I.
Lesson 1: Ways of Knowing or Gaining Knowledge
This section explores how humans acquire information and the limitations of different methods.
● Sense Perception: Gaining knowledge through what you can see and perceive.
○ Empiricists believe all knowledge originates from the senses.
○ Limitation: Senses can be deceptive, such as the ancient belief in the Geocentric
Model (Earth at the center) because it appeared stationary.
● Cultural Perception: Knowledge shaped by changing cultural ideas, such as evolving
norms regarding race and racism.
● Language or Authority: Knowing something because an expert or source told you or you
read it.
○ Limitation: Authorities may have incomplete knowledge, hidden agendas, or
unintentional biases.
● Emotion/Intuition: Relying on feelings or ethical "gut" instincts, especially for complicated
life decisions.
● Logic/Reason: Applying reasoning to gain knowledge (e.g., 2 x 3 = 6).
○ Rationalists argue that all knowledge comes from the ability to use reason.
● Types of Knowledge:
○ Declarative: Knowledge of facts and theories.
○ Procedural: Knowledge gained by "doing," practice, and trial and error (e.g.,
riding a bike).
● Purpose of Social Research: To systematically build knowledge that avoids the pitfalls
and biases of personal belief, culture, and unreliable experts.
II. Philosophical Elements of Research
This file details the foundational frameworks and "worldviews" that guide research.
● Research Definition: A systematic investigation aimed at discovering new facts,
interpreting them, or revising accepted conclusions.
● Paradigm: A broad framework of perception, mental model, or "filter" through which
reality is interpreted.
● Research Paradigm: A researcher’s school of thought or set of shared beliefs that
guides data interpretation.
● Core Philosophical Elements:
○ Ontology: Concerned with the nature of existence or reality (e.g., Is reality
objective or socially constructed?).
○ Epistemology: Concerned with the nature of knowledge and how it is acquired
and communicated.
● Sources of Knowledge (Epistemological Bases):
○ Intuitive: Automatic knowledge without reflection; based on faith or belief.
○ Authoritative: Derived from experts, books, or institutional leaders.
○ Logical: Emphasis on reason and deductive reasoning as the path to knowledge.
○ Empirical: Information derived from direct sensory experience, observation, or
experiment.
● Philosophical Worldviews:
○ Postpositivism: Often called the "scientific method"; it is traditional, empirical, and
most common in quantitative research.
○ Pragmatism: Focuses on "what works" at the time to solve a problem; used in
mixed methods to provide the best understanding.
III. Research Designs
This document outlines the structured frameworks used to conduct studies.
● Research Design: Specific types of inquiry (strategies) that provide direction for
procedures, data collection, and analysis.
● Quantitative Designs:
○ Experimental: Includes True Experiments (random assignment) and
Quasi-Experiments (no randomization).
○ Non-Experimental: Includes Causal-Comparative (comparing pre-existing
groups) and Correlational (measuring relationships between variables).
○ Survey Methods: Provides numeric data on trends and opinions to generalize
findings to a population.
● Qualitative Designs: Characterized by inductive approaches to generate meaning and
explore social phenomena.
● Mixed Methods: Integrates both quantitative and qualitative data in a single project.
● Criteria for Selection: The choice of approach depends on the research problem, the
researcher's personal experiences, and the audience (e.g., journal editors or academic
committees).
IV. Review of the Literature
This file focuses on the preparation and role of literature in a study.
● Purpose: Determines if a topic is worth studying and helps refine the research scope.
● Effective Research Titles: Should be concise (ideally under 12 words), avoid fluff like "A
Study of...", and reflect the study's focus.
● Research Questions: These convert the topic into a specific question and must be
researchable with available resources.
● Forms of Literature Reviews (Cooper, 2010):
○ Integrative: Summarizing and connecting past studies.
○ Critical: Identifying gaps or flaws in prior research.
○ Identifying Central Issues: Highlighting core themes in the field.
○ Bridging: Connecting related topics.
● Defining Terms:
○ When to Define: If the term is not commonly understood, appears early and is
central, or has multiple meanings.
○ Quantitative vs. Qualitative: In quantitative research, definitions are precise and
included early. In qualitative research, definitions often evolve and are refined
throughout the study.
○ Best Practice: Use operational definitions rather than abstract ones and ground
them in established literature.