Electrical Technology (EE11003)

Prof. Alok Kanti Deb

Department of Electrical Engineering, IIT Kharagpur
alokkanti@[Link]
Electrical Technology (EE11003) • L-T-P Credits-4
Section 2 • 3-1-0

Tutorial Faculty Tutorial TAs

Section 2: Prof. Alok Kanti Deb Saswat Ranjan Panda
Theory Class Timings: D4 slot. NR211 Debajyoti Banerjee
Mon: D1 (12 PM-1 PM); Shrabasti Batabyal
Tue : D2 (10 AM - 12 PM); Shyam Lal Kumawat
Thu: D4 (8 AM-9AM) Sukhranjan Patra
2
 Syllabus
1. Module A: Introduction, DC Networks, Theorems
2. Module B: Single Phase AC Circuits
3. Module C: Transients- Capacitor, Inductor
4. Module D: Three Phase AC Circuits
5. Module E: Magnetic Circuits
6. Module F: Transformer
Text Book: [Link]

Electrical Engineering Fundamentals by Vincent Del Toro Prentice

Hall of India available on Amazon

Other reference books will be given during lecture class

Tests: 5
3
• Energy

• Transportation

• Communication

• Robotics & Automation

4
 Introduction
Modern society is driven my electrically powered machines and large scale
systems.

There is no application in our daily life that does not use electrical energy.

Electricity is produced by generators and transported through overhead

transmission lines and cables over thousands of kms for utilization by
human beings.

This whole process results in a complex circuitry, known as grid.

Power is produced from various sources. Current trend is to use

renewable and pollution free sources and reduce carbon footprint.

This course introduces to the engineers of all branches of engineering the

bare essential knowledge of electrical engineering that is required in our
day to day life.

5
 Fundamental forms of Energy

1. Mechanical energy
2. Thermal (heat) energy
3. Electromagnetic energy
4. Electrical energy
5. Nuclear energy
6. Chemical energy
What is the source of our energy ?
• The source of
practically all our
energy is the Sun.
 What is Mechanical Energy ?

o Energy due to a object’s

motion (kinetic) or position
(potential).

The bowling ball has

mechanical energy.

When the ball strikes the pins,

mechanical energy is
transferred to the pins!
Examples of Mechanical Energy
What is Electromagnetic Energy ?

o Light energy

o Includes energy from

gamma rays, xrays,
ultraviolet rays, visible light,
infrared rays, microwave
and radio bands
 What is Electrical Energy ?
o Energy caused by the
movement of electrons

o Easily transported
through power lines
and converted into
other forms of energy
What is Chemical Energy ?

o Energy that is available for

release from chemical
reactions.

The chemical bonds in a

matchstick store energy that
is transformed into thermal
energy when the match is
struck.
Examples of Chemical Energy
What is Thermal Energy ?
o Heat energy

o The heat energy of an object

determines how active its atoms are.

A hot object is one whose atoms and

molecules are excited and show rapid
movement.

A cooler object's molecules and atoms

will show less movement.
Thermal Power Station

15
 Thermal Power Cycle

BOILER R
Y
HPT LPT GENERATOR B

STACK GASES STEAM

CONDENSATE

LT LC
1 1

BOILER FEED WATER

FUEL
COAL/OIL/GAS

AIR
HPT-High Pressure Turbine
LPT-Low Pressure Turbine

DOWNCOMER TUBES RISER TUBES

Converts energy from fuel (coal/oil/gas)
(NO BUBBLES) (BUBBLES) into electrical energy
 Hydel Power

Utilizes the height of stored water to rotate a turbine to produce electrical power.
Needs a large landmass to act as reservoir.
17
 Nuclear Power Station

Steam generated by using heat generated in nuclear reaction. Steam rotates

the turbine which is coupled to the generator to generate power.
 Non Conventional Sources
Wind Power

Wind Power is used to rotate large turbines which in turn is coupled to generator
to generate power.

19
 Solar Power

• Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semi-
conducting materials.
• Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms as
they are excited. Due to their special structure and materials in solar cells,
the electrons are only allowed to move in a single direction. The electron
structure of the materials is very important for the process to work, and
often silicon incorporating small amounts of boron and phosphorus is
used in different layers.
• An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of
direct current (DC) electricity.

20
 Transition: Forms to Sources

• Forms - How
Scientists Classify
Energy
87.55%
8.62%
• Sources - Where 3.50%
0.22%

We Get the Energy 0.11%

To Make Our Lives 8.22%

More Comfortable, 91.78%

Convenient, &
Productive
 Installed capacity in India as on May 31, 2018
Coal : 196,957.5 MW (57.3%)
Large Hydro: 45,403.42 MW (13.2%)
Small Hydro: 4,485.81 MW (1.3%)
Wind Power: 34,046 MW (9.9%)
Solar Power: 21,651.48 MW (6.3%)
Biomass : 8,839.1 MW (2.6%)
Nuclear : 6,780 MW (2.0%)
Gas : 24,897.46 MW (7.2%)

Wastage : 100,000 MW just in Govt installations

Energy Saved is Energy Generated
Reduction in utilization of Fossil Fuel reduces Atmospheric Pollution
22
Schematic Diagram of Generation, Transmission & Distribution

Generating Companies (GENCOS) – NTPC, CESC, DVC, NHPC

Transmission Company (TRANSCOS) - Power Grid
Distribution Companies (DISCOS) - BSES 23
A Power Plant Control room A Modern Control room

An Aircraft Cockpit
Air Traffic Control Room24
 Electrical Grid Control

Remotely managed Substation

Load control in NE India 25
 SI Prefixes

• atto – 10-18 • tera – 1012

• femto – 10-15 • giga – 109
• pico – 10-12 • Mega – 106
• nano – 10-9 • kilo – 103
• micro – 10-6 • hecto – 102
• milli – 10-3 • deca – 101

26
 dq
e  1.6 10 19 C i
dt

Voltage – amount of work done to carry charge from one point to another

1V=1J/C

27
 Battery

A battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with

external connections for power electrical devices such as flashlights, mobile
phones and electric cars.

Its positive terminal is the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode.

It is a voltage source.

+ +
− −

Absorbing power Delivering power

28
Converts stored chemical energy Cathode: +ve terminal, chemical
into electrical energy. reduction occurs (gains electrons)
Reaction between chemicals take Anode: −ve terminal, chemical oxidation
occurs (lose electrons)
place
Electrolytes allow separation of ionic
Consisting of electrochemical cells transport, movement of ions and current
Contains electrodes, electrolyte flow out of the battery to perform work.

Electron Flow →

Salt Bridge
Anode Cathode
---- ++
+

Electrolyte Electrolyte

29
• The Voltaic Pile
– Invented by Alessandro Volta in 1800
– Zinc and Copper with a cloth soaked in brine
– Technical Flaws:
• Compressing of cloth created shorts
• Short battery life

• The Daniel Cell

– Invented in 1836 by John Daniell

• The lead-acid cell

– Invented in 1859 by Gaston Planté
– First rechargeable battery

• The zinc-carbon cell

– Invented in 1887 by Carl Gassner
30
• The Nickel-Cadmium Battery
– Invented in 1899 by Waldmar Jungner.

• The common Alkaline Battery

– Invented in 1955 by Lewis Urry

• The Nickel Metal-Hydrid Battery

– NiMH batteries for smaller applications started to be on the market in
1989.

• Lithium and Lithium-ion Batteries

– First lithium batteries sold in the 1970s
– First lithium-ion batteries sold in 1991
– First lithium-ion polymer batteries released in 1996

31
• Mercury Battery
– Shelf life of up to 10 years.

• Silver-Oxide Battery
– Prohibitive costs, but excellent energy density.

• Atomic Batteries
– Thermionic Converter
– Thermo photovoltaic Cells
– Reciprocating Electromechanical Atomic Batteries

• Betavoltaics
– Use energy from atom decay emitting beta radiation
– Used for remote and long-term needs, e.g. spacecraft

32
 Terminology and Units

• Primary Batteries – Disposable

• Secondary Batteries – Rechargeable
• emf – Electromotive force, voltage
• Ampere∙hour (Ah) = 3600 Coulombs, a measure of electric
charge
• Watt ∙hour (Wh) = 3600 Joules, a measure of energy
• Ah = (Wh) / emf

33
 Primary Batteries
• Alkaline Battery • Zinc-Carbon Battery
• Zinc powered, basic electrolyte • Zinc body, acid electrolyte
• Higher energy density • Case is part of the anode
• Functioning with a more stable • Zinc casing slowly eaten away by
chemistry the acidic electrolyte
• Shelf life: 8 years • Cheaper than alkaline
• Can power all devices high and • Shelf life: 1-3 years
low drains • Intended for low drains devices
Use: digital camera, game Use: kid toys, radios, alarm clocks
console, remotes
• Can lose 8 – 20% charge every year at room tempurature.
• Discharge performance drops at low temperatures.

AAA AA 9V C D
Capacity (Ah) 1.250 2.890 0.625 8.350 20.500
Voltage 1.5 1.5 9 1.5 1.5
Energy (Wh) 1.875 4.275 5.625 12.525 30.75
34
 Secondary Batteries
• Rechargeable batteries
• Reaction can be readily reversed
• Similar to primary cells except that redox reaction can be reversed.

• Recharging:
- electrodes undergo the opposite process than discharging
- cathode is oxidized and produce electrons
- electrons absorbed by anode 35
• Self-discharge more quickly than primary batteries

Low-Capacity NiMH High-Capacity NiMH NiCd

(1700-2000 mAh) (2500+ mAh)
Charge Cycles 1000 500 1000

• Must not overcharge because that will damage the

batteries. Quick charges will also damage the batteries.
• Must not over-discharge.
• NiCd has “memory effect.”
• NiCd is better for applications where current draw is less
than the battery’s own self-discharge rate.
• NiMH have a higher capacity, are cheaper, and are less
toxic than NiCd.

36
 Lithium-Ion and Lithium-Ion Polymer Batteries
• Great energy-to-weight ratio (~160 Wh/kg compared to 30-80 Wh/kg in
NiMH)
• No memory effect.
• Slow self-discharge rate.
• Battery will degrade from moment it is made.
• Protection circuits are required to protect the battery.
• Li-Ion Polymer batteries are significantly improved.
– Higher energy density.
– Lower manufacturing costs
– More robust to physical damage
– Can take on more shapes

• Disadvantages
– Cost differential
– Cell temperature has to be monitored to prevent temperature extremes
– No established system for recycling large lithium-ion batteries. 37
 Modeling of PV Module

PV Equations

Single PV cell equivalent circuit

where is the light generated current is the dark saturation current

is the temperature coefficient of cell’s short circuit current ; is the cell idealizing factor;
is the cell’s S.C. current at 250C and 1000W/m2
I is the cell’s reverse saturation current at a solar radiation and reference temperature

It is a current source. 38
 Power

Voltage Source Current Source

Independant Dependant Independant Dependant

Not dependant on Not dependant on
Not to be Not to be
any current covered in voltage across it covered in
passing through it this subject this subject

+ +
5V 10V
 

VDVS IDVS VDIS IDIS

Voltage Dependant Current Dependant Voltage Dependant Current Dependant
Voltage Source Voltage Source Current Source Current Source

+ +
Kv x Kix  gv x ri x

 Reading Value of Fixed Resistors

([Link]

• Resistors are color coded as they are too small for the value to be
written on them.
• There are 4 or 5 bands of color. Value of a Resistor is decoded
from these band of colors.

40
 Reading Value: Step 1

• If your resistor has four color bands, turn the resistor so that the
gold and silver band is on the right hand side or the end with more
bands should point left.

41
 Reading Value: Step 2
• The first band is now on the left hand side. This represents the first
digit. Based on the color make a note of the digit. In this case− 4
band its’5’ and for 5 band its ‘2’

42
 Reading Value: Step 3
• The second band represent the second digit. The colors represent
the same numbers as did the first digit. In this case- 4 band its ‘6’
and for 5 band its ‘3’

43
 Reading Value: Step 4
• The third band divulges how many zeros to add/divide to the first
two numbers- for a 4 band resistor. In this case- 4 band its ‘4’ zeros
to be added. So value is 560K

44
 Reading Value: Step 5
• The third band denotes the 3rd digit- for a 5 band Resistor. In this
case- 5 band its ‘7’. So the value of the 5 band resistor is 237 Ω as
its multiplier digit is ‘0’.

45
 Tolerance
• The last band denotes the tolerance. So the value of the 4 band
resistor it is ±10% while for the 5 band resistor it is ±1%.

46
 Tolerance
• Tolerance of a Resistor is also an important property to consider
• A 100 Ω resistor with a 10% tolerance can mean its value can be
fixed value between 90 Ω to 110 Ω.
• A 120 Ω resistor with a 10% tolerance can mean its value can be
fixed value between 108 Ω and 132 Ω.
• So there is some overlap between 100 Ω and 120 Ω resistance in
terms of its limits.

47
Mnemonic to Remember

48
 Carbon Film Resistors

• Most general purpose, cheap resistor

• Tolerance of Resistance value is usually ± 5%
• Power rating of 1/8W, 1/4W and 1/2W are usually used
• Can: Tend to be electrically noisy.

Metal Film Resistors

• Used when higher tolerance is needed, ie more value.

• They have about ± 0.05% tolerance
49
 10 Ω
Lumped Parameter circuit Distributed parameter circuit

Voltage and Current Laws

Node – Common point between 2 or more circuit elements.

Path – Starting at one node in a network and move through a simple

element to the node at the other end. Continue from the node through a
different element to the next node and continue this movement until we
have gone through as many elements as we wish. If no node was
encountered more than once, then the set of nodes and elements that we
have passed through is defined as a path.

Loop: If the node at which we started is the same as the node on which we
ended, then the path is by definition a closed path or a loop.
50
 1) Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL)
Algebraic sum of all currents entering a node is zero.

iA
iC
C
A
i A iB iD iC  0
O

D
B iD
iB
2) Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
Algebraic sum of all voltages in a loop is zero.

7V
B C Considering the loop as shown,
+


+
+ 5 7 v x  0
5V
vx 100 Ω



A
51
Ex. 1: A

1 1
120A R1  30A R2 
30 15
i1 i2

B
Applying KCL at node A,
120 i1 30 i2  0
Applying equality of voltages between A and B between any branches,
i1 i
 2
30 15
Solving the above 2 equations,

i1  60 A
i2  30 A

52
 Series and Parallel Connected Sources

v1 +


v2 +
=>
+ v1  v2  v3 i1 i2 i3 => i1  i2  i3
 

−
v3 +

Series connected voltage Parallel current sources can be

sources can be replaced by replaced by a single source
a single source
 Ex. Four voltage sources are connected in series

470 Ω

+
3V 
−
2V
+
+
5V 
1V

+

Choosing to replace them by a single voltage source having its “+” reference
terminal of the 3V source at top
470 Ω
+ 3 +5 −1 +2 = 9V
+ i
9V 
9
i  19.15mA
470

54
Ex. Determine v in the circuit.


5A 10 v 1A 10 6A


Ans: 50 V

55
 Resistors in Series and Parallel
i R1 R2 RN i

+ v1  + v2  + vN 
+ +
Vs Vs Req
 

Vs  v1  v2    v N Applying Ohm’s law,

Vs  R1i  R2i    RN i
 R1  R2    RN i Req  R1  R2    R N
 Req i

+ i1 i2 iN +

is v R1 R2 RN is v Req

 
1 1 1 1
  
v v v Req R1 R2 RN
is   
1
R1 R2 RN Req  R11  R21    R N1
v
 Geq  G1  G2    G N
Req
 Voltage and Current Division
v  v1  v2  iR1  iR2  iR1  R2 
i v
R1 i
R1  R2
+ + v1 
+
 v   R2 
v R2 v2 v2  iR2    R2   v
  1
R  R2   1
R  R2 

 R1 
v1   v
 1
R  R2 

i
+ v i R1 R2  i R1 R2 R2
i1 i2 i1    i
R1 R1 R1 R1  R2 R1  R2
v R1 R2
R1
 i2  i
R1  R2

57
 Nodal Analysis
An N-node circuit will need (N-1) voltages and (N-1) equations. Each equation
is a simple KCL.
5Ω 1 5Ω 2

3.1A 2Ω 1Ω −1.4A
3.1A 1Ω −1.4A
2Ω

1 5Ω 2 v1 5Ω v2

3.1A 1Ω −1.4A 3.1A 1Ω −1.4A

2Ω 2Ω

Reference node Ref

Applying KCL at node 1, At node 2 we obtain,
v v v1  v2 v1  5V
 2   1.4  0
v v
3 .1  1  1 2  0
2 5 5 1 v2  2V
0.7v1  0.2v2  3.1 0.2v1  1.2v2  1.4  0
a11 x1  a12 x2  a13 x3  b1  a11 a12 a13   b1   x1 
a21 x1  a22 x2  a23 x3  b2 A  a21 a22 a23  b  b2  X   x2 
a31 x1  a32 x2  a33 x3  b3 a31 a32 a33  b3   x3 

AX  b X  A1b

b1 a12 a13 a11 b1 a13 a11 a12 b1

b2 a22 a23 a21 b2 a23 a21 a22 b2
b3 a32 a33 a31 b3 a33 a31 a32 b3
x1  x2  x3 
A A A

v1 5Ω v2 0.7v1  0.2v2  3.1

0.2v1  1.2v2  1.4  0

3.1A −1.4A
2Ω 1Ω v1  5V
v2  2V
Ref

59
Ex. −3A

1 3Ω 2 7Ω 3

−8A 4Ω
1Ω −25A 5Ω

v1  v2 v v
8 3   1 3 0 v1  5.41V
3 4

v1  v2 v v v2  7.736V
  3  2 3  2  0
v
3 7 1 v3  46.32V
v2  v3 v v v3
  25  1 3   0
7 4 5

60
 Mesh Analysis
Applicable for planer circuits.

+ +
 

Planer circuit Non Planer circuit

If a circuit contain M meshes, then we expect to have M mesh currents and

therefore will be expected to write M independent equations.
Ex. i1 6Ω 4Ω i2

+ −
42V  I 3Ω II +
10V

i1  i2

Considering the left hand mesh as mesh I

42 6i1  3i1  i2   0

Considering the right hand mesh as mesh II

4i2 10  3i1  i2   0

Solving the 2 equations,

i1  6 A
i2  4 A
 i1 i2
Ex.
i1  i2
1Ω II
2Ω
3 Ω i2  i3

+
7V

i1  i3
I +
i3
6V −
III
1Ω
2Ω

Considering the left hand mesh as mesh I

7  1i1  i2  6  2i1  i3   0
i1  3 A
Considering the mesh II, i2  2 A
1i1  i2  2i2  3i2  i3   0
i3  3 A
Considering the mesh III,
2i1  i3  6  3i2  i3  1i3  0
 Circuit Theorems
Linear element – a passive element that has linear voltage-current
relationship, i.e. multiplication of the current through the element by a constant
K results in a multiplication of the voltage across the element by the same
constant K
vt   Ri t 

Bilateral – Circuit element having similar behavior from both ends. Ex.
Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor

Unilateral – Circuit element having different behavior from both ends.

Ex. Diode, Thyristor

64
 Superposition Theorem
In a linear bilateral resistive network, the voltage across/current in a
resistor/source may be calculated by adding algebraically all the independent
voltage/currents caused by separate independent sources acting alone, with
all other independent sources inactivated (voltage sources short circuited and
current sources open circuited)
6Ω

+
3V

9Ω 2A
ix

Considering only voltage source Considering only current source

6Ω 6Ω

+ i x1 i x2
3V

9Ω 9Ω 2A

3 6
i x1   0.2 A i x2   2  0.8 A
15 15
i x  i x1  i x2  0.2  0.8  1.0 A
 15 Ω
Ex.
ix
7Ω Find i x ?
+
2A 5Ω 
3.5V

3Ω

Considering only current source Considering only voltage source

15 Ω 15 Ω

i x1 i x2

7Ω 7Ω
+
2A 5Ω 5Ω 
3.5V

3Ω 3Ω

10 3.5
i x1   2  0.8 A i x2   0.14 A
25 25
i x  i x1  i x2  0.8  0.14  0.66 A  660mA
66
 Thevenin’s Theorem
Given an arbitrary two-terminal network, consisting of resistances and
independent sources, then there exist an equivalent 2-terminal network
consisting of resistance, RTh in series with an independant voltage source
VTh. The voltage VTh called the open circuit voltage, is what that appears
across two terminals when no other network is attached. RTh called the
Thevenin equivalent resistance is the equivalent resistance of the network
when all other independent sources are deactivated

RTh

+
Network RL
=>
VTh  RL
(Load Resistance) (Load Resistance)

Resistances and independent sources

[Link]

67
Ex. 3Ω 7Ω

+
12V  6Ω RL

Two Terminals
To Compute VTh To Compute RTh
3Ω 7Ω 3Ω 7Ω

+
12V  6Ω VTh 6Ω RTh

6 3 6
VTh  12  8V RTh  7   9
9 9

68
 4Ω A 5Ω
Ex.

+ +
12V 
i 6Ω 
3V Find i ?

To Compute VTh B To Compute RTh

4Ω A 5Ω 4Ω A 5Ω

+ +
12V VTh 3V
 

B VTh  12  9  4  8V B 4  5 20
RTh   
20 9 9 9
RTh  
9
8
i  0.97 A
20
+ i 6
VTh  8V 
6Ω 9
 Norton’s Theorem

VTh
Network RL => RTh RL
RTh
(Load Resistance) (Load Resistance)

Resistances and independent sources

2 kΩ x 1 kΩ

+ VTh RTh
3V  7mA 5 kΩ =>
RTh

70
 2 kΩ x 1 kΩ

+ VTh
3V  7mA 5 kΩ => I Norton  RTh
RTh

Applying KCL,
x3 x
7   0 x  7.857V VTh  7.857V
2 5

2  5 17
RTh  1   k  2.429k
7 7

7.857
I Norton    3.235mA
2.429

71
 Rs iL Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Power delivered to the load RL
+ vS2 RL
vs RL p L  i L RL 
2

Rs  RL 2

To find the value of RL that absorbs a maximum power from the given source
dp L

Rs  RL 2 vS2  vS2 RL 2RS  RL  pL
dRL Rs  RL 4
Equating the derivative to zero,
RL 2RS  RL   Rs  RL 2 => Rs  R L
pL RL  0
0 pL RL  
0

=> pL is maximum power at RL=Rs

v s2
pmax delivered to load 
4 Rs
RL=RS RL
An independent voltage source in series with a resistance RS or an
independent current source in parallel with a resistance RS delivers maximum
power to that load resistance RL for which RS= RL
72
Find the value of Rout that so that it absorbs maximum power from the sources
20 V 40 V
+  + 

+
 30 V

2kΩ Rout

2kΩ

Rout  1k

73
 Practical Voltage Sources
Rs iL Rs iL

+ +
vs  vL RL vs  vL

Increasing Load: iL increases RL decreases

Decreasing Load: iL decreases RL increases
vs  iL Rs  v L vL  iL Rs  vs vL
v Loc ideal source
When RL=∞ no load current,
voltage source open-circuited
& terminal voltage is vLoc

When RL=0, voltage source short-

circuited & short circuit current iLsc
v iL
i Lsc  s i Lsc
v
 s
Rs Rs
 Delta (∆) to Star (Wye) Conversion

=>

Delta (∆) Star / Wye / Y

RB
a b
+ +

R1 R2
vac RA RC vbd
R3
 
c d

75
 RB R1 R2
a b a b
+ + + +

R1 R2
vac RA RC vbd R3
vac vbd
i1 R3 i3 i3
i2 i1
   
c d c d

R Ai1  R Ai2  vac ............(1) R1  R3 i1  R3i3  vac

 R Ai1  R A  RB  RC i2  RC i3  0......(2)
 R3i1  R2  R3 i3  vbd
 RC i2  RC i3  vbd ......(3)
Substituting i2 from (2) in (1) & (3),
 R A2  R A RC
RA  i1  i3  vac
 R A  R B  RC 
 R A  R B  RC

 R A RC   RC2 
 i1   RC  i3  vbd
 R A  R B  RC  R A  R B  RC

R A RB RB RC R A RC
R1  R2  R3  ← ∆ to Y conversion
R A  RB  RC R A  RB  RC R A  RB  RC

76
 RB R1 R2
a b a b
+ + + +

RA RC <=> R3
vac vbd vac vbd

   
c d c d

R A RB RB RC R A RC
R1  R2  R3  ∆ to Y conversion
R A  RB  RC R A  RB  RC R A  RB  RC

R1 R3
R1  R3   RA
R2

R1 R2 ←Y to ∆ conversion
R1  R2   RB
R3

R2 R3
R2  R3   RC
R1

77
Ex. Find Req ?
0.5 Ω

1Ω 4Ω
3Ω 0.375 Ω 1.5 Ω
=>

2Ω 5Ω
2Ω 5Ω

0.5 Ω
Req  0.5  2.375 6.5  2.23

2.375 Ω 6.5 Ω

78
 Capacitors and Inductors
• Passive circuit elements
• Ability to store and deliver finite amount of energy
• Different from ideal sources as they cannot sustain a finite amount of power
flow over an infinite time interval
• Time dependant current-voltage relationship.
it  C A  Permittivi ty, depends on the dielectric between the plates
C
d 0  8.854 pF / m
vt 

+

t
dv
vt   it dt  v0

1
q  Cvt  it   C Power: p  vi  Cv
dv
dt C dt
t0

Change in energy stored in its electric field

v t 
   
t t
C vt 2  vt 0 2 wC t   wC t 0   C vt 2  vt 0 2
1 1
   
dv
pdt   C v dt   C vdv 
dt  2 2
t0 t0 v t0

Assuming energy at t0, ie. capacitor voltage is 0 at that instant

wC t   Cv 2
1
2
79
 Core  r  relative permeability of the core

L
N2A
 r 0
N2A  0  4 10 7 H / m
s s A  cross - sectional area
Coil N  number of turns
iL s  axial length of the helix
L di
vL  L
dt
vL 
+
No voltage across an inductor carrying a constant current.
=> Short circuit to dc
Ex. Given the waveform of current in a 3H inductor. Determine the inductor voltage
i(t) A
1

di
v3 t(s)
dt −1 0 1 2 3 4
v(t) V
3

t(s)
−1 0 1 2 3 4
−3 80
 iL L di
vL
dt
+ v 

i t  t t

 vt dt 
 it   it 0   vt dt
1 1

1
di  vdt di  
L L L
i t 0  t0 t0

t
it   vt dt  it 0 
 i t   vt dt  k
1

1
L L
t0

Assuming t0 as −∞, with no current or energy in the inductor, ie. i(t0)=i(−∞)=0

t
i t    vdt
1
L

di
Absorbed power, p  vi  Li
dt
Energy wL accepted by the inductor is stored in the magnetic field around the coil.

81
 iL L di
vL
dt
+ v 
t t i t 

The change in energy,  

pdt   L i
di
dt   
dt   L i di  
1
2

L i t 2  it 0 2 
t0 t0 i t0

wL t   wL t 0  
1
2

L it 2  it 0 2 
Assuming current in the inductor to be 0 at t0,

wL t  
1 2
Li
2

82
 Inductors in Series and Parallel
L1 L2 LN i
Leq
i

+ v1  + v2  + vN  + 
+ +
vs vs
 

di
vs  v1  v2    v N vs  Leq
dt
 L1  L2    LN 
di di di di
 L1  L2    LN Leq  L1  L2    LN
dt dt dt dt
+ i2 +
i1 iN
is v L1 L2 LN is v Leq

 

N  N t  t

  vdt   in t 0 
 vdt   is t 0 
1

 1
is  in  is 
 Ln  Leq
n 1 n 1
 t 0  t0
 N 1  t N 1

 
L
 n 1 n 
 vdt  
 
n 1

in t 0  Leq 
1

1

1
t0 L1 L2 LN
 Capacitors in Series and Paralleli Ceq
i
C1 C2 CN
+ 
+ v1  + v2  + vN  vs +
+ 
vs


idt  v s t 0 
1 t
vs  v1  v2    v N
vs 
Ceq 0
t 
N  t   N  t N

 idt   vn t0   
    vn t 0 
 1 1  idt   1
 Ceq 
 Cn   Cn  t0 1 1 1
n 1
 t 0   n 1  n 1  
C1 C2 CN

+ i2 +
i1 iN
is v C1 C2 CN is v Ceq

 

Ceq  C1  C 2    C N
 RL Circuits
t0
it  R1

+
+
vR R L vL vs R2 L
− 

R1 t<0 t=0 t>0 R1

vs R2 L vs R2 L

85
 it 
+ di
+
Ri  v L  Ri  L 0
vR R L vL dt
Objective is to find i(t) that satisfies above
− 
equation as well as I0 at t = 0

Direct Approach
i t

 
di R R
  t
i t   I 0
dt
i L e L
I0 0

An Alternative Approach
Indefinite integration and substitute initial conditions.

86
A More General Approach
di
Ri  L 0
dt
Let the solution be in exponential form,

i t   Ae st
After substituting this assumed solution in the equation,
RA  sLAe st  0
 R  st
 s   Ae  0
 L
R
The solution of the above equation, s ,  A0
R L
 t
it   Ae L t

L
i t   I 0 e
L
At t=0 i  I0 A  I0 R 
R

it 
t

e 
I0
87
it  it  d  it  
t
 1 R
e      
I0 I0 dt  I 0   L
1 t 0

1 R L L
 t    Time Constant
t L R R
0.367

t
t=0
t =τ
Time constant is the time taken for i/I0 to drop from unity to 0, assuming a
constant rate of decay as the decay rate at t=0
 it  
   e 1  0.367
 I 0  t 

88
Ex. For the circuit, find the voltage v at t=200 ms
10 Ω
iL
+
40 Ω v t0 5H
 24 V
t<0 t>0
10 Ω iL iL 10 Ω

+ +
40 Ω v 5H 40 Ω v 5H
 24 V 

iL 0  2.4 A
diL v
v  10iL  5 0 iL  
dt 40
vt  0  24V 5 dv  10  dv
   1v  0  10v  0
40 dt  40  dt

 24V
v 10 t
t0 v  Ae 10t  
v 0   96V
 96e t0
v  96e 10 t
v0.2  12.99V
Ex. Find the inductor voltage v in the circuit, for t > 0
4Ω
iL
+
6Ω t0 v 5H
10 V 

 25e 2tV

90
 Source Free RC Circuits
it 
v0  V0
dv v
+ C  0
dt R
C v R 
t

t
vt   V0 e RC  V0 e    RC  Time Constant
−

v t 
V0
1

0.367

t
t=0 τ =RC

91
Ex. For the circuit, find the voltage v at t=200 µs
4Ω

+
2Ω t0 v 10µF
9V 

t

vt   9e  V   10  6 10 6 s
v200s   320mV

92
Ex. For the circuit, find v(0) and v(2ms)

B A 732 Ω
t0
+
800 Ω v 2 µF 50 V


v0  50V   RC  800  2 10 6  1600 10 6 s

t

vt   50e  V

v2ms   14.327V

93
 A More General Perspective
General RL Circuits
R3 L iL R1 R2
Req  R3  R4 
R1  R2
L

R1 R2 R4 Req
i1 i2

Distinction between 0+ and 0−

R1  
t t
 
i L  i L 0 e  i2   iL 0e  
R1  R2  


i1(0+) is the limit from the right of i1(t) as t approaches 0.

If the initial value of i1 as i1(0+), then the initial value of i2 is i2 0   i1 0      RR

1

       R1  R2
    RR
t

iL 0    i1 0   i2 0   i1 0  i2  i1 0  1
e 
R2 2

94
General RC Circuits
For a circuit consisting of a severel resistors and single capacitor,
  Req C
If the circuit has more than one capacitor,
  RCeq
The more general case can be expressed as
  Req Ceq

95
 Different Inputs
Step Input u(t)
1
0 t0
u t   
1 t0 t
t=0
Delayed unit step input,
u(t)
0 t  t0 1
ut  t0   
1 t  t0
t
t=0 t=t0
Impulse Function
u(t)
0 t  t0

vt   V0
V0
t 0  t  t1
0 t  t1
 t
t=0 t0 t1

vt   V0ut  t0   V0ut  t1 

96
Ramp Input u(t)

u t   kt
t
t=0

Sinusoidal Input
u(t)
ut   ASin wt  A

t
t=0 t=T

97
 Alternating Current
vt   Vm Sinwt  w  rad/s w  2f f = 50 Hz (India)
f = 60 Hz (USA)
Magnitude/Amplitude Hz
f = 400 Hz (Aircrafts, Rockets)
v(t)
Vm

wt
0  2  2

v(t) v1  Vm Sinwt 
v1  Vm Sinwt  Vm

v2  Vm Sinwt   
wt
 0  2  2


v2  Vm Sinwt   
98
 v(t) v1  Vm Sinwt 
v1  Vm Sinwt  Vm

v2  Vm Sinwt   
wt
 0  2  2


v2  Vm Sinwt   
Concept of Phasor v2  Vm Sinwt   

v1  Vm Sinwt 

wt
Ref w

CCW
v2 leads v1

v1 lags v2
99
 
v1  Vm Cos 5t  10  
v2  Vm Sin 5t  30  
 Vm Sin5t  100 

v1

100
Ref w
 30 
CCW

v2

v1 leads v2 by 130◦

100
 R Forced Response to Sinusoidal Functions
Ri t   L  VmCoswt 
di
dt
it 
VmCoswt  L Let the solution be,
it   I1Coswt   I 2 Sinwt 

 wI1Sinwt   wI 2Coswt 
di
dt
Substituting in original differential equation,
L wI1Sinwt   wI 2Coswt   RI1Coswt   I 2 Sinwt   VmCoswt 

 LI1w  RI 2 Sinwt   LI 2 w  RI1  Vm Coswt   0

This equation is true for all values of t wLI1  RI 2  0 wLI 2  RI1  Vm  0
Vm R wLVm
Simultaneous solution of I1 and I2, I1  2 I2 
R  w 2 L2 R 2  w2 L2
it   2 m 2 2 Coswt   2 Sinwt 
V R wLVm
R w L R  w2 L2
 
Coswt   Sinwt 
Vm R wL
 
2 2  
R w L  R w L
2 2 2 2
R w L
2 2 2

R

Vm
CosCoswt   SinSinwt  Cos  Sin 
wL
R w L
2 2 2 R 2  w 2 L2 R 2  w 2 L2
 R
it   Coswt   
Vm wL
  tan 1
R 2  w 2 L2 R
vt   VmCoswt 
it  L  I mCoswt   

vt  Ref w

CCW
i(t) lags v(t) by θ
w=0 => DC it 

vt  Ref w
L=0 => pure resistance v(t) and i(t) align
it 
CCW
vt  Ref
 w
R=0   
2
CCW
vt   it 

it  102
 References
1) Hyat & Kemmerly, “Engineering Circuit Analysis”, 7th ed, Tata McGraw
Hill Education Pvt Ltd, 2012
2) Joseph A Edminister, “Schaums Outline of Theory and Problems of
Electric Circuits”, McGraw Hill Book Company, Singapore, 1983
3) Hughes, “Electrical and Electronic Technology”, Pearson, 2011
4) C K Alexander and M N O Sadiku, “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits”,
McGraw Hill Education (India) Pvt Ltd, 2013
5) J P Tiwari, “Basic Electrical Engineering”, New Age Int Pvt Ltd, 2012
6) S Bagchi, “Circuit theory and Networks”, S Chand, 2000.

103
Thank You

104