CHAPTER FOUR

Introduction To Water Treatment

Processes

by : Mentwabe A.
 [Link]
 Water available in various sources may contain various
types of impurities and cannot be directly used by the
public for various purposes, before removing the
impurities. Therefore, removing these impurities up to
certain extent so that it may not be harmful to the public
health is necessary. The process of removing the impurities
from water is called water treatment .
 The goal of all water treatment process is to remove
existing contaminants in the water, or reduce the
concentration of such contaminants so the water becomes
fit for its desired end-use.
 [Link] OF Water Treatment
• The main objective of the treatment process is to remove
the impurities of raw water.
The objective may be summarized as follow:
(i) Preventing Disease Transmission
(ii) Making the Water Acceptable
(iii) Protecting the distribution System
1. Preventing Disease Transmission
 Organisms that cause disease must be removed or
inactivated to make the water safe.
 Chlorine is most commonly used to inactivate such
pathogens.
 Cont…..
2. Making the Water Acceptable
• If the consumers regard the water as unsatisfactory they may
use an alternative source which is not hazardous. The taste,
appearance and suitability for washing clothes shall all be
considered.
3. Protecting the distribution System
• Corrosion of the system can be reduced by raising the PH
of the water or adding chemicals.
• Corrosion reduces the life of the pipes, reduces their
carrying capacity.
 Location Of Treatment Plant
The treatment plant should be located
 Near to the town to which water is to be supplied and near
to the source of supply. This will prevent the water quality
to depreciate after treatment.
 Away from any source of pollution.
 Away from the border of other countries and should be
announced as a protected area. During war time, a
neighbour country may play fool game by damaging the
plant, poisoning the water.
 At higher elevation if the natural topography permit.
 Treatment Schemes
• A water treatment scheme outlines the processes and
technologies used to purify and condition water for various
purposes.
 Conventional ground water treatment

b)
Factors Affecting The Choice Of
Treatment Schemes
• The following factors influence the choice of treatment
alternative discussed below:
 Limitation of capital
 Availability of skilled and unskilled labor
 Availability of equipment, construction material, and
water treatment chemicals
 Characteristics of Water quality
 Local traditions, customs and cultural standards
 National sanitation and pollution policies.
 Source Of Water Pollution And Water
Impurities
WATER POLLUTION
• Water pollution is any chemical, biological, or physical
change in water quality that has a harmful effect on living
organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired uses.
a) Point source: specific location (drain pipes, ditches, sewer
lines).
b) Non-point source: cannot be traced to a single site of
discharge (atmospheric deposition, agricultural / industrial /
residential runoff)
IMPURITIES IN WATER
• The impurities which are present in water may be classified in
the following three categories.
a) Suspended impurities
b) Colloidal impurities
c) Dissolved impurities
Methods of water treatment
 Various methods are used to make water potable and
attractive to the consumer.
 The methods selected depends on the character of the raw
water.
 The various operations involved in treatment of water
are as follows:
 Preliminary treatment (Screening, flotation, Plain
sedimentation and Aeration)
 Coagulation and flocculation
 Sedimentation
 Filtration
 Disinfection
 Miscellaneous operations such as defluoridation, softening,
adsorption, revers osmosis
Preliminary treatment
 Surface waters contain debris which can clog or damage
pumps, clog pipes and cause problems in water treatment.
 Preliminary treatment processes are employed for removal
of debris and part of the sediment load.
 pre-treatment provides before any treatments plant to
reduce the load of other treatments plant.
 This is an advantage otherwise a very large amount of
chemicals may have to be employed for chemical
coagulation which can be expensive.
 Pre-treatment provides cheaper treatment.
 Cont……
TYPES OF PRELIMINARY TREATMENT
I. Intakes
II. Screens
III. Plain sedimentation
[Link]
V. Aeration
[Link] galleries
[Link] trap
1. Intake
 Proper design of the intake structure is one way of achieving
preliminary treatment.
 The intakes should be located in such a way that rolling debris
at the bottom is prevented from entering via the intake.
 Bar Screens are provided to screen out larger size floating and
suspended materials.
 Cont……
2. Screens
 Unit operations that remove floating or suspended matters

 Screens are necessary for removing suspended materials such

as leaves, logs, rags, and other floating debris.
 Screening of water which is one form of pre-treatment is done
by passing the water through closely spaced bars, gratings or
perforated plates.
 Screening does not change the chemical or bacteriological
quality of the water.
 It serves to retain the coarse material and suspended matter that
are larger than the screen openings.
 Cont……
• Classification of Screens
Depending on the opening size screen classified as
Coarse screen (25 to 75 mm)
Medium screen (2 to 6 mm)
Fine screen (0.5cm)
 Cont…..
Bar screens cleaning methods
 Cont…...
Design of Bar Screens
 Approach Velocity
 Optimum Velocity : 0.6 m/s (through the screen
opening)
 Maximum Velocity : 0.9 m/s (to prevent entrapped
materials being forced through the bars).
 Minimum Velocity : 0.4 m/s to prevent deposition of
solids.
 Angle of Inclination (60 - 75 degree)
 This angle is important, particularly in manually
cleaned bar screens.
 The opening between the bars is 50-100 mm bars
 The head loss through the screen is generally limited to
about 150 mm.
 Cont…..
Head loss in Bar screen
The head loss can be easily calculated
 Cont…..
Fine screens
Cont…..
 Cont…..
• Micro-strainer
 Cont…..
• Example 1
Determine the building up of headloss through a bar screen
when 50% of the flow area is blocked off by the
accumulation of coarse solids assume the following
conditions are applied.
Approach velocity = 0.6m/s
Velocity through a clean bar screen = 0.9m/s
Open area for flow through clean bar screen = 0.19m2
 Cont……
• Solution
a) Head loss for clean screen
 Cont……
b) Head loss for 50% clogged
Q = V*A
Va*Aa = Vb*Ab
𝑄 𝑄
𝑉𝑎 = and 𝑉𝑏 = , but 50% of 𝐴𝑎 is only open
𝐴𝑎 𝐴𝑏
Therefore, 𝐴𝑏 =50%*𝐴𝑎
50∗𝐴𝑎 𝐴𝑎
𝐴𝑏 = =
100 2
Aa = 2*Ab
Vb = 2*Va= 2*0.9 m/s
= 1.8 m/s
Vb= The velocity through the clogged bar screen
 Cont……
Example 2
• Dimension the following pre-treatment unit for a WTP for a
maximum flow of 48,000 m3/day. A bar screen is used to
remove the coarse waste. The velocity in the screen channel
(Va) is 0.5 m/s and flow-through velocity of the clean screen
(Vb) is 0.8 m/s.

a) Calculate the required open screen area for reaching this

screen velocity during treatment

b) Calculate the head loss of this clean screen

c) Calculate the maximum clogging allowed before the

screen needs to be cleaned. (hL max = 0.15m)
 Cont…..
• Solution
a) Qmax-day = 48000m3/d = 0.56 m3/s

b) Head loss for clean screen

 Cont……
C) % of Area clogged when hL (max) = 0.15m

From a A total = 0.69 m2

 Cont……
Plain sedimentation
 Plain sedimentation, also termed “pre-sedimentation” is accomplished without the use of
coagulants..

 Plain sedimentation is a form of pre treatment that provides a

low velocity of flow through a tank preferably excavated in the
ground.
 In plain sedimentation suspended particles are separated from water by
the action of natural forces alone i.e., by gravitation with or without
natural aggregation.
 The aim is for the removal of gross sediment load prior to additional treatment.

 Plain sedimentation is favorable in a tropical climate due to the

high load of suspended solids to be settled as a result of erosion
by tropical high intensity rains.
 Design parameter for plain sedimentation
……
• Design parameter for plain sedimentation

Flotation
 Substances having the almost same or lower densities than
that of water, such as oils and fats, are separated from water
by flotation.
 Cont……
Infiltration Gallery
 It is underground tunnel which have holes on its sides,
used for tapping underground water near river, lakes and
stream.

 This type of treatment is used when the water depth is

very small and difficult to construct weir or dam to store
water due to the seepage of the water.
Silt Trap
• This is a box like structure to remove particles that have
higher density than density of water.
 Cont…...
Aeration
 Cont…..
Different types of aeration system
Gravity Aerator
Spray aerator
Air diffuser
Mechanical Aerator
Gravity Aerator
A cascade aeration system is a method used in water treatment
to introduce air into water. It typically involves a series of steps
or stages through which water flows, allowing for the exchange
of gases between the water and the air.
 Cont…...
• Spray aerators: - spray droplets of water into the air
from stationary or moving orifices or nozzles. Water is
pumped through pressure nozzles to spray in the open air
as in fountain to a height of about 2.5m.
 Cont……
Air diffuser
• In diffused aeration systems, water is contained in basins.
Compressed air is forced into this system through the diffusers.
This air bubbles up through the water, mixing water and air and
introducing oxygen into the water.
 Cont……
Mechanical Aerator
Mechanical aeration systems are fairly simple, but they are not
among the most common purification techniques. These
aerators work by vigorously agitating source water with
mechanical mixers.
 Cont…..
• Coagulation and Flocculation
The hydraulic settling values of small size particles in water are
very small and therefore, they require longer time to settle in
plain sedimentation tanks.

Colloidal particles are even finer than 0.0001mm and it is

difficult to separate from water because they do not settle by
gravity. Therefore colloidal particle can be removed by
coagulation process.
 Coagulation is a chemical process through which colloidal particles
and very fine solid suspensions are destabilized and neutralize the
negative charge.
 The chemicals add into the water is called coagulants.
 Cont…..
Neutralization can take place by addition of an ion of opposite
charge to the colloid.
 Cont……
 When certain chemical compounds are added to water and mixed
thoroughly masses of flocculent precipitate is formed.
 Flocculation refers to the process agglomeration of destabilized
particles in to larger size particle known as floc which can be
effectively removed by sedimentation.
 Cont…..
• The principle of coagulation can be explained from the following two
conditions:
1. Floc formation
When coagulants (chemicals) are dissolved in water and thoroughly
mixed with it, they produce a think gelatinous precipitate. This
precipitate is known as floc and this floc has got the property of arresting
suspended impurities in water during downward travel towards the
bottom of tank.
2. Electric charges
Most particles dissolved in water have a negative charge, so they tend to
repel each other. As a result, they stay dispersed and dissolved or
colloidal in the water. The purpose of most coagulant chemicals is to
neutralize the negative charges on the turbidity particles to prevent those
particles from repelling each other.
 Cont……
 Stable- Colloidal suspensions that do not agglomerate naturally.
 Most colloids are stable  possess a negative charge
There are two major force acting on colloidal particle
1. Electrostatics repulsion force
Negative particle repeal other negative colloidal particle

2. Van der Waals force – an attraction force

 The addition of positively charged ions, coagulant (Na+, Mg2+,
Al3+, Fe3+ etc.) can neutralize the colloidal negative charges.
 Cont…..
• Van der Waals force – an attraction force – refer to the
tendency of particles in nature to attract each other weakly if
they have no charge.

positively charged coagulants attract to negatively

charged particles due to electricity
 Cont……
• Coagulants
Coagulant chemicals come in two main types
• Primary coagulants neutralize the electrical charges of
particles in the water which causes the particles to clump
together.
 Coagulant aids add density to slow-settling flocs and add toughness to the
flocs so that they will not break up during the mixing and settling processes.
Eg..Polymers
Most commonly used coagulants
I. Aluminum sulfate [Al 2(SO4) 3.18H2O].
II. Sodium aluminates (Na2Al2O4)
[Link] Copperas
[Link] electrolytes
V. Natural Coagulants – Moringa olifera , Cactus
 Cont…..
I. Aluminum sulfate [Al 2(SO4) 3.18H2O].
It is also called Alum. It is the most widely used chemical
coagulant in water purification work.
Due to the following reason, Alum is the most widely used
chemical coagulant.
1. It is very cheap
2. It removes taste and color in addition to turbidity
3. It is very efficient
4. Flocs formed are more stable and heavy
5. It is not harmful to health
6. It is simple in working, doesn‟t require skilled supervision
for dosing
 Cont…….
• Natural coagulant
 Cont
• Factors affecting coagulation:
1. Type of coagulant
2. Dose of coagulant
3. Characteristic of water
Type and quantity of suspended matter
Temperature of water
pH of water
4. Time and method of mixing
 Cont…..
Jar test
 Jar test is laboratory procedure used to determine the
optimum PH and the optimum coagulant.
Cont…...
Cont…..
 Cont…..
Coagulation-Flocculation Process:

 Coagulation/flocculation process is

a two step process - the water first

flows into the Flash mix (Rapid

mix) chamber, and then enters the

flocculation basin.

 Rapid or Flash mixing is the

process by which a coagulant is

rapidly and uniformly dispersed

through the mass of water.

 Sedimentation
 Sedimentation is a solid-liquid separation by the action of gravitational
force to remove suspended solids
 Sedimentation is accomplished by decreasing the velocity of the
water being treated to a point below which the particles will no
longer remain in suspension
 Two Commonly used types of sedimentation in water and
wastewater treatment plants are:
 Plain sedimentation - when impurities are separated from water
by the action of gravity alone.
 Coagulant aided sedimentation - when the particles are too small
to be removed by gravity and aided with coagulants to increase size
and agglomeration.
 Cont…..
 Purpose:

 Removal of 40 - 60 % of suspended solids

 Removal of 25 - 35 % of B.O.D
 Sediment the organic and inorganic matters

Factors affecting sedimentation efficiency:

1 Viscosity
2 Concentration of suspended solids
3 Retention period
4 Horizontal velocity
5 Temperature
6 Surface loading rate = 24 - 48 m³/m²/day
7 Dimension of tank
8 Dead zones
 Cont…..
Types of Settling
Depending on the particle’s concentration and the
interaction between particles, 4 types of settling can occur.

 Discrete (type I)

 Flocculent (type II)

 Hindered (type III)

 Compression (type IV)
 Cont…..
1. Discrete particle settling: The particles settle
without interaction and occur under low solids
concentration.
2. Flocculent settling: particles initially settle
independently, but flocculate in the depth of the
clarification unit.
 The velocity of settling particles is usually
increasing as the particle’s aggregates.
 Cont…..
3. Hindered/zone settling: Inter-particle forces are
sufficient to hinder the settling of neighboring
particles. The particles tend to remain in fixed
positions with respect to each other
4. Compression settling: occurs when the particle
concentration is so high so that the upper
particle compressed particles on lower levels.
The settling velocity then drastically reduces.
Cont…..
 Cont…..
• Settling of Discrete Particles (Type I Settling)

 The size, shape and the specific gravity of the particle do

not change with a time.
 when discrete particles is placed in quiescent fluid, it will
accelerate until the friction resistance (drag force, FD) is
equal to the impelling force (driving force) acting on the
particles.
 At this stage, the particles attain a uniform or terminal
velocity and settles down with this constant velocity called
settling velocity, Vs .
 Cont…..
• The settling velocity of this particle is expressed by Stoke's law
• Derivation of Stoke’s Law: 3 forces on settling particle

Drag force, particle weight, buoyancy force

1. The drag force: is given by Newton's law, as

v2
Drag force(𝐹𝐷 ) = CD Aρw
2
• Where, CD = Coefficient of drag 𝑭𝑫
A = Area of particle
Particle
w = Density of water
v = velocity of fall W 𝑭𝒃
 Cont……
2. The weight of the particle (W) = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑣𝑝 ρpg

3. Force of buoyance (𝐹𝑏 ) = 𝑣𝑝 ρwg

• Where, Vp= volume of particle
ρw= density of water
ρp = density of particles
• upward and downward force will become equal when v (in
drag force equation) becomes equal to vs.
vs 2
CD Aρw + 𝑣𝑝 wg = 𝑣𝑝 ρpg
2
vs 2
CD Aρw = 𝑣𝑝 ρpg - 𝑣𝑝 ρwg
2
 Cont…..
vs 2
• CD A ∗ ρw ∗ = vp g(ρp − ρw )
2

2 2 𝑣𝑝 𝑔(𝜌p−𝜌𝑤 )
• 𝑣𝑠 =
𝐶𝐷 𝐴∗𝜌𝑤

• For spherical particles

4 𝑉𝑝 𝑟 𝑑
• vp = πr 3 and Ap = 4πr 2 = =
3 𝐴𝑝 3 6

2𝑑𝑔(𝜌p−𝜌𝑤 ) 𝑑𝑔(𝜌p−𝜌𝑤 )
𝑣𝑠2 = = where d= diameter of particle
6𝐶𝐷 ∗𝜌𝑤 3𝐶𝐷 ∗𝜌𝑤

𝑑g(G−1)
vs2 = , general equation to calculate settling velocity
3CD

(𝜌p−𝜌𝑤 )
of particles where = G -1
𝜌𝑤
 Cont…..
• The coefficient of drag (CD)is a function of Reynolds number, Re
24
CD = (laminar flow or streamline flow)
Re
𝑣𝑠 𝑑 𝜌𝑤 𝑣𝑠𝑑
Where, Re is the particle Reynolds number = =
 μ
µ = ʋ* 𝜌𝑤 where µ = dynamics viscosity
ʋ = kinematics viscosity (m2/s)
• Therefore, the above equation then becomes,

2 g(G−1)d
• vs = 24
3∗ 𝑅
𝑒

2 1 𝑅𝑒
• vs = ∗ g(G − 1)d ∗
3 24

2 g vs d g 𝑑2
• vs = ∗ G−1 d∗ = vs = ∗ G−1 ∗
72  72 
 Cont…..
𝑔𝑑^2(𝜌p−𝜌𝑤 )
• Vs= (for laminar flow)
72∗µ

• The above Stoke's equation is valid for particles of size less than
0.1mm; in which case, the viscous force predominates over the inertial
force, leading to what is known as streamline settling
b) For transition settling (d between 0.1mm and 1.0mm)
3
• Here 1 < 𝑅𝑒 < 10
24 3
• CD = + + 0.34
Re Re
c) For turbulent settling (d > 1.0mm)
3
• Here 𝑅𝑒 > 10 CD = 0.34 to 0.4
• For turbulent settling, the vs reduces to:

• vs = 0.91 gd ∗ (G − 1)
 Cont…..
• Example 1. Find the settling velocity vs for sand particles
with a diameter of 0.020mm. ρ = 2650 kg/m3, µ =
S
1.002*10 N. at 200 C. and find Vs for d= 0.5mm
−3
m2

Solution
a) For particle which d= 0.02mm

Assume the flow is laminar

𝑔𝑑^2(𝜌p−𝜌𝑤 ) 9.8 (0.02∗10−3 )^2(2650−1000 )

Vs = =
72∗µ 72∗1.002∗10^−3

Vs= 8.9*10−5 m/s

Check the Reynolds numbers

𝜌𝑤 𝑣𝑠𝑑 1000∗8.9∗10−5 ∗0.02∗10−3

Re= μ
= 1.002∗10−3
= 0.017 < 1 so it is laminar
 Cont…..
• B) For particle which d= 0.5mm
Assume the flow is laminar
𝑔𝑑^2(𝜌p−𝜌𝑤 ) 9.8(0.5∗10−3 )^2 (2650−1000 )
Vs = = = vs= 0.056m/s
72∗µ 72∗1.002∗10 −3
Check the Reynolds number
𝜌𝑤 𝑣𝑠𝑑 1000∗ 0.056 0.5∗10−3
Re = μ
= 1.002∗10−3
= 28
Re >1 the flow is transitional
24 3 24 3
CD= + + 0.34 = + + 0.34 =1.76
𝑅𝑒 √𝑅𝑒 28 √28
𝑑𝑔(𝜌p−𝜌𝑤 ) 0.5∗10−3 9.81(2650−1000 )
𝑉𝑆 2 = = = vs= 0.039m/s
3𝐶𝐷 ∗𝜌𝑤 3∗1.76 ∗1000
Check the Reynolds number
𝜌𝑤 𝑣𝑠𝑑 1000∗0.039∗0.5∗10−3
Re = μ
= Re = 1.002∗10−3
= 19.5
 Cont……
24 3 24 3
• CD = + + 0.34 = + + 0.34 = 2.25
𝑅𝑒 √𝑅𝑒 19.5 √19.5
𝑑𝑔(𝜌 −𝜌 ) 0.5∗10 −3 9.81(2650−1000 )
p 𝑤
• 𝑉𝑆 2 = = =vs= 0.034
3𝐶𝐷 ∗𝜌𝑤 3∗2.25 ∗1000
Check the Reynolds number
𝜌𝑤 𝑣𝑠𝑑 1000∗0.034∗0.5∗10−3
Re = μ
= Re = 1.002∗10−3
= 16.5
24 3 24 3
• CD = + + 0.34 = + + 0.34 = 2.5
𝑅𝑒 √𝑅𝑒 16.5 √16.5
𝑑𝑔(𝜌p−𝜌𝑤 ) 0.5∗10−3 9.81(2650−1000 )
• 𝑉𝑆 2 = = = vs= 0.032
3𝐶𝐷 ∗𝜌𝑤 3∗2.5 ∗1000

Example 2
Find the terminal settling Velocity of a spherical Particle
with diameter of 0.5mm and a specific gravity of 2.65
settling through water at 200C; (µ = 1.002*10-3 Ns/m3,
ρw = 1000Kg/m3).
 Cont…..
• Sedimentation basins/tanks/clarifiers
 Sedimentation basins, also called settling tanks or clarifiers,
are large tanks in which water is made to flow very slowly in
order to promote the sedimentation of particles or flocs.
 A minimum of two basins should be provided to allow one unit
to be out of service for repair or maintenance.
 The design must include arrangements that permit use of a single
basin with compartments when necessary.
 Cont…..
• Sedimentation basins come in two shapes.

Rectangular

Which one is
better?

Why?

Circular
 Cont….
 A long rectangular settling tank can be divided into four different
functional zones:
Inlet zone: Region in which the flow is uniformly distributed over the
cross section such that the flow through settling zone
follows horizontal path.

Settling zone: Settling occurs under quiescent/dormant conditions.

Outlet zone: Clarified effluent is collected and discharge through outlet

weir.

Sludge zone: For collection of sludge below settling zone.

 Cont……

Circular Basins
• Circular settling basins have the
same functional zones as the long
rectangular basin, but the flow regime
is different.
• When the flow enters at the center
and is baffled to flow radially towards
the perimeter.
• Sludge removal mechanisms
in circular tanks are simpler and
require less maintenance.
 Design parameter for sedimentation tank

Particles falling through the settling basin have two

components of velocity
1. horizontal velocity
2. Vertical (surface loading rate)
The path of the particle is given by the vector sum of horizontal
velocity vh and vertical settling velocity vt.

rectangular sedimentation tank

 Cont…..
Design parameter for sedimentation tank
1. Detention Time
• This is the theoretical time that the water is detained in a settling
basin. It is evaluated as the volume of the tank divided by the
rate of flow and is denoted as.

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑉 𝐵∗𝐻∗𝐿

• Detention time = = =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑄 𝑄

2. Surface Loading/Overflow Velocity

In the Figure above line diagram of a rectangular tank has
been shown. The water containing uniformly distributed
sediment enters the rectangular tank with a uniform velocity
V. Let Q is the discharge entering the basin.
 Cont…..
𝑄
• Flow velocity (VH) =
𝐵∗𝐻

where, B = Width of the basin

and H = Depth of water in the tank

Each discrete particle is moving with a horizontal velocity

vH and a downward velocity vv.

𝑣𝐻 𝐿 𝑙 𝑄
= , Vv = =
𝑉𝑣 𝑤 𝑤∗𝑉𝐻 𝐵𝐿

𝑄
Vv =
𝐵𝐿
 Cont…..
COMMON DESIGN CRITERIA
• While designing a sedimentation tank, following guidelines
should be observed for its satisfactory performance.,
1) Velocity of flow : Not greater than 30 cm/min for horizontal
flow tanks.
• 2) Tank Dimensions - L : B should be 3 to 5 : 1 If L/ B is more,
chance of short-circuiting is less. Generally length provided is
30 m and in extreme case, it may be taken as 100 m. Breadth 6
m to 10 m. Circular tank: Diameter not greater than 60 m.
Common size is 20 m to 40 m. More diameter may invite
special structural arrangements.
• 3) Depth: 2.5 to 5.0 m (3 m more common)
• 4) Detention period : For plain sedimentation 3 to 4 hours and
for coagulated sedimentation 2 to 2.5 hours.
 Cont…..
5) Surface loading or overflow rate or surface overflow rate (SOR): For
plain sedimentation for normal water 12,000 to 18,000 l/d/m2 tank area
and for thoroughly flocculated water 24,000 to 30,000 1/d/m2 of tank
area. For horizontal flow circular tank 30,000 to 40,000 l/d/m2 of area.

6) Slopes : 1% towards inlet and circular 8%. The total amount of flow
from the tank within 24 hours, generally equals the maximum daily
demand of water. For the efficient removal of sediment in the tank, it
should be kept in mind that flow is uniformly distributed throughout the
cross-section of the tank. If currents permit a substantial portion of the
water to pass directly through the tank without being detained for the
intended time, the flow is said to be short-circuited.
 Cont…..
Example1. The average daily demand at a town has been
estimated as 8 million litres per day. Design a suitable
sedimentation, tank assuming a detention period of 5 hours and
velocity of flow as 22 cm per minute.
Solution
 Average daily demand = 8 million litres
 Maximum daily demand = 8 million litres= 8 x 106 litres
 Quantity of water to be treated during the detention period of 5
hours.
8∗106
*5liter = 1.7*106 liter
24
1.7 x 10^3 Cubic Meters = 1666.6 cubic meters
Capacity of tank = 1666.6 cubic meters
 Cont…..
• Velocity of flow to be maintained through the tank = 22
cm/min
= 0.22 m/minute.
The length of tank required
= Velocity of flow x Detention period
= 0.22 x (5 x 60) = 66 m
• Cross-sectional area of the tank required

𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 1666.6𝑚3

• = = = 25.5m^2
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 66𝑚

• Assuming water depth in the tank as 4 m, the width of the tank

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 25.5
= = = 6.3m
𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑕 4

• Hence, size of the tank = 66 m x 6.3 m x 4m.

 Cont…..
• Example 2 A circular sedimentation tank fitted with mechanical
sludge removal unit is to treat 4.0 million litres of water per
day. The detention period of the tank is 5 hour. If depth of the
tank is to be restricted to 3 m, calculate the diameter of the
tank.

• Solution

• Quantity of raw water to be treated per day = 4 million litres =

4 x 106 litres/day. Quantity of raw water to be treated during
the detention period i e, capacity of the tank

4∗106 ∗5
• V = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 ∗ 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = = 833 cubic meter
24
 Cont…..
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 833 𝑚3
• Cross sectional area of the tank = = =
𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑕 3𝑚
277.7m^2
∏𝐷 2
• A =
4
4𝐴 4∗277.7
• D^2 = = = 353.7m^2
∏ ∏
• D = 18.8m
Example-3
Design a rectangular sedimentation tank to treat 2.4 million
liters of raw water per day. The detention period may be
assumed to be 3 hours (Assume thoroughly flocculated
process
 Cont……
• Solution:
• Given: Raw water flow per day is 2.4 x 106 l. Detention period
is 3h.
• Volume of tank = Flow x Detention period = 2.4 x 103 x 3/24
= 300 m3
• Assume depth of tank = 3.0 m.
• Surface area =L*B = 300/3 = 100 m2
• L/B = 3 (assumed), L = 3B.
• 3B2 = 100 m2 i.e. B = 5.8 m
• L = 3B = 5.8 X 3 = 17.4 m
• Hence surface loading (Overflow rate) = Q/A= 2.4 x 106/(100)
• = 24,000 l/d/m2 < 30,000 l/d/m2 (OK)
 Cont…..
𝑄
 Horizontal velocity (Vh)= =
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑄 2400
= =137.93m/day
𝐻∗𝐵 5.8∗3
 Assume the total length of the weir is three times
the width of the tank.
 Weir length (Lw)=3*5.8=17.4m
2.4 x 106 l/day
 Weir loading rate (qw)=Q/Lw=
𝟏𝟕.𝟒𝒎
=137,931.05 l/day/m
𝒎 𝟑
=137.93 𝒅𝒂𝒚 𝒎
 Cont……
Filtration
• The effluent obtained after coagulation does not satisfy the
drinking water standard and is not safe. So it requires further
treatments.

• Filtration is one of the water purification process in which

water is allowed to pass through a porous medium to remove
remaining flocs or suspended solids from the previous
treatment processes.

• Filtration process assist significantly by reducing the load on

the disinfections process, increasing disinfection efficiency.
 Cont……
These phenomena can be explained on the basis of the
following mechanisms of filtration
1. Mechanical straining
• particles larger than the pore size of the filtering medium
are retained or strained out mechanically.
2. Sedimentation and Adsorption
• The interstices between the sand grains act as
sedimentation basins in which the suspended particles
smaller than the voids in the filter-bed settle upon the sides
of the sand grains.
 flocculant particles become attached to surface of filtering
medium as they pass by.
 Cont…..
3. Electrolytic action
• Due to the friction between medium and suspended solids,
certain amount of dissolved and suspended matter is ionized.
Suspended matter in water is ionized, carries charge of one
polarity and the particles of sand in filter which are also
ionized, possess electrical charges of opposite polarity. These
neutralize each other; change the chemical character of water.
4. Biological Action
Certain organisms and bacteria are generally present in the voids of
the filter.

These organisms consumes impurities from the raw water as their

food for survival and produce harmless compound by biological
metabolism.
 Cont…..
• Filtration – what can be removed
Silt
Clay
Microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, protozoan
cycsts)
Colloidal or precipitated humic substances
Other natural organic matters from the decay of
vegetations
Precipitates of aluminum or iron used in
coagulation
Calcium carbonate, magnesium hydroxide
precipitates from lime softening.
Iron and/or manganese precipitates
 Cont…..
Classification of filters:
1. Based on the filter media:
i) Sand filters, E.g. natural silica sand
ii) Anthracite filters, E.g. crushed anthracite coal
iii) Diatomaceous earth filters, E.g. diatomaceous
earth
iv) Metal fabric filters, E.g. stainless steel fabric
filter

2. Based on the rate of filtration, sand filters can be

classified as:
i) Slow sand filters –usually gravity
ii) Rapid sand filters-both gravity and pressure type
 Cont……
Slow Sand Filters:/SSF
 In SSF water is allowed at a slow rate through a bed of sand, so
that coarse suspended solids are retained on or near the surface
of the bed.
 The slow sand filter removes particles from the water through
adsorption and straining. It also removes a great deal of
turbidity from water using biological action.
 A layer of dirt, debris, and microorganisms builds up on the top
of the sand.
 This layer is known as schmutzdecke, which is German for
"dirty skin."
 The schmutzdecke breaks down organic particles in the water
biologically.
 Slow sand filters are best suited for the filtration of water for
small towns.
 Cont…..
A. Construction of slow sand filter
 Slow sand filter is made up of a top layer of fine sand of effective size
0.2 to 0.3mm and uniformity coefficient 2 to 3. The thickness of the
layer may be 75 to 90 cm.
 Below the fine sand layer, a layer of coarse sand of such size whose
voids do not permit the fine sand to pass through it. The thickness of this
layer may be 30cm.
 The lowermost layer is a graded gravel of size 2 to 45mm and thickness
is about 20 to 30cm.
 The gravel layer is used to retain the coarse sand layer and is laid over
the network of open jointed clay pipe or concrete pipes called under
drainage.
 Water collected by the under drainage is passed into the out chamber.
 Cont……

Fig Slow sand filter

 Slow sand filter
Advantages
Disadvantages
 Simple to construct and  Large area is required.
supervise  unsuitable for treating
 Suitable where sand is highly turbid waters
readily available (>50NTU).
 Effective in bacterial  Cleaning of large filter
removal =99.9% beds requires a large
labor force.
 No chemical pretreatment
necessary
 Do not need sophisticated
equipment or design
 Local sand may be suitable
 Disposal of sludge is easier
because no chemical
sludge are produced
 Cont…...
• Rate of filtration

𝐴𝑠 = 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑚2

 Cont…..
Design criteria for slow sand filters
Example -Slow sand filter design
Design a slow sand filter to treat a flow of 800 m3/day.
Solution:
Assuming a filtration rate of 0.15 m/h,
Required tank area = (800/24) x (1/0.15) = 222 m2
Use length to width ratio (2.22:1)
Use a tank 23 m long x 10 m wide.
From Table, the height of the tank require is:
 System under drain + gravel ≈ 0.5 m
 Filter bed ≈ 0.9 m
 Supernatant water ≈ 1 m
Therefore, total tank height = 2.4 m
 Tank dimension becomes 23 m long x 10 m wide x
2.4 m high
 Cont…..
Rapid Sand Filters/RSF/
 It is the most common type of filter for treating municipal water
supplies.
The rapid sand filter differs from the slow sand filter in a variety
of ways, the most important of which are:
1. RSF have much greater filtration rate ranging from 100 to
150m3/m2/day.
2. The ability to clean automatically using backwashing.
3. Require small filter area.
4. The mechanism of particle removal also differs in the two types
of filters - rapid sand filters do not use biological filtration and
depend primarily on adsorption and some straining.
 Cont…..
• The main features of rapid sand filter are as follows
 Effective size of sand - 0.45 to 0.70 mm
 Uniformity coefficient of sand - 1.2 to 1.7
 Depth of sand - 60 to 75 cm
 Filter gravel - 2 to 50 mm size (Increase size towards bottom)
 Depth of gravel – 45 cm
 Depth of water over sand during filtration - 1 to 2 m
 Overall depth of filter including 0.5 m free board - 2.5 m
 Area of single filter unit – 100 m2 in two parts of each 50 m2
 Loss of head - Max 1.8 to 2.0 m
 Turbidity of filtered water - 1 NTU
 Cont…..
• Operation
The water from coagulation sedimentation tank enters the
filter unit through inlet pipe and uniformly distributed on
the whole sand bed.
Water after passing through the sand bed is collected
through the under drainage system in the filtered water
well.
The outlet chamber in this filter is also equipped with
filter rate controller.
In the beginning the loss of head is very small. But as the
bed gets clogged, the loss of head increases and the rate
of filtration become very low. Therefore the filter bed
requires its washing.
 Cont…..
• Washing of Filter
Washing of filter is done by the back flow of water through the
sand bed as shown in below.
First the value “V1” is closed and the water is drained out from
the filter leaving a few centimeter depth of water on the top of
sand bed.
 Keeping all values closed the compressed air is passed through the
separate pipe system for 2-3 minutes, which agitates the sand bed and
stirrer it well causing the loosening of dirt, clay etc. inside the sand
bed.
Now value “V4” and “V5” are opened gradually, the wash
water tank rises through the laterals, the strainers gravel and
sand bed.
Due to back flow of water the sand expands and all the
impurities are carried away with the wash water to the drains
through the channels, which are kept for this purpose.
 Cont……

Figure: Rapid sand filter

Cont……
 Cont……
Construction
• Rapid sand filter consists of the following five parts:
i. Enclosure tank – A water tight tank is constructed either
masonry or concrete
ii. Under drainage system – may be perforated pipe system or
pipe and stracher system
iii. Base material – gravel should free from clay, dust, silt and
vegetable matter. Should be durable, hard, round and strong
and depth 40 cm.
iv. Filter media of sand – The depth of sand 60 to 75 cm
v. Appurtenances – Air compressors useful for washing of filter
and wash water troughs for collection of dirty water after
washing of filter.
Cont…..
Cont…..
 Cont…..

Rapid Sand Filters:

Advantages
 Turbid water may be treated
 Land required is less compared to slow sand filter
 Operation is continuous.
Disadvantages
 Requires skilled personnel for operation and
maintenance
 Less effective in bacteria removal
 Cont…..
 Based on filter material, rapid sand filters may be of three
types:

 Single-media filters: these have one type of media,

usually sand

 Dual-media filters: these have two types of media,

usually crushed anthracite coal and sand

 Multi-media filters: these have three types of media,

usually crushed anthracite coal, sand and garnet.

 Cont…..
• Table: Comparison of slow sand filter and rapid sand filter
 Cont….
Example 1.
• A city has a population of 100000 with average rate of demand
160l/c/d allowing 4% of filtered water for backwashing. Half
hour per day is used for bakwashing . rate of filtration 4500l/hr/m2
of area. Design rapid sand filter.
Solution
Step1 determine the size and the number of RSF
• Average discharge water Q = 100000*160 =16Mld
• 4% the water used for backwashing purpose
• Total filtered water
• X + 4%x = 16Mld +4% 16Mld = 16.64 Mld
• ½ hour take for backwashing every day so, the filter operating only
for 23.5 hour
 Cont….
• Discharge per working hour = 16.64/23.5 =0.708Ml/h

0.708𝑀𝑙/𝑕
• Area of filter = 4500𝑙 = 157.35m2
ℎ
/𝑚2

• No of filter = 1.22√Q = 1.22 √16.64 = 4.97 =5

157.35
• Area per filter = = = 31.4m2
5

• Assume L= 1.5B

• A = L*B = 1.5B^2

• 31.4/1.5 = B^2

• B = 4.58m and L= 6.87m

 Cont……
Step 2 design of under drainage system
Assume the area of perforation = (0.2 – 0.5 %) of area of filter
tank
Area of perforation = 0.2/100*4.58*6.87 = 0.063m2
Area of manifold = 4* Area of perforation
4*0.063 = 0.252m2
∏𝐷2
A= Diameter of manifold = 0.567m
4
Lets say lateral spacing 15cm c/c (15cm-30cm)
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 6.87∗100
no of lateral = = = 45.8 =46 at one side
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 15
Total no of lateral = 92
4.58−0.567
Length of lateral= = 2.007m
2
 Cont…..
C.S. area of lateral = 2 x area of perforations per lateral.
Take dia of holes = 13 mm
4∗630𝑐𝑚2
Total no of hole (n) = = 474.8, say 475
 (1.3)^2

Number of holes per lateral = 475/92 = 5

Area of perforations per lateral = 5 x  (1.3)^2/4 = 6.6cm^2

Area of lateral = 2 x area of perforations per lateral = 2 x

6.6= 13.2 cm2.
∏𝐷2
13.2cm2 = ( ), diameter of lateral = 4.1cm
4
Diameters of each lateral = 4.1cm
Check laterals
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 2.007∗100
= =48.9<60 hence its ok
𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 4.1
 Cont…..
• Hence provide
• D = 0.567m and length = 6.87m manifold
• Length = 2.007m, no of lateral = 92, D = 4.1cm lateral
• D = 1.3cm, no of hole =5 of perforation in each lateral
• Velocity through the manifold =1m/s
∏0.5672
*1m/s = discharge through the manifold =0.25m3/s
4

Step 3 design of wash water trough

Assume the spacing between the trough = 1.5m (1.5m to 2m)
No of trough = 4.58/1.5 = 3
Discharge through each trough = 0.25m3/s/3 =0.084m3/s
Consider the trough have V bottom
Q = 1.37BY^3/2 assume B=y
Q = 1.37Y*Y^3/2
0.061 =Y^5/2
Y= 0.33m =B
 Cont……
DISINFECTION
 Filtered water which may still contain pathogenic bacteria
is then made bacteria proof by using certain chemicals
such as chlorine, etc …

 Disinfection --- the process of killing all pathogens that

remain after conventional treatment.

 The substance used for disinfection is called disinfectant.

 Cont……
REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD DISINFECTANT
• Destroy bacteria/pathogens within a practicable period of time,
over an expected range of water temperature.
• Effective at variable compositions, concentration and
conditions of water treated.
• Neither toxic to humans and domestic animals nor unpalatable
or otherwise objectionable in required concentration.
• Not change water properties
• Have residual in a sufficient concentration to provide
protection against recontamination
• Can be determined easily, quickly, and preferably
automatically.
• Dispensable at reasonable cost
• Safe and easy to store, transport, handle and supply
• Not form toxic by-products due to their reactions with any
naturally occurring materials in water.
 Cont….
 Factors affecting the efficiency of disinfection:
[Link] and concentration of organisms
 Certain organisms like parasites and viruses may not be destroyed or
completely inactivated by disinfection.
2. Type and concentration of disinfectant
Higher conc. ….high efficiencies.
3. Nature of water to be disinfected
 The disinfection process generally is hampered due to the
“protection” of the micro-organisms by the turbidity particles.
4. Temperature
The higher the temp., more rapid disinfection
5. Time of contact or Mixing.
 Good mixing ensures proper dispersal of the disinfectant
throughout the water, and so promotes the disinfection process.
 Cont……
• METHODS OF DISINFECTION
The disinfection of water can be done by one of the following
methods:
1. Boiling of water
2. Ultra–Violate rays
3. Iodine and bromine
4. Ozone O3
5. Excess lime
6. Potassium permanganate [KMnO4]
7. Chlorine

•
 Cont……
• In most situations chlorine is selected as one of the disinfecting agent
because of the following reason:
i. Quick and effective at killing micro-organisms
ii. Readily soluble at the concentration needed for disinfection
iii. Tasteless and odourless at the concentration required
iv. Non-toxic to human life at the concentration required
v. Easy to handle, transport and apply
vi. Easy to detect and concentration easy to measure
[Link] of providing protection against later contamination.
[Link] available
ix. Cheap

Disadvantages: Fatal at high concentrations; Toxic;

Irritant; Corrosive;
 Cont……
• The most common method of disinfection is the use of
chlorine i.e. chlorination. The various chlorine compounds
which are available in the market and used as disinfectants
are:
1. Calcium hypo chlorite [Ca (OCl)2] – powder form
2. Sodium hypo chlorite [NaOCl] –liquid form
3. Free chlorine Cl2- Gaseous form
 Cont……
CHLORINATION
 Chlorination is the application of chlorine to water to
accomplish some definite purpose.
Chlorine used for the purpose of disinfection
chlorination can also be used for taste and odor control, iron
and manganese removal, and to remove some gases such as
ammonia and hydrogen sulfide.
Chlorination Chemistry
When chlorine is added to water, a variety of chemical
processes take place. The chlorine reacts with compounds
in the water and with the water itself.
Some of the results of these reactions (known as the
chlorine residual) are able to kill microorganisms in the
water.
 Cont…..
• DOSAGE OF CHLORINE
The amount of chlorine needed to disinfect water will
vary from source to source.
When chlorine is added to water some is used
immediately to oxidize any organic matter and to kill
bacteria in the water.
The remaining chlorine is not used straight away remains
in solution in water as residual chlorine and protects
against any possible future contamination of the water.
Applied chlorine dosage rates are usually in the range of
0.5 to 2.0 mg/l, depending up on the initial quality of the
water.
Contact times are between 10 and 30 minutes, with a time
of 30 minutes being recommended.
 Cont….
• After this contact time the water should have a chlorine
residual of 0.2 to 0.5 mg/l.
• Higher chlorine dosage may be necessary for disinfecting
new water mains, new wells or reservoirs, or other items
that may have been contaminated.
POINTS OF CHLORINATION
Chlorine applied at various stages of treatment and
distribution accordingly they are known as pre, post and re-
chlorination.
a) Pre-Chlorination
Chlorine applied prior to the sedimentation and filtration
process is known as Pre-chlorination.
This is practiced when the water is heavily polluted and
to remove taste, odour, colour and growth of algae on
treatment units.
 Cont…..
Pre-chlorination improves coagulation and post
chlorination dosage may be reduced.
The residual chlorine is useful in several stages of the
treatment process - aiding in coagulation, controlling
algae problems in basins, reducing odor problems, and
controlling mud ball formation.
b) Post Chlorination
o Post chlorination is the application of chlorine after water
has been treated but before the water reaches the
distribution system.
o At this stage, chlorination is meant to kill pathogens and
to provide a chlorine residual in the distribution system.
 Cont…..
C)Re-Chlorination
 This is when the distribution system is long and
complex, post chlorination dosages are not sufficient
to get required Cl2 residuals at consumers end. So,
stage wise application of chlorine in distribution
system is carried out and is called re-chlorination.
 Cont….
Miscellaneous Water Treatment Processes
such as
 Defluoridation,
 Softening,
 Adsorption,
 Revers osmosis