1.

TENSES
Active Forms:
PRESENT PAST FUTURE
SIMPLE / S + V1/V5 S + V2 S +Will+ V1
INDEFINITE Routines/ habits/ truths & Completed action in the past / Future happenings/
facts / Permanent/ sequential action Predictions / offers
Scheduled events
CONTINUOUS/ S +am/is/are +v4 S +was/were +v4 S +will+be +v4
PROGRESSIVE right now/ Temporary progress at a specific past time Action that will be in
( be +V4) actions/ Repeated annoying / Interrupted action/ progress at a future time
actions happening simultaneously
PERFECT S + has/have +v3 S + had+v3 S + will + have +v3
( have + V3) Life experiences/ Recently First past action before Action to be completed
completed actions/ effect on another past action before a future time
present
PERFECT S + has/have +been +v4 S + had +been +v4 S + will have +been
CONTINUOUS Ongoing action with visible Ongoing past action before +v4
( have +been+ results/ duration emphasis another past event/duration Long action continuing
V4) emphasis until a future time /
duration emphasis
Helping verbs
Primary
Am, are, is, was, were, be, being, Modals
Be
been
Can, could, shall, should, will, would,
Have Have, had, has
Do Do, does, did ought etc….
Note : Do forms + V1 ( Base form )
Passive Forms:
PRESENT PAST FUTURE
SIMPLE / O + is/ are + V3 O + was/ were +V3 O + Will + be+V3
INDEFINITE Pizza was eaten by Pizza will be eaten by
(be-verbs + V3) Pizza is eaten by him
him him
CONTINUOUS / O + is/ are + being + O + was/ Were +
PROGRESSIVE V3 being + V3 No Passive
( be-verbs + being + V3) Pizza is being eaten by Pizza was being eaten Form
him by him
O+ has/ have +been+ O + will+ have +been+
O + had +been+ V3
PERFECT V3 V3
( have forms
Pizza has been eaten by Pizza had been eaten Pizza will have been
+been+ V3)
him by him eaten by him
PERFECT
No Passive Form
CONTINUOUS
 2. MODALS
PURE MODALS
Modal Use (Short) Example
Can Ability, permission, possibility I can swim.
Could Past ability, polite request, weak possibility Could you help me?
May Permission, possibility, wish May I come in?
Might Weak possibility, deduction It might rain.
Must Strong obligation, rules, 100% deduction You must wear a helmet.
Should Advice, weak obligation, expectation You should rest.
Will Future, promise, offer, request I will call you.
Would Polite request, preference, unreal condition Would you like tea?
Shall Suggestions, offers (I/We) Shall we start?
Ought to Strong advice, moral duty You ought to help others.

Rules for Pure Modals

• Use only V1 after modals
• No 'to' after modals (except *ought to*)
• Same form for all subjects (no -s / -es)
Example:: He can go (not cans)

SEMI‑MODALS
Semi‑Modal Use (Short) Example
Have to / Has to External obligation (present) I have to study.
Had to Past obligation He had to leave early.
Be going to Planned future She is going to travel.
Be able to Ability in all tenses I am able to swim.
Need to Necessity You need to rest.
Used to Past habit/state She used to play tennis.
Dare to Courage to do something He dares to speak.
Had better Strong advice / warning You had better leave now.
Would rather Preference I would rather stay home.

Rules for Semi‑Modals

• Change with tense & subject (unlike pure modals)
• Usually followed by 'to + V1' (except *had better*, *would rather*)
• Function like main verbs in grammar
 3. DETERMINERS
Type Function Examples
Pre-determiners Add emphasis/quantity all, both, half, such, rather, twice
Articles General / Specific noun a, an, the
Demonstratives Show nearness/distance this, that, these, those
Possessives Show ownership my, your, his, her, our, their
Ordinals Show position/rank first, second, next, last
Cardinals Show number one, two, five, hundred
Quantifiers Show quantity/amount some, many, much, few, little, any
Distributives Refer to group members each, every, either, neither
Interrogatives Used to ask questions what, which, whose

1. Pre-Determiners
Come before other determiners to add emphasis or quantity.
• Multipliers: twice, double, three times
• Fractions: one-third, half of, five-ninths
• Intensifiers: such, quite, what, rather

2. Articles
• a / an = general items (a before consonant sound, an before vowel sound)
• the = specific item

3. Quantifiers
Countable Uncountable Both
many, a few, few, several, much, a little, little, a bit some, any, a lot of/lots of,
a number of, numerous, of, a great deal of, less, plenty of, all, most, more,
fewer, fewest least enough, none of
• some – positive, Question: offers, requests
• any – negatives & questions (also in positive when meaning 'no restriction')
• many / few – countable nouns
• much / little – uncountable nouns
• few/little – negative meaning
• a few/a little – positive (some)
• the few/the little – remaining amount

4. Distributives: Each vs Every

• Each – individual focus (2 or more)
• Every – group focus (3 or more)

Rule: Each + Singular noun + singular verb

But: Each of + plural noun + singular verb

5. Interrogative Determiners
Used before nouns to ask questions: what, which, whose
 4. REPORTED SPEECH
CAR Method (Easy Formula)

C Change Pronouns, Tense, Time/Place, Modals

Statement: That
A Add Question: / If–Whether / Wh-word
Imperative ( command/ advise/ request….) to + verb
R Remove Quotation marks & Question mark (?)

When Tense Does NOT Change

 Reporting verb in Present / Present Perfect / Future
 Universal Truths / Facts
 Statement still true at time of reporting

(i) Reporting Statements:

Direct Speech Indirect Speech
―She can dance.‖ She said that she could dance.
―I must finish it.‖ He said that he had to finish it.

(ii) Reporting Questions

 Yes/No Questions → if / whether -------- ―Do you like it?‖ → He asked if I liked it.
 Wh-Questions → keep Wh-word, change order -―Where are you going?‖ → He asked where I was going.
 Remove do/does/did (except in negatives)
He asked Sam “ Do you eat sandwich?” (Positive) He asked Sam if he ate sandwich
He asked Sam “ Don’t you eat sandwich?” He asked Sam if he didn’t eat sandwich.
(Negative)

(iii) Reporting Commands & Requests

Direct Speech Indirect Speech
―Open the window.‖ She ordered me to open the window.
―Please help me.‖ He requested me to help him.
―Do not come late.‖ She advised me not to come late.

(iv) Special Cases of “Let”

• Suggestion/Proposal → suggested/proposed + that + should
―Let us go home.‖ → He suggested that we should go home.
• Permission → **told/ordered/requested + to**
―Let him do it.‖ → He ordered him to do it.

(v) Exclamations & Emotions

Replace exclamatory word with emotion:
• ―Hurrah! We won!‖ → He **exclaimed with joy** that they had won.
• ―Alas! She is ill.‖ → She **exclaimed with sorrow** that she was ill.
Reporting Verbs Quick Reference
• Statements: said, told, informed, replied, assured, stated
• Questions: asked, enquired, wanted to know
• Commands/Requests: ordered, requested, advised, begged, commanded

5. SUBJECT–VERB CONCORD
PAGE 1: MAIN RULES TABLE

Category Singular Verb (Examples) Plural Verb (Examples)

Countable Nouns The child is / plays The children are / play
Uncountable Nouns Water is, Sugar is —
Indefinite Pronouns Each, Every, Either, Neither, Both, Few, Several, Many → are
Everyone → is
Collective Noun – as a Unit The team is —
Collective Noun – individuals — The team are arguing
One of + plural noun One of the boys is —
A number of + plural noun — A number of students are
The number of + plural noun The number of students is —
Plural Form but Singular News, Mathematics is —
Meaning
Always Plural Nouns — Police, Cattle, Scissors are

PAGE 2: SPECIAL CASES TABLE

Rule Verb Example
A pair of + noun Singular A pair of shoes is costly.
More than one + noun Singular More than one student was
selected.
As well as / Along with Verb follows 1st subject The teacher along with students is
coming.
None of / Some of / Most of Depends on noun None of the rice is… / None of the
(COUNTABLE / UNCOUNTABLE) boys are…
Here/There + noun Verb follows real subject Here are the books.
Time/Distance/Amount as a unit Singular 5 km is far.