CHAPTER 2

Semiconduct or Diode s

Objectives
You will be able to:
1 Sketch a diode circuit symbol, 7 Sketch diode ac equivalent
identify the terminals, and circuits and calculate junction
discuss diode circuit behavior. capacitance and switching times.
2 Explain diode forward and 8 Determine diode parameter
reverse characteristics. values from device data sheets.
3 List important diode 9 Test diodes, and plot the
parameters and determine forward and reverse
parameter values from the characteristics.
characteristics. 10 Sketch a Zener diode circuit
4 Sketch approximate diode symbol, identify the terminals,
characteristics and de and explain the characteristics.
equivalent circuits, and apply 11 Determine Zener diode
them to circuit analysis. parameter values from device
5 Draw de load lines on diode characteristics and from data
characteristics to precisely sheets.
analyze diode circuits. 12 Analyze basic Zener diode
6 Determine maximum diode circuits.
power dissipations and forward
voltages at various temperatures.

INTRODUCTION
The term diode refers to a two-electrode, or two-terminal, device. A
semiconductor diode is simply a pn-junction with a connecting lead on each
side. A diode is a one-way device, offering a low resistance when forward-biased, and
behaving almost as an open switch when reverse-biased. An approximately
constant voltage drop occurs across a forward-biased diode, and this
simplifies diode circuit analysis. Diode forward and reverse characteristics
are graphs of corresponding current and voltage levels. For precise circuit
analysis, de load lines are drawn on the diode forward characteristic.
Some diodes are low-current devices for use in switching circuits. High-
current diodes are most often used as rectifiers for ac to de conversion. Zener
 34 Electronic Devices and Circuits ---

. d . . se breakdow n be cause they ha ve a very stable

diodes are operate m 1ever
breakdown voltage.

2-1 pn-JUNCTION DIODE

· d · s h. 1 5 nd 1-6, a pn-1·unction permits substantial. cur-
A s exp lame m ec ons - a
. ed , ai•1 d blocks current when [Link].
rent fl ow w h en f orward b ias
Thus, it can be used as a switch: on when forward-biased a nd off when bi-
ased m · ·
. reverse. A pn-1unchon prov1·d e d w ith copper. wire connecting leads
becomes an electronic device known as a diode (see Fig. 2-1).
The circuit symbol (or graphic symbol) for a p-type n-type
diode is an arrowhead and bar (Fig. 2-2). The
arrowhead indicates the conventional direc- t J
tion of current flow when the diode is for-
ward-biased (from the positive terminal
through the device to the negative terminal).
✓ I
Conductor
1/
The p-side of the diode is always the positive Figure 2-1 A semiconductor
diode is a pn-junction with
terminal for forward bias and is termed the
conductors on each side of
anode. The n-side, called the cathode, is the the junction for connecting
negative terminal when the device is forward- the device to a circuit.
biased.
A pn-junction diode can be destroyed if a high level of forward current
overheats the device. It can also be destroyed if a large reverse voltage causes
the junction to break down. The maximum forward current and reverse volt-
age for diodes are specified on the manufacturer's data sheets (see Section 2-
7). In general, physically large diodes pass the largest currents and survive the
largest reverse voltages. Small diodes are limited to low current levels and low
reverse voltages.
Figure 2-3 shows the appearance of low-, medium-, and high-current
diodes. Since the body of the low-current device in Fig. 2-3a may be only
0.3 cm long, the cathode is usually identified by a coloured band. This type of
Positive terminal Negative terminal
for forward bias for forward bias

+\~---- ~------11_
Anode / ~ Cathode
(p-type) (n-type)
Arrowhead indicates
conventional current
direction'
Figure 2-2 Diode circuit symbol. Current flows in the arro h d . . . .
is forward-biased : positive ( + ) on the anode d . w ea direction when the diode
an negative (- ) on the cathode.
36 (-Im 1,·nn1L Oov1rc10 nnd r.,rr11ll 11
(m t\ )

1{)0

~o

[Link]-l' r~c
l
Ip
h()

bn~,, l..d1,wn
volt.,~·t' 40

l - vH w
(V) -4''.'.._-+-~:"'l~l--+-_:Z!t:~-+- +---,r---t--t--1-'
(),.1 IJ,tl
-F"
(),"\
T0 /1 - fl,7
0, 1
I
0,2
av,
t-• (VJ
0,H

5 ()1
v, ...
,,,
100

- 150
!
(n/\)

Figure 2-4 Typical forward and reverse characteristics for a silicon diode. Thoro Is a sub-
stantial forward current (IF) when the forward voltago (Vr) oxooode approximately 0.7 V,

(m/\)

100 ·

80 -

ti:
11 60 -
Reverse [
/F

·~r~v;
brea1<pow1i
i 40
!
iI 20

I •
I

-- 1.t!
I

!
/ I{

- - 1.~

(p/\)

Figure 2-5 'Typical forward and reverse characteristics

for a germanium diode. Substantial forward current (lF)
flows when the forward voltage (Vr-) exceeds approxi-
mately 0.3 V.

1/10 000 of the lowest normal forward current level. Therefore, /R is quite
negligible when com~ared t~ l~, ~nd a ~everse-biased diode may be trea ted
almost as an open switch. This 1s investigated further in Ex. 2-1.
r

Chapter 2 Semiconduct or Diodes 39

Example 2-2
·
· resistance
Determine
. · d yn am1c
· the at a fo rwa rd current of 70 mA fo r the
d iode ~h aracteristics given in Fig. 2-4. Using Eq. 2-2, estimate the diod e
d yn amic resistance.

Solution

ln Fig. 2-4 at h = 70 mA I

L1h = 60 mA and L1 V F;::::: 0.025 V

L1 VF . 0.025 V
Eq. 2-1 : rd= - - = --- (see Fig. 2-7)
[Link] 60 mA
= 0.420
, 26mV 26mV
Eq. 2-2: rd
= IF = 70 mA

= o.37 n
Practice Problems
2-2.1 Calculate the resistances offered by a diode with the characteristics in
Fig. 2.5 at 30 V reverse bias and at 60 mA of forward current.
2-2.2 Determine the d ynamic resistance at a 50 mA forw ard current' for a
diode with the characteristics in Fig. 2-5. Use Eq. 2-2 to estimate the
diode d ynamic resistance.

2-3 DIODE APPROXIMATIONS

Ideal Diodes and Practical Diodes

As alread y expl ained , a diode is essentiall y a one-way device, offering a low
resista nce w hen for wa rd-biased and a high resistance w hen biased in
reve rse. An ideal diode (o r perfect diod e) would have zero forward resistance
and zero fo rwa rd voltage drop . It would also have an infinitely high reverse
resistance, ,,v hich would result in zero reverse current. Figure 2-8a sh ows the
current/v oltage ch aracteristics of an ideal diod e.
Alth ough an id eal diod e d oes not exist, there are man y applications where
diodes can be assum ed t.o be near-ideal devices. In ci rcuits with su pply
voltages much larger than the diode forward voltage drop, VFcan be ass umed
to be constant without introducing any serious error. Also, the diode reverse
current is normally so much smaller than the forward current that the reverse
curren t can be ignored. These assumptions lead to the nt>ar-ideal, or
3 ppwxima te, characteri::>tics for silicon and germanium diodes shown
in
H)Z'> 2-8b and c. Example 2-3 investigates a situation \"\'here the d iod t• V1 1~
,1 ..:,t1me-d to be constant.
4 0 hluctr ·n,11 , 11 , n 11d Ct1 ·r:111t. 11
· 1. nvtct-:iu

O..'.l V 0.7 V

te
(c) Sili con dio de app roxima
slics (IJ) Ccn nan ium J iode app ro- cha ra cte ris tics
(n) ldl>: ll dio tk charncl'cri
xirnille charnc tcri sti cs
des can be treated as
ide al dio de has VF - o and fR = o. Pra ctic al dio
Fig ure 2-8 An acc oun t.
ard voltage drop is taken into
nea r-ideal devices if the forw

Exam pl e 2-3 diode

use d in the cir cui t sh ow n in Fig. 2-9. Ca lcu lat e the
A silico n dio de is
cu rre nt.

So lut ion
E = IF R1 + Vi~
-
IF Rl
4.7 kD
E
15 V - 0.7 V 1sv -
E - VF
or h =--- 4.7 kf!
R1

= 3.04 mA Figure 2- 9 Cir cui t for Ex. 2-3 .

ristic
Pie ce wi se Linear Characte
istic of a dio de is no t
W he n the for wa rd cha rac ter (mA ) (VF + .1 VF)
ap pro xim ati on cal led
av ail ab le, a s tra igh t-li ne 200
the piecewise linear charac
teristic ma y be em - B
pie cew ise Jinear 160
plo ye d. To co nst ruc t the
rke d on the ho riz -
ch ara cte ris tic , Vr is firs t ma 120
2-J 0. Then, from VF, a IF
on tal axis, as sh ow n in Fig. 80
a slope egua] to the
str aig ht lin e is dra wn wi th
nce. Example 2-4 40
diode dy na mi c resista A
(V)
d em on str ate s the pro ces s.
-
0 ..... _-+ ---- 1--- l-4> --+.
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
VF
Example 2-4
ear cha rac ter istic for Figure 2 - 1o Diode piece-
Const ruc t the pie cew ise lin
a 0.25 !1 dy nam ic wise line ar characteristic ,
a sili con dio d e wh ich ha s or stra igh t-lin e app rox ima
-
ma xim um fo rw ard
res istan ce an d a 200 mA tion of the dio de forward
cu rre nt. characteristic .
 Chapt er 2 Semiconductor Diodes 41
Solution

Plot p oint A on the hori zontal axis at

VF= 0.7 V (see Fig. 2-10)

LlVF = MF X I'd= 200 mA x 0.25 !l

= 0.05 V
Plot point B (on Fig. 2-10) at

h = 200 rnA and VF = (0.7 V + 0.05 V)

Draw the characteristic through points A and B.

DC Equivalent Circuits
An equivalent circuit for a device is a circuit that represents the device behavior.
Usually, the equivalent circuit is made up of a number of components, such as
resistors and voltage cells. A diode equivalent
circuit may be substituted for the device when
investigating a circuit containing· the diode.
Equivalent circuits may also be used as device (a) Basic de equivalent circuit
models for computer analysis.
In Ex. 2-3, a forward-biased diode is assumed Ideal
to have a constant forward voltage drop (Vp) and diode

negligible series resistance. In this case the diode

equivalent circuit is assumed to be a voltage cell (b) Complete de equivalent
circuit
with a voltage Vp (see Fig. 2-11a). This simple de
equivalent circuit is quite suitable for a great Figure 2 - 1 1 DC equivalent
circuits for a junction diode.
many diode applications.
A more accurate equivalent circuit includes the diode dynamic resistance
(rd) in series with the voltage cell, as shown in Fig. 2-11b. This takes account of
the small variations in Vp that occur with change in forward current. An_ideal
diode is also included to show that current flows only in one direction. The '
equivalent circuit without rd assumes that the diode has the approximate
characteristics illustrated in Fig. 2-8b or c. With rd included, the equivalent
circuit represents a diode with the type of piecewise linear characteristic shown
in Fig. 2-10. Consequently, the circuit in Fig. 2-11 b is termed the piecewise linear
equivalent circuit.

Example 2-5
Calculate ]p for the diode circuit in Fig. 2-12a assuming that the diode has
VF = 0.7 V and rd = 0. Then recalculate the current taking rd = 0.25 n.
 Chapter 2 Semicondu ctor Diodes 43

T R1
£ _ 100 fl
sv -

2 3 4 5
VF
(a) Diode-resistor series circuit (b) Plotting the de load line on the
diode characteris tics
Figure 2-13 Drawing a de load line on the diode characteristic.

For graphica l analysis, a de load line is drawn on the diode forward char-
acteristics (Fig. 2-13b ). This is a straight line that illustrate s all de conditio ns
that could exist within the circuit. Because the load line is always straight, it
can be construc ted by plotting any two correspo nding current and voltage
points and then drawing a straight line through them. To determin e two
points on the load line, an equation relating voltage, current, and resistanc P.
is first derived for the _circuit. From Fig. 2-13a,

(2-3)

Any two convenie nt levels of Ir can be substitut ed into Eq. 2-3 to calculate
correspo nding VF levels, or vice versa. As demonst rated in Ex. 2-6, it is
convenie nt to calculate VF when Ir = 0, and to determin e IFwhen VF= 0.

Example 2-6
Draw the de load line for the circuit in Fig. 2-13a on the diode forward char-
ac teristic given in Fig. 2-13b.

Solution
Substitu te If = 0 into Eq. 2-3,
f = (/F.R1) +VF=O +VF

or VF= E=5V

Plot point A on the diode characteristic at

/F = 0 and VF = 5 V
 1
I

44 --------------
....:~ ~El~ec~t~r~on~ic~O~e~v~ic~e~s~an~d!iC~ir~c~ui~ts~- -

Now subs titut e VF = Ointo Eq. 2-3,

E = (Ip R1) + 0
E SV
giving - -10
I F-~ -
-0!1

=SO mA

Plot poin t B on the diod e characteristic at

h = 50 mA and VF = 0
Dra w the de load line thro ugh poin ts A and
B.

0-Point
ard volt age and curr ent in the
The rela tion ship betw een the diod e forw
ce characteristic. Consequently,
circ uit in Fig. 2-13a is defined by the devi
whe re the diod e volt age and
ther e is only one poin t on the de load line
itions. Tha t is point Q, term ed the
curr ent are com pati ble with the circuit cond
intersects the characteristic.
quiescent point or de bias point, where the load line
ls of han d VF at poin t Q into
This may be checked by subs titut ing the leve
Eq. 2-3. Fror,1 the Q poin t on Fig. 2-13b, Ip =
40 mA and VF = 1 V. Equation 2-3
s tates that E = (h R1) + Vf. Therefore,

E = (40mA x 100!1) + 1 V

= SV
ls of IFand VF that can satisfy
So, wit h£ = 5 V and R1 = 100 n, the only leve
Eg. 2-3 on the diod e characteristics in Fig.
2-13b are 40 mA and 1 V.
VF whe n the de load line was
Not e that, alth oug h Oand 5 V were used for
ductor diod e wou ld have a 5 V
draw n in Ex. 2-6, no functioning semicon
enient theo retical leve l for
fo rwa rd vo ltage drop . This is simply a conv
plot ting the de load line.
Voltage
Calculating Load Resistance and Supply
tor R1 dictates the slop e of the de
In ,1 diod e series circui t (see Fig. 2-1 -!a), resis
point A on the load line. So the
load line, and supp ly vol tage f determin es
either R1 or £.
ci rcuit condi tions can be altered by chan ging
Whe n desi gnin g a diod e circuit, it may be
necessa ry to use a give n supply
n iltag e and set up a spec ified fo rw ard cu
rrent. In this case, poin ts A and Q
.ire fi rst plt>tted and the load line is d rawn
. Resistor R1 is then ca lcula ted from
als.o occur in anot her way. For
the slop e of the load line. The p robl em co uld
the supply volta ge is to be
,,x.1mp le, R1and the required IF are known, and
 Chapter 2
- - -Sem1conductor
- - - - -Diodes 45
-- -
(11 1/\J

so
40
17.5
- •
1,
30 ml\ ,, 30- r
t<I
t: 20 -
~ v-=--
u, 10
I
I
() ,_;_+---+--+--f---¼A
~ -+-- (V)
() 2 3 4 5 6
VF
(,1) Diod e- resistor circuit (b) Resistor determination

Figure 2-14 Determination of the required circuit series resistance R 1 from the slope of the
de load line.

dcte rn1incd . Thi s problem is so lved by plotting point Q and drawing the load
Ii ne with slope 1 / R1. The s upply vo ltage is then read at point A

Example 2-7
Using the d ev ice characteri s tics in Fig. 2-14b, determine the required load
res is tnnce for the circ uit in Fig. 2-14a to give h = 30 mA.

Solution

r:rom Eq. 2-3, Vr = E - Ur R1)

Subs tituting I i; = 0, Vr = E - 0 = 5 V
Plot point A on the diode characteristic in Fig. 2-14b at

/r = 0 and Vr = 5 V
Now plot point Qin Fig. 2-14b at

IF= 30 mA
Drnw the de load lin e through points A and Q. From the load line,

R _ il Vr _ 5 V
1
- M r - 37.5 mA

= 133 n
 p

1 'I 1TH ..,hi .., ,1 ... I 1 ll

fl11T1.1(n �l ,, l,

ra ice Pro t s
Plot th fo rlrd h, , t 11 n I( ( r ' rli ('_

' 1 ( nm1 ntcil d,1lil.

fr (mA)

2-8.2 A1 1 rE )rd r i'> U'-it > d (a. 1n h� "l -1) tn pl ,t ·1lic ll1 J1P i ·

hara t ri ti s to apprn,nnat •h- hlJ , IO n b\ I ( ·m , Jll.H •

ma 'imum f r ard curn'nt b to bell ) m, , . el ct �u1 ,1bll' ·m
for the record rand a suitabl rec;istan r R 1.

2-9 ZENER DIODES

Junction Breakdown
When a junction diode is re erse-biased, there i normall onl a ery mall
reverse saturation current: Is on the reverse characteristic in Fig. 2-25a. h n
the reverse voltage is sufficiently increased, the junction breaks dmun and a
large reverse current flows. If the reverse current is limited by mean of il
suitable series-connected resistor (R1 in the circuit in Fig. 2-25b), the p wer
dissipation in the diode can be kept to a level that will not destroy the devi e.
In this case, the diode may be operated continuously in reverse breakdown.
The reverse current returns to its normal level when the voltage i redu ed
below the reverse breakdown level.

Figure 2-25 A diode

can be operated in
reverse breakdown if
the current is limited
E
by means of a series­
-- - i connected resistor.
!' - - :-
I
I
'
'
Zener diodes are de­
: f I
l... -· -J.. - - -- -
signed for operation
in reverse break­
(a) Diode reverse characteristic (b) Diode-resistor circuit down.
60 . s and Circ uit s
· D ev,c
E 1ectr on,c e

,c bre akd ow n a rc fou nJ l() havl! a

Dio des des ign ed for ope rati on in re vcn
e ly s tab le ove r a wid e ran 7c of ClJrren1.
bre akd own volt age that rem ains ex trem
leve ls. Thi s pro per ty give s th e brea kdow
n diod e man y usef u l appJ1 [Link] i.h, a
mec han is ms tha t cau se brea kdo wn in
vol tage refe renc e sou rce. The re are two
ow d eple tion region, th e d cctri c
~ rev erse bias ed pn-j unc tion . With a very narr
a reve rse bias volt age ca n be very
f1~1d stre ngt h (vo lts/ wid th) pro duced by
elec tron s_to bre~ k awa y f~o~ thl!ir
hig h. The high -int ens ity elec tric field ca uses
on from an ms ulat mg mat eria l into a
atom s, thu s con vert ing the dep letio n regj
, also ca lled Zen er brea kdo wn, and it
co nd ucto r. Titi s is ionization by elec tric field
s less than 5 V
usu ally occ urs wit h reve rse bias volt age
wid e for Zen er ~~e akd own , the
In cas es whe re the dep leti on regi on is too
t can be giv en suff icie nt ene rgy to
elec tron s in the reve rse satu rati on cur ren
n they s trik e atom s with in the d epic-
cau se oth er elec tron s to brea k free whe
sion. The elec tron s rele ased in this
tion reg ion . Thi s is term ed ionization by colli
e mor e free elec tron s in an avalanche
wa y coll ide wit h oth er atom s to pro duc
pro duc ed by reve rse volt age Jevrls
effe ct. Ava lanc he breakdown is norm alJy
e are two diff eren t typ es of break-
abo ve 5 V. Alt hou gh Zen er and avalanch
ly app lied to all bre akd own diod es.
dow n, the nam e Zen er diode is com mon

Cir cui t Sym bol and Package

Fig. 2-26a is the sam e as that for an
The circ uit sym bol for a Zen er diod e in
app rox ima tely in the sha pe of a letter
ord ina ry dio de but with the cath ode bar
ts in the (con ven tion al) dire ctio n of
Z . The arro whe ad on the sym bol still poin
ard- bias ed. As i11ustrated, for ope ra-
forw ard cur ren t whe n the dev ice is forw
is pos itiv e ( +) on the cath ode and
tion in rev erse bias , the volt age dro p (Vz)
neg ativ e(- ) on the ano de.

Arro whea d indic ates

conv entio nal curr ent Pos itive
Neg ative direc tion when the term inal for
term inal for devi ce is forw ard-b i ased Zene r oper a ti o n
Zen er oper ation

~ j Cathode /

- Y----l +
Anod e \

.c...,___--►~
Iz
(a ) Ci rcuit sym bol

Ano de ~ C a t h o d e

"'--
- - - --
lz
+

(b) Lo w-cu rrent Zener di ode

Figu re 2-26 Zene r diod e circu it sym bol and lo w-cu rren t [Link] diod e
pack age.
 61
~~:::.....::~-- Serr,1conductor Diodes
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ~~ ~! :__..::~~
Chapter 2

ety of packages. For the

Low-power Zener diodes are available in a vari
identifies the cath ode
device package show n in Fig. 2-26b, the coloured band
diode. High-current Zen er
tenninal, as in the case of an ordinary low-current
that allow s fo r mou ntin g on
diodes are also avai lable in the type of package
a heat sink.

characteristics and Parameters

show n in detail in Fig. 2-27.
The typical characteristics of a Zener diode are
of an ordinary fonvard-bi-
Note that the forward characteristic is simply that
rse characteristic are
ased diode. Some important points on the reve

Vz Zener breakdown voltage

Jzr Test current for measuring Vz
c, the minimum
lzK Reverse current near the knee of the characteristi
reverse current to sustain breakdown
m power dissipation
lzM Maximum Zener current, limited by the maximu

:t
- Vz -v" R _; ---~ - ---1 orwarci ------
::'.'. f:=~ :--+ ---+ -..._
-+7---::iE=-~5=-:!:4=-:!:3=-~2=~1:::::--y
(V) ...
;; VF -
- 5 --
Reverse '
chara cteris tic -
1-0-
IR
15 1
20 - Izr
!llz

25

30

35

40 - l n r

45
(mA )

a Zener diode. The most im-

Figure 2~21 Typical characteristics for
porta nt parameters are the Zen~ r volta ge Vz, the knee curre nt lZK,
and the maxi mum curre nt lw .
the test current lZT,

nt para met er that mav be

The dynam1c impedance (l z) is anot her imp orta ·
dt>ri, t>d from the char acte ristic s:
 (2-Io)

,,, ~ ill11 ~tri1t,,d It'\ ,.- ,· ' ' · ) ~ 1· . •h-titw-. lw\\' \ ,., d,.rngL'S i,,vith va ri a tions in
\-'I , - . _.J
J IJ. '- ' • •
d i, \'Vlwn l\h\\ ~111\ '\ l ,\ I /, · 1, tl1t' d\J1 rn1m1·c 1mnedan ce is•
,1, '
\ "L l\'\' 1.'~ ~· rl\1'1\'t\l. r c
dl':•:i~n,,tt' d (/ .• r) . '1'lw d\'n,rn1il' iml'1..'d,1th'L' n1t'.1~url'd ,11 the knee of the
r h,, r,w tt' ris ti1..· (I r l-. ) is ~uh.s t·,1nti,1lh- l,H'~l'I' th,H1 l.; r-
Tlw Zt' twr d indL' m,1y hf' l'Pf'l".~lt'd ,1t ,lll)' (t'l'\' L'l'Sl'_) current leve l between
'"i-. fi nd In ,. l\ w g 1\\\h.-'~l ,.l,lhtW.' st,1hilit y, tlw diodl' ,s normt\ll y operated at
tlw h.'st 1.·urt\ 'nl UH ), ~ \nny lPw -puwl'I' 1/,t•twr dil1dL's h,we a tes t current
Spt'd fil,d ,1s ~O mA ; htn\'l'\'t;,~SPtrH. ' dl·,·in·:-- h,w1..' lowl'r tt:st currents.

Data Sheet
,- \ pL,rti1..,n l,t ., ,i.,t,1~fwd ft,r low-pt,\\'L'I' Zl'ner dil1des with v oltages ranging
tt\ ,m J .~ \' IL' 12 V is shm•,n in Fib. 2.-W. (SL'L' ,11::;o datn s heet A-4 for 2.4 V to
l lll \ ' Z t't11..'r dit,rh.~:-. in Appendi x A.) Nnte in Fig. 2-28 that the Vz tolerance is
st,'\tt'd ,l:- +5'\, l)l' + IO'\,. Thi~ 11ll\Hl~ thc1t the devices can be purchased with
t.'itht.'r n .e5 11 11 nr ± l()ll,, tt)lcr,1nct' on V l · Fnr ,l I N 753 with a ± 10% tolerance, the
,Khi., I \ ·✓ i~ b .~ V ± lt)'\,, nr 5.58 V hJ b.~2 V. The Zt'tier voltage rem a ins stable
,lt wh ;itt'\' t.'r it h,,ppt'n~ ll) be within thi~ r,mg~.

Type 1N746 Through 1N759 Silicon Zener Diodes

3.3 V to 12 V (±5~~ or ±10%)
1\, = -400 mW (tit>nt~ lint>arlJ .ihove 50°C .it 3.2 mWl°C)

m~--ctric11l characteristics at :zsac •mbilmt temperature

- l'yp,'
-
N,,minnl Test Zl'l\l'r Ll'akage Reverse
m1ml°'\·r L,·n~' r cur~nt im~wd,rncl' current temperature
,·ult,1g,• lz (mA) 2 17 (il) IH (µA) coefficient
112 (V) ll z (%/ °C)

IN7-lo :u 20 28 10 - 0.062
IN7-l7 '.!.6 20 24 10 - 0.055
IN 75-.1 tl.2 20 7 0.1 + 0.022
IN755 7.5 20 6 0.1 + 0.Q45
IN79 <l. I 20 10 0.1 + 0.056
1N7!'N 12.0 20 30 0. 1 + 0.060
-
Figure 2-28 Portions of a data sheet tor low-power Zener diodes.

The data sheet also lists the dynamic impedanc e (Zz-r); reverse leakage
current (IR), which is the reverse current before breakdow n; and the temper-
 Ch11f>t9r 2 Semit:ond uctor Diodes 63

.i1 111·l· ,·ilt'lfil'iv,it (n ; ) for· lht• V/ ur 1•arh dev ice. Tlw Zener voltage s at any
h ' t11j)( ' l\ 1hJt"t' en ,, h( • 1·,il n tl ol(•d ;1~ follow~:

(2-11)

'fi'11 1 ·rr1t111·,·
1 11 rn 11 11 11 •1r:-iul crl h•1wr Jiod cs arc also avail.c1ble with extrem ely low
ll'fll IH't\ l II II\' <:nd (k iv11 I :4.
I ,PW - P\)Wer· /,1.' 111.• r diodes il rt· general ly limited to a maximu m power
di s~ipation of 400 rnW (P1 ) in l'ig. 2-28). Higher powe r d evices are availabl e.
/\II n( lhc pow L•t· Ji sHipnlio ns mu st be derated with tempera ture increase ,
l'XActl y ns cxplnin cd in Sccl'ion 2-5. When the maximu m Zener current is not
li!,ll'd on tlw dl·vicc dalfl shl'l'l, it may be calculat ed from the power dissipat ion
equnlion :

Po = Vz)_ZM (2-12)

Example 2-15
Ca lculate the maximu m current that may be allowed to flow through a
1 N755 Zene r diode at device tempera tures of 50°C and 100°C.

Solution
From d a ta s heet A-4 in Append ix A, it can be seen that for the 1N755 Zener
diode, Vz = 7.5 V, Pn = 400 mW at 50°C, and the derating factor = 3.2 mW /°C.
At so 0 c:

Po 400 mV
Prom Eq. 2-12, l zM = v z = 7.5V

= 53.3 mA
At 100°C:

Eq. 2-5: P2 = (P 1 at T1) - l~ T X derating factor]

= 400 mW - [(100°C - 50°C) X 3.2 mW /°C.J

= 240 mW
P2 240 mW
From Eq. 2-12, 17.M = Vz = 7.5 V

= 32 mA
_ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _C~ha~p~t~e~r'.12~ Serniconch1ctor- Diodes 65

= ±rJO mV
Vz(111,1x) = \lz + ~ V✓, = 4.3 V I ·110 m V

= 4.4] V
V z(minl = Vz - ~ \lz = 4.3 V - JlO mV

= 4.19 V
Practice Problems
2-9.1 Calculate the maximum current for a lN753 Zener diode at device
temperatures of 50°C and 1Q0°C.
2-9.2 A 1N749 Zener diode is connected in series with an 820 n resistor and
a 12 V supply. Calculate the diode current and power dissipation.

Review Questions

Section 2-1
2-1 Sketch the symbol for a semiconductor diode, labelling the anode and cathode
and showing the polarity and current direction for forward bias. Show the di-
rection of movement of charge carriers when the dev ice is (a) forward-biased
and (b) reverse-biased.
2-2 Draw sketches to show the appearance of low-c urrent and medium-current
diodes, and show how the cathode is identified in each case.

Section 2-2
2-3 Sketch typical forward and reverse characteristics for a germanium diode and
for a silicon diode. Discuss the characteristics, and compare silicon and germa-
nium diodes.
2-4 For diodes, define forwa rd voltage d rop, maximum forward current, dynamic
resistance, reverse saturation current, and reverse breakdow n voltage .
2-5 Shmv how the diode d yna mic resistance can be d etermined from the forward
characteristics. Write an eq uation for calculating the dynamic resistance from
the d e fonvard current.

Section 2-3
2-6 Sketch the characteristics for an ideal diode and the approximate characteris-
tics for practical diodes. Briefly explain each characteristic.
2-7 Drnw the de equivalent circuit for a diode and the piece wise linear equivalent
circuit. Discuss the application of each.

Section 2-4
2-8 Explain the purpose of a de load line. Write the e4uatfon for drawing a de load
lirw tor d -.erit"~ circui t n m::,bting of a supply \'Olt.1ge (£), a rt.' ~istor (R i), and 0
dwde (I >i)
CHAPTER 3
Diode Applications
--- --- --- ---- -
Objectives
You will /Jc o/,/" to:
I Sketch vnrioui, Jiode half
c -wave 6 Design and ana lyze Zener diod e
n nd f u ll wW JV(' recti finr . .
. . '- n rcu1ts voltage regulato r ci rcuits.
cJrHJ th,·1r in pu t an d output
wavPform s. l:'. xpk1in the 7 Dra w d iagrams fo r sedes and
ope ration of each circuit. shunt clippjng circuits and
sketch their input and output
2 ~~etc.h [Link] de po we r supply
u rcu,ts w-u ng rec tifi e rs and wa veforms . Explain the
capac itor filters. Discuss the operatio n of each circuit.
opera tion and pe rform ance of 8 Design and analyze series and
each circuit. shunt clipping circuits.
3 Des ign d e power supply circuits 9 Draw diagrams for clampin g
and a na lyze them to d eterm ine circuits and de voltage
diode c urre nt and voltage multipli ers. Sketch the input
levels, output ripple voltage, and output wavefor ms, and
Iine and load effects, and line explain the circuit operatio n.
a nd load regulati on . 10 Design and analyze clampin g
4 Sketch Zene r diode voltage circuits and de voltage
reg ul a to r circuits , and explain multipli ers.
their op era tion. 11 Sketch diode AND and OR gate
5 Design and analyze RC and LC circuits, and explain their
7T-input a nd L- i_nput filte rs for operatio n. Calcula te circuit
d e powe r s upplies . current and voltage levels.

INTRODUCTION
One of the most impo rtant applicat ions of diodes is rectification: convers ion
of a sinusoi dal ac wave form into single-p olarity half cycles. Rectific ation
may be p e rformed by half-wa ve or full-wav e rectifier circuits . A de power
suppl y con ver ts a sinusoidal a~ supply to de by rectification and filtering .
The [Link] process normaUy uwolve s the use of a large reservoir capacitor,
which ch arges to the pea k input voltage level to produce the de output. The
capadto r partially discharg es between peaks of the rectified wavefo rm, and
th~ resu lts in a ripple voltage on the outp ut. The ripple can be reduced by the
 72 Elec t ron ic oev,·ces and Circ.u,w

u se of RC or LC filtf.' rs. l'owl'r , upp lie.., ore specified accordin g to the de

~:p~t vo ltage, load current, and rippl e vo ltage. Power sup~ ly pe rfo rm anct•
JS e fm ed in te rm s of th e output vo ltage s tabili ty w h e n th e rnput voltage ur
th e loa d cu r·,·ent c I1a ngc~. .
0th e r importa nt di ode app li ca ti ons includ e clip ping~ cla _m prng, d e Volt-
;fc ~u ltip li ca ti o n, a nd logic circuit~. Diode clipping CJ:c u,t~ a r~ ~sed for
PPlnR off an unwante d po rti on of a wavefor m . C la mpin g circ uits change
th e d e vo ltage level o f a wavefo rm wi th o ut affecting the wave s hape. DC
vo l~age multipli e rs a re app li ed to cha nge th e level of a d e v o ltage sou rce to a
d esired hi g h e r level. Logi c circuits produ ce a high o r low o utput vo ltage, de-
p e nding upon the vo ltage levels a t severa l input te rminals .

3-1 HALF- WAVE RECTIFICATION

Positiv e Half-W ave Rectifier

A diode positive half-wave rectifier circuit is shown in Fig. 3-la. An alternati ng
input v oltage is applied via a transform er (T 1) to a single diode connecte d in
series with a load resis tor RL. The transform er is normall y necessary to de-
isolate the rectifier circuit from the ac supply. The diode is forward- bia sed
during the positi ve half cycles of the input wavefor m, and reverse-b iased
during the negative half cycles. Substant ial current flows through RL only
during the positi ve half cy cles of the input. For the duration of the negative
half cycles, the diode behaves almost as an open switch. The output voltage
w aveform develop ed across RL is a series of positive half cycles of alternat-
ing voltage with interven ing very small negative voltage levels produce d by
the diode reverse saturatio n current.
When the diode is forward- biased (see Fig. 3-lb), the voltage drop across it is
V F, and the output voltage is (input voltage) - VF. So, the peak output voltage is

(3-1)

Note that Vpi = 1.414 Vi, where Vi is therms level of the sinusoid al input volt-
age to the rectifier circuit (from the trans former output) .
The diode peak forward current is

(3-2)

During the negative [Link]-cycle of the input (Fig. 3-1 c), the reverse- biased
diode offers a very high resistanc e. So there i s only a ver y s mall reverse cur-
rent (/R), giving an output voltage

(3-3)
 ---- -- - -
a~
c e~ s~
!_7~4~ E~le~c~t'.!:r~o_12n~icJO~e~v'.'ii~ nd~ C~ir~c:!:!ui_!it~s~ - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Solu tion
Vri = 1.414 Vi = l .414 X 22 V

= 31.1 V
Eq . 3- 1: V po = V p1. - VF = 31.1 V - 0.7 V

= 30.4 V
V po 30.4 V
Eq . 3-2: JP = RL = 500 f!

= 60.8 mA
Eq . 3-4: PIV = Vpi = 31.1 V

Neg ativ e Hat f-W ave Rectifier

e pola rity in the circu it of
Figu re 3-2a show s the effec t of reve rsing the diod
vefo rm (ins tead of the pos-
Fig. 3-1. The nega tive half- cycle of the ac inpu t wa
sequ entl y, the peak outp ut
itive half- cycle) is pass ed to the load resis tor. Con
volt age and curr ent are nega tive quan titie s.
circu it with the positive
fi g ure 3-2b show s a posi tive half -wav e recti fier
use, as alre ady disc m;se d, the
outp ut term inal grou nded . This is poss ible beca
ved from the seco ndar y of a
ac inpu t to the rectifier circu it is norm ally deri
may be grou nde d so long as
transfor mer. Eith er of the two outp ut term inals
, whe n the tran sfor mer out-
there is no othe r grou nded poin t in the circuit. Now
wav efor m is a ctua lly a peak
put wav efor m is at its peak posi tive level, the load

Ou tput w avefo rm

v\) polari ty
(a ) Negr1 h v,~recnh ca tion by reve~ ing th e diode

r~
Vana ,

1 ~ 1:~
Ou tpu t w avefo nn

~ I ~.1••
B
Ira fu f vfTYU.>r
(h i l\. t-~ .1 t1, t' n.,->t11¥a twn I:>~ groun dmg tht-
p o;,.Hi v,• 1' I A.n t:>0t.it1vn tr ans£ormer ~ho u lJ b(. u'.>4...J ,_.h..-n
he
,,u tpu t 1.-.n [Link] t pt.~ ,-r '>Up pl) [Link] urmer 1-, n ot d \ -, tlable

. . .
R• n -,.,2 half-w ave ·ractiAcation 1s perlo rmec1 when the
1 1t caho
fOt'N a,d-b t-
. Negati d r<>de IS
ased during h negative hatf- cyde of the input
be den __, ~ a po.s iwe half ---. '9Ctif ier if ~ posi ::ut put hatt- c~e ~ can also
should b6 tra ••• s:•-c oople d for de . ~tpu t temu na, 1s groun ded
Rec;b M,i c~
fsotation from the input .
 Chap ter 3 Diode Appli cation s 75

nega tive quan tity, as s~1 own , b~cause outp ut term

inal Bis nega tive with resp ect
iased duri ng the nega tive
to the grou nded termznal A. The diod e is reve rse-b
load volta ge is zero . Thu s, a
half-c~cle of the trans form er outp ut, and so the
rated simp ly by grou ndin g
nega hv_e_half-wave rectified wav efor m can be gene
circuit. It is imp orta nt to note
the positive outp ut term inal of a positive rectifier
be grou nded only when the
that on e of t~e recti fier circu it outp ut term inals may
the ac supp ly. If a vari-
transformer zs prese nt to provide comp lete de isolation from
with out a pow er supp ly
able trans form er (autotransformer or variac) is used
titut ed for the pow er sup-
transform er, a 1:1 isolation transform er mus t be subs
(see Fig. 3-2c).
ply trans form er to prov ide the requ ired de isola tion

Practice Problems
inpu t and a 330 fl load resis -
3-1.1 A half -wav e recti fier circu it has a 15 V ac
load curr ent, and
tanc e. Calc ulate the peak outp ut volta ge, the peak
the diod e max imu m reve rse volta ge.
3-1.2 A half- wav e recti fier (as in Fig. 3-1) prod
uces a 40 mA peak load cur-
on, calc ulate ther ms
rent thro ugh a 1.2 kfl resistor. If the diod e is silic
inp ut volt age and the diod e PIV.

3-2 FUL L-W AVE RECTIFICATION

Two -Dio de Full -Wa ve Rectifier

es, and its inpu t volt age
Thef11ll-wav{' rectifier circu it in Fig. 3-3 uses two diod
pped seco nd a ry wind ing.
is suppLied from a tran sform er (T 1) with a cent re-ta
half- wav e recti fier circu i ts,
The circu it b essenti all y a com bina tion of two
seco nd ary.
e,1eh s uppl ied from one half of the trans form er
a t the top, as illus tra ted in
Whe i, the tr.:in.!'>former ou tput volta ge is posi tive
tre tap of the tran sfor mer b
Fig. 3-4a , the anod e of D 1 is posi tive, and the cen
conn t-Ctt'd to the ca thod e of D1 by /~ 1.- Con sequ
entl y, D1 is forw a rd~b iased , and
form er seco ndar y thro ugh 0 1,
load curr en t (1 1 ) flow s from the tup of the tran~
tran sform er cent re tap. Dur-
thro ugh J< 1 frorn top to bottm n, t1nd b<lek to the
the bot-tom half of the tran s-
mg this time , the pola rity of the \ oltag e from
iased , as illus trate d .
form er ~~on d.i:r v c~U! >6 diod e 0 2 to be reve rse-b
tran~ form er outp ut, the
For the dur.1 tion of tht;:' nrgl'lti\ e half- cycle of the
cau~ s 0 1 to be reve n,e-b iased
pol. ui~ ("'f the> tl'aJuiitormcr :,,c'-Cundar~• , ·olta ge
flow s from the bott om term inal
and D ~ 1.0 b,~ fon-. .:ird -bia ~ tbi:'e F1g. 3--lb ). 11
.of dw- trcin..,h1rnwr ~un dar_\ thn.m ~h diod e
0:?, thro ugh R1 from top to
The outp ut wa\' efor m b the
botw m ,m.J !,:'l;.h.k to the [Link]~ formt-'r centr~ tap ,
1. l,mh man on l•f th.t> n ... u hab
-C) clt~!), thM L~, a runt inuo u~ :-.em.''.'.'> of post the haltr
, \ 4 k•~ nl :!>[Link].b-lHdal \\ ~n eh l J fl1
t11i~ i'!, r~>::,1/ ll't' fu ll-Wu t't:' ft'tf thc.1 tt LHI.
~ t::, revt' r~t'J , the uwp ut
· J•J~t-•ri~ ,~,; (!.h,n-.::. that 1t the> po1.c1nty ot [Link]:' dind
\\d\\ 'Jiirm 1 .. 1 ru•r1e-. t)f t-1 lltbo lddl nt"'-~ ativt:'
> ~
[Link]- cvdt>'> f\.(."',;ah,e iull -\.-.J\\!
 ·
76 Elec tron ic oev1ce . .its
· s and Circu

In pu t wnvc forrn

D2

th a trans -
be perfo rmed by two diod es used wi
Figu re 3 -3 Full- wave recti ficat ion can dur-
y. The d iode s are conn ecte d to cond uct
form er that has a cent re-ta pped seco ndar wave form .
er outp ut to give a posi tive outp ut
ing posi tive half- cycle s of the trans form

Reve rse-b iased

Forw ard-b iased

!- _!+
-/L +
D1 /L i
RL
T1
+ V _._
II /L
+
V
D2

+ -
- t+ t
Forw ard-b iased
Re ve rse-bi ased
(b) D 1 reverse-bia sed , D2 forw ard-b iased
(a) D 1 forwa rd -biase d, D2 re\·er se-bia sed
alternately,
fier circu it, d iode s D 1 and D 2 cond uct
Figu re 3-4 In a two- diod e full-w ave recti a.
iased , and vice vers
Whe n D1 is forw ard- biased, D2 is reverse-b

Outp u t wave form

Inpu t wav dom1

ave recti ficat ion is . od

Figu re 3 -5 Two- d iode nega tive full-w ectin g the
cycle s of the tr prsf· Uced by conn
diod es to cond uct durin g nega tive half- an orme r outp ut.
t

Chapter 3 Diode App lications 77

11.'Cl'ifiec'. tior~. The ccnlTe tap of th e transformer is norma ll y grounded, as

~how n_11~ Fi~. ~-5, an d so the o nl y way to ob tain a nega ti ve output from this
type of orcmt 1s to reve rse the d iod e polnrity.

Bridge Rectifier
The centre-tap ped tran sforme r used in the ci rcuit of Fig. 3-3 is us uall y more
expensiY e and requires m ore space than additi onal d iod es. So a bridge recti-
_lier is the circuit m os t frequently used fo r f u 11-wave rectifica tion .
The bridge rec tifier circuit in Fig. 3-6 is seen to consist of fo ur d iod es con-
nected w ith their arrow head symbol s all pointing toward the posHi ve ou tp ut
terminal of the circuit. Diodes 0 1 and 0 2 are series-conn ected, as are 0 3 and
D.i. The ac input terminals are the junction of 0 1 and 0 2 and the junction of
DJ and 0 4. The positive output terminal is at the cathodes of 0 1 and 0 3, and
the negative output is at the anodes of 0 2 and 0 4.
During the positive half-cycle of input voltage, diodes 0 1 and 0 4 are in
series w ith RL, as illustrated in Figs 3-7a and b. Load current (h) flo ws from
the positive input terminal through 0 1 to RL, and then through Rt and D-!
back to the negative input terminal. Note that the direction of the load
current through RL is from top to bottom. During this time, the positive input
terminal is applied to the cathode of D2 and the negative output is at the 0 2
anode (see Fig. 3-7a). So 0 2 is reverse-bia sed during the positive half-cycle of
the input. Similarly, D3 has the negative input at its anode and the positive

Input \.vaveform
+ Output waveform
01 03

[]II
T1
RL Vo m ~}v,,
02 04

Figure 3-6 A full-wave bridge rectifier circuit uses four diodes and a transformer with a
single secondary winding.

output at its cathode during the positive input half-cycle, causing 0 3 to be

reverse-bia sed.
Figures 3-7c and d show that diodes 0 2 and 0 3 are forward-bi a sed during
the negati ve half-cycle of the input waveform, while 01 and 0 4 are reverse-
biased . Although the input terminal polarity is reversed, h again flows
through RLfrom top to bottom, via 0 3 and D2.
It is seen tha t during both half-cycles of the input, the output terminal
polarity is always positive at the top of RL and negative at the bottom. Both
positive and negative half-cycles of the input are passed to the output. The
negative half-cycles are inverted , so that the output is a continuou s series of
positi ve half-cycles of sinusoida l voltage .
9 0 Ele ct,, 0 - o Ci rcurt: s
- ~ n,c ev1ces and
LY
3 -4 FULL -WAVE RECTIFIER POWER SUPP
il s in Ord er to
tifi ers , f1.J l1-w ,1v c rec tifi ers req uir e filt er cirrn
Lik e ha lf-wc1 \·e rec vo ltage. Fig ul'c ,1- Vi show
s ,1 ful) .
t wc 1,·e for1 11 to dir ec t
co n ve rt the ou tpu g res istor.
cu i t v
\• ith res erv oir cap acitor and [1 s urge-li mitin
wa ve rec tifi er cir
i'l
1 vc rec tifi er
en ts op era te exc 1 ctl y as ex plai ned for th e h,1 lf- wc
~h es e co mp on
Cll 'CU 1. t wi. t }1 a few im porta nt ex ceptions.
,
Dir rct vnlt~gp
Surge-limitin g w rt hripple
res i~to r
Ou tpu t w.i veform
J
Inp ut w<1 vcfo rm
Rs

C urr ent· Rectified

pu lse wave

out put volt-

cap aci tor to sm oo th the
3-1 5 Bri dge rec tifie r circ uit with a reservoir
Fig ure diodes.
g resistor to pro tec t the
ag e an d a surge-limitin
Direct vol t;ige

v, ~~~~~s==~J:--1
wit h rip ple

t } E .
o(m m)
Eo( nve) f n(m ax)

- - -- -- - - -- -

Cu rre nt
pul se
~
1- t 1 -
~1~1--
1

f2- +-
360 0 _ _ _ ,
,- - -
,_ _ _ _ T
► ,
-
-
-

angles, and tim e

Figure 3-1 6 Ripple voltage, waveform
rectifier circuit with a reservoir
periods for a full-wave
cap aci tor.
in detail
oo the d ful l-w av e rec tif ier wa ve fo rm s are sh ow n
Th e ca pa cit or-sm cuit, still ap-
ua tio n 3-7, de riv ed for the half-wa ve rectifier cir
in Fig. 3-16. Eq
angle 01•
pli es for de ter mi nin g the
. _ 1 Eo (mi n)
01= sm
Eq. 3-7: Ea (ma x)

fh ca n be de ter mi ne d
from
(h- =9 0° - 0I
Eq. 3-8:
an d to ca lcu lat e tim e /2,

Eq. 3-9:

__...,
---------
.
---- -- Chapter 3 Diode Applications 91
A compan son of Figs 3_16
and 3-10 h
time h for the half-wave rectifi . . .s ows that the capacitor discharge
. . d .
er circuit is ap proximately
form time peno T, while for th equal to the wave-
.
T/2. More precisely, e full-wave t·t·
rec i ier t 1 approximately equals

11 = G)- t2 (3-20)

By using the correct value of t th .

tifier circuit can be calculated ~ ; reservoir capacitance for a full-wave rec-
0

Eq. 3-11: c = hti

vr
Similarly (with the correct val f . .
(IrnM) can be determined from ue o t1 m Fig. 3-16), the repetitive current

Eq. 3-15:

D1 and 0 4 0 2 and 0 3
cond ucting conducting

.J. ..J

- - JFRM
-- 11.
- - / Have) Figure 3- 17 Because the diodes in
--'----'---+-- ---------'-~aL--- - .J..._ a bridge rectifier conduct during
alternate half-cycles, the average
forward current (lF(aveJ) in each
diode is equal to half the load cur-
rent (IJ.

The average forw ard current passed by the bri dge rectifie r circuit is equal
to the load current. But each pair of diodes supplies current for no more than
a half-cycle of the i11put w a\'e. The other pair cond ucts d uring the other half-
cyde. So, as illustra ted in Fig. 3-17, the average forward current fo r each
d1ode is half of the load current.

(3-21 )

An-vtner JifferffiCi' between the half-wave and full- wave rectifier p ower
~upph cin uih rr,nct'ms the rt>verse voltage applied to the diodes. Consider
l 1}~ ,_ 18 \\ h-im [Link].• uh tantanoous mput voltage is , Vp, as illustrated, VP 1.s
 sed diode
applie d acros:; forwa rd -biase d diode D1 in series wi th re\·e rse-bia
·
D-.:i· The reiore
l'.
, th e revers e Yoltacr
0
e across D<
-
1s

\IR = Vp - VF
or VR:::: VP

s to each
~Xam inatio n of the circui t in Eq. 3-18 shmvs that VR ::::: VP applie
diode when it is revers e-bias ed.

I +
D1 VF
+
V
?
+ , ____ V0

02 •
!+
VR D_. i ·F
I - \ + -
\ Figure 3-18 The diode reverse voltage in a
Re•, erse bridge rectifier circuit with a reservoir capac-
voltage itor is equal to the peak of the input voltage.

ations
As in the case of the half-w ave circuit, capaci tor and ripple calcul
fi . This
can be simpli fied by assum ing that time t 2 is very much smalle r than
g:i \ ' €5 the appro ximat ion that the capaci tor discha
rge time is equal to half the
input w avefo rm time period .

(3-22)

Example 3-8
y 20 V to a
The fuIJ-,.va ve rectifier de power supply in Fig. 3-19 is to suppl
10% of the
500 fl load. The peak-t o-peak ripple voltage is not to exceed
Accur ately
a,,era ge outpu t voltag e, and the ac input freque nc y is 60 Hz.
that the
calcul ate the requir ed reserv oir capac itor value . (Note
half- wave
s pecifi cation s fo r this examp le are simila r to those for th e
circui t in Exam ples 3-4 and 3-5. )

Solut ion

From Ex . 3-5, \Jr= 2 V, T = ]6.7m s, f2 = 1.16 ms, and h = 40 mA

T 16.7 ms
l1= -t2= - 1.16m s
Eq. 3--20: 2 2
= 7.19 ms
 +
l,___.-- -. l~L
ln~~ut
\..,--- - --.... soo n Ve ,
20 V
o.,
Figure 3-19 Full-wave rectifier
power supply for Ex. 3-8.

Eq. 3- 11: Ci == !_!!]_

== 40 mA X 7.19 ms
Vr 2V

== 144 µF (use 150 µF standar d value)

Example 3-9
Assuming that t 2 is very much smaller than t 1, for the full-wav e rectifier
circu it in Ex. 3-8, recalcu late the required reservoi r capacito r value.

Solution

from Ex. 3-5, Vr = 2 V, T = 16.7 ms, and h = 40 mA

T 16.7ms
Eq. 3-22: t1 ~ - = ---
2 2
= 8.35 ms
hfi 40 mA 8.35 ms X
Eq. 3-11 : C,=v = 2V r

= 167 µF (use 150 µF standar d value)

Example 3-10 . . . · bl
for the bridge rectifier circmt m Ex. 3-8. Select a smta e
Spec1'fy th e d'10 e!:i
d , . .. .
. ge-hmih ng resistance.
device· and calculat e t1,e sur

Solution
Eo(ma::..J. + (2 VF) = 21 V + (2 X 0.7 V)
\.1p -_

= 22.4 V
vR :::: Vr = 22.4 v
JL 40 m A
h (~\·~) =2 = 2
~ 20mA
JL(t 1 + t 2) _ 40 mA x 8.35 ms
/ 1'RM = - 1,---- -· 1.16 ms
f q 1-lS
 · Devi ces and C1rcu1t-s
94 c:'-- ie c t r on,c

th.-1t tht.' L'\'-WO I i~ suita ble.

From data shee t A-2 in App t'nd i\ A. it i~ ~t'en
For the 1N4 001 , /F(~1J~•'' = JO .-\

\ ·r 22.--l \ '
Eq. 3-16 : Re. = - , -
. /l~\I Jtl .-\

:::: l1.1 ,:, H

Transformer Selection
TI1e transformer specification for a fuJl -\\·c1Ye
brid ge rectifier pmv er supp ly is
t, with som e exce p tions . Two
dete rmin ed simi larlv to that for R h.:1lf-\\·an :>ci rcui
the seco ndar y rms ,·ol tage.
diod e \·ol tage drop [Link] im ·oln~d in calculating
(3-23 )
v s(mlS) = 0.707 (E(l{m,lx) + 2VF)
pow er sup ply transformers
For full- ,,·av e rectifiers with capa citor filters,
man ufac ture rs reco mm end
l u,dcl = 0.62 l si..nns)
(3-24}
,vhi ch bcives l s(rms ) = 1.6 h (dc)

As with all tran sfor mer s, the prim ary curr ent is
Vs(rm s) X l s(rms)
Eq. 3-19: lp(rms) = V p(mlS)

Example 3-11
fier pow er supp ly circuit in
Specify the tran sfor mer for the full-wave recti
Exa mpl es 3-8 and 3-9.

Solu tion

Vs(rm s) = 0.707(Eo(max) + 2VF) = 0.707(21 V + 1.4 V)

Eq. 3-23:

= 15.8 V

Eq. 3-24: ls(rms ) = 1.6 / L{dc) = 1.6 X 40 rnA

=64 mA

V p (rms) = 115 V, 60 Hz
---- ---- ---- --- - - - - -~ C~h~ae'.pt~e~r 3 Diode Applica tions 95

Eq.3-19: / V s( rrns) X f( 15 .8 V X 64 mA
p(rm s) :::: - · s rn, <:)
V -- = ---
p(rrn._) 115 V

:::: 8.8 mA

Practice Problems
3-4.1 A de powe r suppl y consis tin . .
capac itor has to suppl , V g of a bndge rechfi er and a reservoir
15 150
requir ed if the max· ) _to a O load . Determine the capacitance
unum npple volt age is · to b e ±5% of the averag e
outpu t and the· f
input requency is 60 Hz
3-4.2 For Probl em 3-4.1, recalcula ·.
sumin g that th . . te the capao tance approximately by as-
. . e capac itor discharge time is very much larger than the
ch argmg tune.
3-4.3 Fdor _thefcircuithin Probl em 3-4.1, specify the diodes, select a suitable
ble d a ta sh eets, d etermine the required surge
. . rom. t e availa
l" ev1ce
imihn g resista nce, and specify a suitable transformer.

3-5 RC AND LC POWER SUPPLY FILTERS

RC 'TT' FILTER
rectifier
The ripple voltag e that appea rs across the reservoir capacitor in a
r and
powe r suppl y can be attenu ated by the use of an additional resisto
3-20a
capacitor, which togeth er function as an ac voltage divider. Figure
C the
shows the circuit, C1 being the reservoir capacitor, and R1 and 2
ed to as a
additi onal comp onent s. The combination of C1, R1, and C2 is referr
1T filter, becau se of the 1T-shaped arrang ement
of the circuit components.
itor
Assum ing a const ant outpu t load current, the reservoir capac
orm
contin ues to charg e and discharge, produ cing a sawto oth (ripple) wavef
s. As
across C1 regard less of the presence of the additi onal comp onent
of a
illustr ated in Fig. 3-20b, the sawto oth wavef orm is comp osed
er of
fundamental ac voltag e (same frequency as the ripple) and a numb
to their
small er-am plitud e, higher-frequency harmo nic comp onent s. Due
ated
hjghe r freque ncies, the harmo nic comp onent s are more severely attenu
across R1
than the funda menta l frequency comp onent by the voltage divisi on
nics
and C?. This comb ined with the smaller input ampli tude of the ham1o
t) is
means- that the wavef orm devel oped across C2 (the filter outpu
onent .
essent ially an attenu ated versio n of the sinuso idal funda menta l comp
of the
By Fouri er analy sis, the peak value of the funda menta l comp onent
sawto oth wave form can be show n to be

v=-
vr (3-25)
P 1T
 96 Eie~ nir,.;~ v, cea arid Cweui t,o

I< ipf)lc v,1lf:1 t; ,· f\ ( · vci llilJ' C

<I C/Oh ~ { '1 /J (, / 1)~) ('7

fIII I J j /

I<,

(a) RC 7T fille r circuit

Sawt ooth wave for m

filler input voltag e

Fu ndme ntal -frequ enc.,y

comp onent

High er-frequ e ncy

!.ma iler-a m plitude
comp oncn ~

.J )

i\t , of
(b) The sawto o th wave fonn ii t the filter input cons
al -frcqu ency co mpon ent and ii num ber of
a funda ment.
~ma llcr-a mpliru de, highe r-freque ncy ha rmonic!>
citor (R, and C2) are conn ecte d as a
Figu re 3-20 Whe n a resis tor and capa
capa citor (C1), the com bina -
volta ge divid er to a powe r supp ly rese rvoir
s the ac com pone nts that con-
tion is an RC '1T filter. The 1r filter atten uate
stitu te the rippl e volta ge.

amp litud e.
whe re Vr is th e ripp l e volt age peak - to-p eak
r ac ou tpu t and i s give n by
The ac voltage d evelope d acro ss C2 is the mte

v X
Vo = ~==
f ===
1
, ==
Xn
0 _
2 (3-26 )
v Ri T

acro ss cap acit o r c!.

""' here 1.'i is the filte r ac inpu t volt age a ppli ed
R
,., ..,6),
From ·Eq . ..r- X c2 = , ' (3-27)
2
~~.'(vJ ') ) - 1
/l'

1.f (., / -, .:: >> 1

" • ,' \. i.'1} 1
 --- Chapter 3 n, c l\ppllc r,on 97
The additional atten. u a f10n of
tlle np-
pie voltage obviou Iy depend upon \, ,,
the

I
selection of R 1 and c 2 value. H owev ...

-1 1I
.
/I

r,
there 1s a de oltage drop across R 1 pro- ( +YVv
H, �,
duced by the output current (V1,t1

·1
in
F1g.�- 1 21) , an d t h1. smust be cons.
. . i dered ) \,'.
\I\ l,en determmmg a suitable Ies . . 1. ta I .-o
nce 150
f01. R 1 · µF pr:
j
Example 3-12 Figure 3-21 RC 1TfilterforEx. 3-12.
The 2 V ripple w a veform across capaci-
.
tor C1 m Ex. 3-8 is to be furtl1e1 attenuated b Y t11e use of an additional r i -
tor and capacitor, as in Fig. 3_21. If R 1 =. 22 n and C1 = C2 = 150 pF, alculat
the de output voltage and the output. npple amplitude
.
Solution
Vo(dc) = Eo(ave) - (hR1 ) = 20 V - (40 mA X 22 fl)
= 19.12 V

Eq. 3-25: Vj = Vp =
vr = 2 V
1T 1T
= 637mV
1 = 1
Xe2 =
21T fr C2 21T X 120 Hz X 150 µ,F

= 8.84 n

v i x X c2 637mV x 8.84 f1
--;::::::======= =
Eq. 3-26:
Vo
=
)Ri + Xe2 ✓(22 f1) 2 + (8.84 !1)
2

= 238m V (peak)
= 475mV (p-to-p)

LC 1T Filter
is replaced with an inductor (L,), as
If the resistor (R 1 ) in the RC 1T filter
drop due to IL is almost completely
illustrated in Fig. 3-22, the de voltage
ding resistance is likely to be very much
eliminated because the inductor win
cuit is now an LC 1T filter, and it can be
smaller than the resistor. The cir
er.
analyzed similarly to the RC 1Tfilt
winding resistance (R..,,,) is very much mailer
Assuming that the inductor
( the ac voltage developed across c2 in the
than the inductor impedance XL),
ir uit of Fig. 3-22 is
108 Electronic Devices and
Circuits
-­
� aveforms are investigated, the reservoir capacitor and load must be
.
disconnected (Fig. 3-29c). The rectifier output wa eform is changed b
presence of the capacitor, and the the
transformer output can be checked onlv
when there are no other ground points, as already explained.

Practice Problem
3-6.1 A de power supply output drops from 15 V to 14.95 V when the ac
source voltage faJls by 10%. The output also falls from 15 V to 14.9 v
when the load current is increased from zero to maximum. Calculate
the source effect, load effect, line regulatfon, and load regulation.

3-7 ZENER DIODE VOLTAGE REGULATORS

Regulator Circuit with No Load
The most important application of Zener
diodes (discussed in Sedion 2-9) is in de v olt­
age regulator circuits. These can be the simple
regulator circuit shown in Fig. 3-30 or the more
complex re�ulators discussed in Chapter 18.
The circuit in Fig. 3-30 is usually employed as Figure 3-30 Zener diode
a voltage reference source that supplies only a used as a reference voltage
source, or voltage regulator.
very low current (much lower than Iz) to the
output. Resistor R 1 in Fig. 3-30 limits the Zener diode current to the desired
level. [z is calculated as follows:

Es - V z
l z = --- (3-41)
R1

The Zener current may be just greater than the diode kn e current (/zK)­
However, for the mo t stable reference voltage, ]z hould be elected as ln
(the specified test current). Exampl 3-16 demon trate the circuit design
procedure.

Example 3-16
A 9 V referen _ource i to u e a erie -con­
nected Zener diode and re istor connected to a Es
... \'-=-
30 \/ supply (.-ee Fig. 3-31). Select uitable c m­
ponent , and ,aJculate the circuit current ,, hen
v

the upply oltage drop to 27 .

°'
A9w-e 3-31 Zener iode etr-
Solution c �-QOOd n 3-

Data sheet :\-4 in App ndi , f r Z ner di e mo ~t suitabl

d t:vt . i · a J. 75 , whi h has z =:: .1 V an
 10~9~
----- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -~C~h~ae_pt~e!!!r:__:3~ ._!;0~io~d~e'...!_A~p~p~lic~a!_.!:t~io~n~s_1

With Es = 30 V:

From Eq. 3-41, R1 = Es - V z = 30 V - 9 .1 V

lz 20 mA

= 1.05 kn (use 1 kn-see Table Bl in Appendi x B)

Po for R1: PR1 = ff R1 = (20 mA) 2 X 1 kn

=0.4W
When Es = 27 V:

Iz = Es - Vz = 27 V - 9 .1 V
R1 .1 kn
= 17.9 mA
Loaded Regula tor
When a Zener diode regulato r has to supply a
load current (h), as shown in Fig. 3-32, the total
supply current (flowing through resistor R1) is
the sum of hand fz. Care must be taken to en-
sure that the minimu m Zener diode current is
Figure 3-32 Zener diode
large enough to keep the diode in reverse break- voltage regulator circuit
down. Typically, /z(min) = 5 mA for a Zener supplying a load current (IJ.
diode with an In of 20 mA. The circuit current The diode must be able to
pass a maximum current of
equation is (IL+ Iz).

Es - Vz
(3-42)
lz + h = R1

In some cases, the load current in the type of circuit shown in Fig. 3-32
may be reduced to zero. Because the voltage drop across R1 remains constan t,
the supply current remains constant :
I R1 = lz + h

All of this current flow s through the Zener diode when R L is disconn ected.
The circuit design must ensure that the total current does not exceed the
maximu m Zener diode current.
Example 3-1 7 d emonstr ates the design process for a loaded voltage refer-
ence sou rce tha t uses a low-pow er Zener diode. It should be noted that high-
power Zen er diodes are availabl e for hi gher-cur rent applicat ions.
110 Elec troni c Devi ces and Ci 1·cuit s

Exa mpl e 3-17

Desi ~n a?~ d e refe rence sour ce to opera~e from a_ ] 6 V s uppl
y (see .Fig. 3-3 3).
data shee t A-4 m Appen-
T~c c1rcu1t 1s to use a low-pow er Zene r d10de (as 111
load curre nt. Calculate the
dix A) and is to prod uce the max imum poss ible
circu it.
max imum load current that can be take n from the

Solu tion
x A, it is seen that the 1N753
From the Zene r diod e data shee t A-4 in App endi
has Vz = 6.2 V and Po = 400 mW.
Po 400 mW
From Eq. 2-12 , lzM = V z = 6.2 V
= 64.5 mA
IL(max) + lz(min ) = lzM = 64.5 mA

H.1
Es -
16V-
1so n
- +}
59.5 mA

Vo
D1 RL Figure 3-33 Zene r diode circui t designed in
1N75 3 _ 6.2 V
Ex. 3-17.

f5 V2
- 16 V - 6.2 V
From Eq. 3-41, R1 = lzM = 64.5 mA
= 152 n (use 150 n stan dard valu e)
i-- .,
PR1 = l1 R1 = (64.5 mA) - X 150 f!
= 0.62 W

Sele ct IZ(mi n) = 5 mA
h(max ) = f ZM - IZ(min) = 64.5 mA - 5 mA
= 59.5 mA !

Regulator Performance
lator may be expr essed in
The perf orma nce of a Zene r diod e volta ge regu
load regu latio ns, exactly
term s of the sour ce and load effects and the line and
may be appl ied. If there is
as disc usse d in Secti on 3-6. Equa tions 3-37 to 3-40
d. The ripple rejec tion ratio
an inpu t ripp le volta ge, it will be seve rely atten uate
es.
is the ratio of the outp ut to inpu t rippl e amp litud
ge regu lator, the ac
To asses s the perfo rman ce of a Zene r diod e volta
equi vale nt circu it is first draw n by repla cing the
diod e with its d ynam ic im-
ac equi vale nt circu it is
peda nce (Zz), as show n in Fig. 3-34a. The com plete
112 Electron ic Devices and Circui ts
--
When th e load current changes by [Link] , the output volta ge change is

Example 3-18
Ca lculatr the line regulati o n , load regu lation, and ripple rejecti on ra ti o fo r
the voltage regulato r in Ex. 3- 17.

Solutio n

From data sheet A-4 in Append ix A, it is seen that the 1N753 has Z z = 7 n.
Source effect:
flEs = 10% of Es= 10% of 16 V
= 1.6 V

0 V 6.2 V
RL=- = - - -
h [Link]

= 104!1
flEs x ll
(Zz Rd 1.6v x (7 n 11104 D)
Eq. 3-44: llV0 =------=--------
R1 + (Zz IIRd 150 n + (7 n ll104 D)
= 67mV
0 for 10% change in _
(6.E_
. [Link] = _ Es) X 100%
Eq. 3-38: Lme _ _ _ _. . . .:. . __ _ __
Ea
67mV X 100%
=-----
6.2V
= 1.08%
Load effect:
Eq. 3-48: fl Vo= ilh(Zzll R1) = 59.5 mA X (7 Dll 150 D)
= 398mV

Eq. 3-40: Load regulat ion= (llEo for /lJL(max) ) X 100% _ 398 mV 100%
E0 - 6.2 V
= 6.4%
Ripple rejection:

Eq. 3-46:
ZzllRL - 7 Ol/104 n
R1 + (Zz IIRd - iso n + (7 n ll104 O)
= 4.19 X 10 - 2
 ______________ □ ,ode A_e 1l1cot1ons 113
__JC�h!_!B_l!t�e�r�3�

practice Problems
3-7·1D s. igna12Vdcreference source (con i ting of G - nd
. n r d1
series-connected res1 tor) to opera r a 5
te f om 2 V uppl . D t rmin th
effect on the diode current when th esupp
. I d rop, 1 o 22 v
3-7.2 An 8 V de reference source is to bed signed to produ th ma imurn
pos ible outpu curr ent from a low-po r Ze
� � we ner diode. The uppJy v It­
age is 20 V. Design the circuit and determine the maximum load cur� nt.
3-7.3 Calculate th e line effect, load effect, and ripple rejection for th·' circui t
designed in Problem 3-7.2.

3-8 SERIES CLIPPING CIRCUITS

series Clipper
The functi on of a clipper (or limiter) is to clip off an unwanted portion of a
waveform. This is s ometimes necessary to protect a device or circu it that
might be destroyed by a large-amplitude signal (negative or positive).
A half-wave rectifier can be described as a clipper because it passes only the
positive (or negative) half-cycle of an alternating waveform and clips off the
other half-cycle. In fact, a diode series clipper is simply a half-wave rectifier circuit.
Figure 3-36a show s a negative series clipper circuit with a square wave input
symmetrical above and below ground level. While the input is positive, D1 i s
forward-bia sed and the p ositive half-cycle is passed to the output.

[UI
Input
+E Output
l] --(E - VF)

-E-JJ
_
+
l
0---------v

(a) Negative series clipper

[illl
Output

-- -(E - VF)

�
(b) Positive series clipper
clipping circuits clip o� unwanted
Figure 3_36 Diode series
ms. These are essentially half-wave
portions of input wavefor
rectifier circuits.