ARGUMENT

-Is a claim that is supported by reasons or evidence.

-These are claims backed by reasons that are supported by evidence.
-Having an argument involves two or more individuals responding to one another’s claim a support for
such a claim.
In academic writing, an argument is usually a main idea, often called a “claim” or “thesis statement,”
backed up with evidence that supports the idea.

KEY ELEMENTS OF AN ARGUMENTS

A typically argument contains four primary elements:

1. CLAIM
- Claim is the main argument of the essay which is considered the most important part of an academic
paper.
 The Goal: To tell the audience exactly what you want them to believe or do.

2. EVIDENCE
- Evidence consists of the facts, data, statistics, or expert testimony that support your claim. Without
evidence, a claim is just an opinion.
 The Goal: To provide a foundation of truth for your argument.

3. REASON
- Reasoning is the "glue" that connects your evidence to your claim. It explains why the data proves your
point. Many people skip this step, assuming the evidence speaks for itself, but clear reasoning is what
actually convinces people.
 The Goal: To show the logical connection between the facts and the conclusion.

4. COUNTERARGUMENT
-A Counterargument
acknowledges the opposing side's view. A Rebuttal then explains why that opposing view is incorrect or
less important than your own.

 The Goal: To show you’ve thought the issue through and to neutralize potential objections before
they are even raised.

Manifesto
This refers to a published declaration of the intentions, motives, or views of the issuer, be it an individual,
group, political party or government.

Types of Manifestos

1. ELECTION OR ELECTORAL MANIFESTO

• List of promises to citizens which is issued by political party.
• The list shows the ideology of the party and its commitment to the citizens.
• It is the form of pamphlet or booklet issued to the people about the party’s programs and policies
2. Manifestos relating to religious belief are referred to as creeds
• A creed is set of fundamental beliefs; guiding principle.
• Other synonyms are credo, doctrine, dogma, gospel, ideology, philosophy, and testaments.

3. EDUCATIONAL MANIFESTOS
• These are manifestos involving issues concerning education and are written by educators and
professionals in the field.

4. SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL MANIFESTO

• These cover topics normally dealing with policies on the areas of science and technology, by
scientists and technology experts.

Argumentative Writing

A kind of writing where the students established a position in given topic and the use evidence to
persuade the audience to things from point of view.

Position Paper
A type of academic writing that represents one's standing or view point on a particular issue.
-The main objective of writing a position paper is to take part in a larger debate by stating your
arguments and proposed course of action.
-An essay that expresses position on an issue.

Writing a position paper, you need to give your position on the issue at hand. A position paper can be
written in different incident such as in a discussion of international challenges affecting different nations
and formulation of policies to curb the issue.

GUIDE ON WRITING YOUR POSITION LETTER

1. INTRODUCTION
Present your topic. Say why it is worth discussing, its history. Dwell on its controversies. Make a
thesis statement that would express your opinion in one sentence.
2. BODY
Present a prevailing opinion on the issue, main argument. Counter your arguments with your own
opinion, backed up by reliable evidence.
3. CONCLUSION
Restate both opinions. Give summary of what you argue for. Provide a strategy that would help
resolve the issue.

How to write a position letter?

 Understand the topic given.

 Ensure your topic can easily be arguable.
 List the advantages and disadvantages for both sides of the argument.
 Pick your position and formulate your point.
  Understand your position on the matter.

CLAIM:
- Defines your paper’s goal, direction, and scope supported by evidence, qoutations,
argumentations, expert’s opinion, statistics, and telling details. It is specially focused on the
argument that persuade, proves, or suggests something to a reader who may or may not initially
agree with the writer’s stand.

Types of Claims
Argumentative writing is able to articulate a position and argue with it using academic evidence.
It is wrapped with the following:
1) Fact and Definition: A text that presents a fact or definition along with a strong argument and
put forward a strong argument that the readers cant ignore.
2) Cause and Effect: Used when an effect is being discussed with the support of the arguments
describing the cause of an issue.
3) Value: Is a statement used to argue over a value of something or how a certain thing should be
valued, this concerns researching an issue that is being ignored generally. The writer should
valuing judgment about something good or bad, right or wrong, beautiful or ugly, moral or
immoral.
4. Policy: Is a statement where you either support or oppose a solution or a policy. It provides
strong reasons for opposing and should not be biased or personal.
Goal
• To convince the audience /readers that your opinion is defensible
• To ensure you are addressing all sides of the issue and presenting it in a manner that is easy for
your audience to understand.
Purpose
To generate support and describe the author’s position on an issue incorporating supportive
evidence based on facts that provide a solid foundation.
Criteria of an Issue
Choose what you can prove instead of writing ambiguous claims that you find difficult to prove
later. Your thesis statement is your final point so you should write your claim with strong evidence and
arguments in mind.

Analyzing an Issue and Developing an argument

• Do some research on the subject matter from printed materials, online sources, or personal
references through a conversation.
• Have an opinion on your topic about which side of the argument you want to take either you
agree or disagree.
• Ensure that your position is well supported with valid information; and
 • Make a list of the pro and con ideas of the topic to support your counterclaims, along with a list
of supporting evidence for both sides.

Supporting Evidence Include the following:

a) Factual Knowledge: Is the information that is verifiable and agreed upon by almost everyone.
b) Statistical Inferences: Denotes the interpretation and examples of an accumulation facts.
c) Informed Opinion: Is the opinion developed through research and/or expertise of the claim.
d) Personal Testimony: Focuses on the personal experience related to a knowledgeable party.

Language Used in Writing a Position Paper

Position Paper is an academic journal written in formal language of appropriate vocabulary. It
communicates strongly and effectively with uncomplicated language and sentence structure.
a) Diction
It refers to the choice of words for the expression of ideas; the construction, disposition, and
application of words in your essay with clearness, accuracy, variety, mode of expression, and language.
b) Paragraph
Clear paragraphs are essential that comes in so many patterns.

VARIOUS KINDS OF REPORT

Report
 Is a major form of technical/business/professional/ communication. In writing a report, a person
who possesses certain facts, ideas, or suggestions useful for courses of action transmits this
information to another person who wants to use it.
 A report can be a description of an event by a person who witnessed it to somebody else who was
not actually present on the scene.

 It is formal in nature and is written for a specific purpose and audience. It discusses the topic in
depth and contains conclusions and recommendations if required.

TYPES OF REPORTS
Informal Reports
• The informal report functions to inform, analyze, and recommend.
• It usually takes the form of a memo, letter of a very short international document like a monthly financial
report, monthly activities report , research and development report, etc.
• The informal report is usually more controversial in tone and typically deals with everyday problems and
issues addressed to a narrow relationship inside the organization.
Formal Report
 • The Formal report is the collection and interpretation of data and information.
• The formal report is complex and used at an official level.
• It is often a written account of a major project.
• Examples of subject matter include new technologies, the advisability of launching a new project line,
results of a study or experiment, an annual report, or a year old review of developments in the fields.
Types of Formal report
They can be categorized as:
o Informational reports
o Analytical reports
o Recommendation reports
Informational Reports
• Informational reports present so readers can understand a particular problem or situations.
• Example: Manager of a city website might prepare an informational report for the city council, the report
would provide statistics on the number of people who pay their city water and sewage bills online etc.
Analytical Report
• This type goes a step beyond presenting results. Analytical reports present results analyze those
results, and draw conclusion based on those results.
• These reports attempt to describe why or how something happened and then to explain what it
means.
• Like informational reports, analytical reports can be formal or informal.
• Explain what cause a problem or situation- Present the results of a traffic study showing accidents
at an intersection- The report explains what it means.
• Explain the potential results of a particular course of action.
• Suggest which option, action or procedure is best.
Recommendation Reports
• This type advocates a particular course of action. This usually present the result and conclusions that
support the recommendation.
• This type is identical to analytical report.
• For example: your analytical report suggest using treatment X is more efficient than treatments Y and Z.
However, that does not mean that you will use treatment X as cost and other considerations might
recommend treatment Y.
• What should we do about the problem?
• Should we or can we do something?
• Should we change the method or technology we use to do something?
OBJECTIVES OF REPORT
 To present a record of accomplished work (Project Report)
 To record an experiment (primary research report/laboratory report)
  To record research findings or technical specifications (a report on the details of a new product)
 To document schedules, timetables, and milestones (a report on a long-term plan)
 To document current status (an inspection report)
 To present information on a large number of people ( annual report)

STRUCTURE OF REPORT
Understanding the function of each section will help you to structure your information and use the correct writing
style.
Title
- The title needs to concisely state the topic of the report. It needs to be informative and descriptive so that someone
just reading the title will understand the main issue of your report.
Abstract
(also called the Summary or Executive Summary)
- This is the “shop window” for your report. It is the first (and sometimes the only) section to be read and
should be the last to be written. It should enable the reader to make an informed decision about whether
they want to read the whole report. The length will depend on the extent of the work reported but it is
usually a paragraph or two and always less than a page.
Introduction
(Also called Background or Context)
- In this section you explain the rationale for undertaking the work reported on, including what you
have been asked (or chosen) to do, the reasons for doing it and the background to the study. It
should be written in an explanatory style.
- State what the report is about. Describe your starting point and the background to the subject.
Literature Survey
(Also called Literature Review or Survey/Review of Research)
- This is a survey of publications (books, journals, authoritative, websites, sometimes conference papers)
reporting work that has already been done on the topic of your report. It should only include studies that
have direct relevance to your research.
Methods
(Also called Methodology)
- You need to write your Methods in such a way that a reader could replicate the research you have done.
Results
(also called Data of Finding)
- This section has only one job which is to present the findings of your research as simply and clearly as
possible. Use the format that will achieve this most effectively e.g. text, graphs, tables, or diagrams.
Discussion
 - This is probably the longest section and worth spending time on. It brings everything together, Showing
how your findings respond to the brief you explained in your introduction and the previous research you
surveyed in your literature survey.
Conclusion
- Your conclusion should be a short section with no new arguments or evidence. Sum up the main
points of your research.
This section may also include:
• Recommendations for action
• Suggestions for further research
References
(Also called Reference List of Bibliography)
- List here are the full details for any work you have referred to in the report, including books, journals,
websites, and other materials.
Appendices
- The appendices hold any additional information that may help the reader but is not essential to the report’s
main findings: anything that ‘adds value’. That might include (for instance) interview questions, raw data
or glossary of terms used. Label all appendices and refer them where appropriate in the main text.