view of the inclined surface and make the development of the
truncated cone.

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(1)

(2)

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7.2 INTERSECTION OF SURFACES

When two solids of the same or different cross-section come in contact each
other, the surfaces of both the solids intersect one another. The two surfaces
come in contact with one another and this sort of surface contact is known as
“Intersection of surfaces of Solids”.

The principle involved in intersections of planes and solids have their practical
application in the cutting of openings in roof surfaces for flues and stacks, in wall
surfaces for pipes, chutes, etc., and in the building of sheet-metal structures like
tanks, boilers, etc. In such cases the problem is generally determining the true
size and shape of the intersection of a plane and the geometric solid.

Two surfaces that meet form a line of intersection. A pipe going through a wall
is an example of an intersection. As an engineer, you must be able to determine
the exact point of intersection between the pipe and the wall.

Figure: Intersection of Prisms

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When two solids intersect or interpenetrate each other, the line of intersection must be
determined. Solids such as cylinders, prisms, pyramids, cones and spheres are the
common intersecting bodies in sheet metal works.

Whenever two surfaces meet, there is a line common to both called the line of
intersection. When making orthographic drawing of objects that comprise two or more
intersecting parts, the line of intersection of these parts must be plotted on the
orthographic views.

The line of intersection of two geometric surfaces is found by determining a

number of points common to both the surfaces and joining these points in
correct order. The resulting line may be straight, curved, or straight and curved
depending upon the nature of the intersecting surfaces.

The intersecting surfaces may be broadly classified under three categories:

1. The intersection of plane surfaces,

2. The intersection of two curved surfaces, and
3. The intersection of a plane and curved surface.

When two surfaces bounded by planes, e.g., prism and prism, intersect each other
the line of intersection is made up of straight lines. When two solids having curved
surfaces, e.g., cylinder and cylinder, intersect each other the line of intersection is
curve. Similarly, when two solids, one bounded by planes and the other a solid
having a curved surface, e.g., prism and cylinder, intersect each other the line of
intersection is a curve.

The geometric principles involved in intersection of surfaces have many practical

applications in engineering, such as sheet metal work used for fabricating tanks,
boilers, pipe joints, stacks, air conditioning ducts, chutes, bins, hoppers, etc.

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7.2.1 Piercing point, Visibility and hidden line of intersection

(a) Visibility
Visibility, as used here, is the clear and correct representation of the relative
positions of two geometric figures in multiview drawings. In each view, the
visibility of the figures is indicated by drawing the figure that is in front (i.e., the
most visible) with object lines entirely, while drawing the second figure with both
object lines and dashed lines.

The dashed lines would be used for those features of the second figure that are
behind the first figure and are therefore not visible (hidden) in that view.

The basic concept of visibility can be demonstrated with two skew lines, in which
one line is either in front of, behind, above, below, to the left, or to the right of the
other line.

Consider two skew lines AB and CD shown below

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(A) (B)

Rule of Visibility
To determine the visibility, let us assume that at the point of intersection in the top
view xh is on line AB and point yh on line CD. From the front view, it can be seen that

xv is higher than yv (nearer to the observer). Therefore line ahbh is behind chdh.

In the front view of figure B above assume that point X v is on line AB and point yv is on
line CD. But when the points are projected to the top view, it can be seen that X h is
below point Yh. Therefore, line CD is above line AB.

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(b)Piercing point

When a straight line intersects a plane, it pierces the plane at one point. The point is
known as the piercing point.

On orthographic views, the piercing point of a line and a plane can be found by one of
the following methods:

(a) Cutting plane method

(b) Edge view method

(a) Cutting plane method

Consider line XY piercing plane ABC, if the vertical cutting plane MNX containing line
XY is passed it will intersect the planes ABC on line WZ. The piercing point will be on
the line XY and on the line of intersection WZ.

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The horizontal and vertical projection of planes XYZ and line LM are given on figure
below. To find the piercing point of line LM with plane XYZ by cutting plane method
follow the following steps.

1. Consider that lhmh is the edge view of the vertical cutting plane, which will cut
the plane at ch and bh respectively.
2. Draw projectors from ch and bh to obtain cv and bv on the respective edges of the
plane XvYvZv.
3. Join cvbv and lvmv. The intersection point pv is the piercing between the line and
the plane in the front view.
4. Draw projector from pv to obtain ph on line lhmh, which is the piercing point for
the top view.
5. Find the visibility between the line and the plane using the rule of visibility. Part
of the line which is behind the plane is invisible and it is represented by hidden
lines.

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(a) Given

(c) Steps 1 to 3

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Step 4 and 5

Exercise
Front and top views of plane ABC and line
LM are given. Find the piercing point of
line and plane by cutting plane method
and show the visibility on both views.

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Determining the intersection between a line and a plane:

Edge view Method

The front and top views of plane ABC and Line LG are given: to find the piercing point
of line LG with plane ABC by edge view method follow the following steps:

Step 1: Draw horizontal line from one of the vertices of the plane, A FXF.

Step 2: Find the true length of line AX on the adjacent projection plane, A HXH.

Step 3: Introduce an auxiliary projection plane 1 to find the edge view of plane ABC,
and transfer distances from the front view to auxiliary plane 1.

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Intersection of Two Planes

The intersection of two planes is a straight line all of whose points are common to both
planes. The line of intersection between two planes is determined by locating the
piercing points of lines from one plane with the other plane and drawing a line between
the points. The piercing points are located using either the edge view or cutting plane
method.

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