Chapter-5
Registers Counters and Memory
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Outline
➢ Registers and Counters
➢ Registers
➢ Shift Registers
➢ Ripple Counters
➢ Binary Counters
➢ Synchronous Counters
➢ Memory
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6.1: Registers
● Registers are a type of computer memory used to quickly
accept, store, and transfer data and instructions that are
being used immediately by the CPU. The registers used by
the CPU are often termed as Processor registers.
● A processor register may hold an instruction, a storage
address, or any data (such as bit sequence or individual
characters).
● The computer needs processor registers for manipulating
data and a register for holding a memory address. The
register holding the memory location is used to calculate the
address of the next instruction after the execution of the
current instruction is completed.
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6.1 Registers
● Clocked sequential circuits:
● A group of flip-flops and combinational gates
connected to form a feedback path.
Flip-flops + Combinational gates
(essential) (optional)
Examples: Registers and Counters
● Register:
● A group of flip-flops, each one of which shares a
common clock and is capable of storing one bit
information.
● Counter:
● A register that goes through a predetermined
sequence of binary states.
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6.1 Registers
● A n-bit register
● n flip-flops capable of storing
n bits of binary information
● 4-bit register shows in the fig
● Constructed with four D-type
flip-flops to form a four-bit data
storage register.
Fig. 6.1
Four-bit register
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6.2 Shift Registers
● Shift register
● A register capable of shifting its binary information
held in each cell to its neighboring cell, in a
selected direction, is called a Shift register.
● Simplest shift register
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 1
Fig. 6.3
Four-bit shift register
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Serial Transfer vs Parallel Transfer
● Serial transfer
● Information is transferred one bit at a time
● shifts the bits out of the source register into the
destination register
● Parallel transfer:
● All the bits of the register are transferred at the same
time
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● Example: Serial transfer from reg A to reg B
Fig. 6.4
Serial transfer from register A
to register B Digital
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● Example: Serial transfer from reg A to reg B
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6.3 Counters
● Counter
Definition: A register that goes through a prescribed
sequence of states upon the application of input
pulses.
Description:
➢ Input pulses may be clock pulses or originate from some
external source
➢ The sequence of states may follow the binary number
sequence ( Binary counter) or any other sequence of
states.
➢ A Counter that follows the binary number sequence is
called a binary Counter.
➢ An n-bit binary counter consists of n flip-flops and can
count in binary from 0 through 2^n-1.
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Types of Counters
● Categories of counters
1. Ripple counters
The flip-flop output transition serves as a source for
triggering other flip-flops
no common clock pulse (not synchronous)
2. Synchronous counters:
The CLK inputs of all flip-flops receive a common clock
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Four bit binary ripple counter
● Example: 4-bit binary ripple counter
● Binary count sequence: 4-bit
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1 0
1 0
Fig. 6.8
Four-bit binary ripple
counter with T and D
flip flops Digital 0
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6.4 Synchronous Counters
● Synchronous counter
● A common clock triggers all flip-flops
simultaneously.
Design procedure :
● Apply the same procedure of synchronous
sequential circuit.
● Synchronous counter is simpler than general
synchronous sequential circuits.
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● 4-bit binary counter
C_en
A0
C_en A0
A1
C_en A0 A1
A2
Fig. 6.12
Four-bit synchronous binary counter
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Memory
Introduction
●There are two types of memories that are used in digital
systems:
Random-access memory(RAM): perform both the write and
read operations.
Read-only memory(ROM): perform only the read operation.
●The read-only memory is a programmable logic device. Other
such units are the programmable logic array(PLA), the
programmable array logic(PAL), and the field-programmable
gate array(FPGA).
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Array logic
● A typical programmable logic device may have hundreds to
millions of gates interconnected through hundreds to
thousands of internal paths.
● In order to show the internal logic diagram in a concise
form, it is necessary to employ a special gate symbology
applicable to array logic.
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Random-Access Memory
● A memory unit stores binary information in groups of bits called words.
1 byte = 8 bits
1 word = 2 bytes
● The communication between a memory and its environment is achieved
through data input and output lines, address selection lines, and control
lines that specify the direction of transfer.
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Content of a memory (RAM)
● Each word in memory is
assigned an identification
number, called an address,
starting from 0 up to 2k-1,
where k is the number of
address lines.
● The number of words in a
memory with one of the
letters K=210, M=220, or
G=230.
64K = 216 2M = 221
4G = 232
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Write and Read operations
● Transferring a new word to be stored into
memory:
• Apply the binary address of the desired
word to the address lines.
• Apply the data bits that must be stored in
memory to the data input lines.
• Activate the write input.
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Write and Read operations
Transferring a stored word out of memory:
Apply the binary address of the desired word to the
address lines.
Activate the read input.
Commercial memory sometimes provide the two control
inputs for reading and writing in a somewhat different
configuration in table 7-1.
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Types of memories (RAM)
● In random-access memory, the word
locations may be thought of as being
separated in space, with each word
occupying one particular location.
● In sequential-access memory, the information
stored in some medium is not immediately
accessible, but is available only certain
intervals of time. A magnetic disk or tape unit
is of this type.
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Types of memories (RAM)
● In a random-access memory, the access time
is always the same regardless of the
particular location of the word.
● In a sequential-access memory, the time it
takes to access a word depends on the
position of the word with respect to the
reading head position; therefore, the access
time is variable.
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Static RAM
● SRAM consists essentially of internal latches that
store the binary information.
● The stored information remains valid as long as
power is applied to the unit.
● SRAM is easier to use and has shorter read and
write cycles.
● Low density, low capacity, high cost, high speed, high
power consumption.
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Dynamic RAM
● DRAM stores the binary information in the form of electric
charges on capacitors.
● The capacitors are provided inside the chip by MOS
transistors.
● The capacitors tends to discharge with time and must be
periodically recharged by refreshing the dynamic memory.
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Dynamic RAM
● DRAM offers reduced power consumption and larger
storage capacity in a single memory chip.
● High density, high capacity, low cost, low speed, low power
consumption.
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Types of memories
● Memory units that lose stored information
when power is turned off are said to be
volatile.
● Both static and dynamic, are of this category
since the binary cells need external power to
maintain the stored information.
● Nonvolatile memory, such as magnetic disk,
ROM, retains its stored information after
removal of power.
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Read-Only Memory
● A block diagram of a ROM is shown below. It consists of k
address inputs and n data outputs.
● The number of words in a ROM is determined from the fact
that k address input lines are needed to specify 2k words.
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Construction of ROM
● Each output of the decoder represents a memory address.
● Each OR gate must be considered as having 32 inputs.
● A 2k X n ROM will have an internal k X 2k decoder and n
OR gates.
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Truth table of ROM
● A programmable connection between to lines is logically
equivalent to a switch that can be altered to either be close
or open.
● Intersection between two lines is sometimes called a cross-
point.
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Types of ROMs
● The required paths in a ROM may be programmed
in four different ways.
• Mask programming: fabrication process
• Read-only memory or PROM: blown fuse /fuse
intact
• Erasable PROM or EPROM: placed under a
special ultraviolet light for a given period of time
will erase the pattern in ROM.
• Electrically-erasable PROM(EEPROM): erased
with an electrical signal instead of ultraviolet light.
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