ROCKS

Engineering definitions of rock differ from those used in geology; engineers consider
rock to be a hard, durable material. From an excavation point of view, rock is any material
that cannot be excavated without blasting. Another definition of rock indicates that it is earth
material that does not slake when soaked in water.

The concept of the rock cycle was first developed by James Hutton, an eighteenth
century scientist often called the “Father of Geology.” Hutton recognized that geologic
processes have “no sign of a beginning, and no prospect of an end.” The processes involved
in the rock cycle often take place over millions of years. So on the scale of a human lifetime,
rocks appear to be “rock solid” and unchanging, but in the longer term, change is always
taking place.

Rocks are divided into three main types depending on their origin: igneous,
sedimentary, or metamorphic.

IGNEOUS ROCKS

Came from the Latin word “ignis” means “fire”. Igneous rocks form when magma
(molten rock) cools and crystallizes, either at volcanoes on the surface of the Earth or
while the melted rock is still inside the crust. All magma develops underground, in the
lower crust or upper mantle, because of the intense heat there. Igneous rocks can have
many different compositions, depending on the magma they cool from. They can also
look different based on their cooling conditions

CLASSIFICATION.

Igneous rocks are classified according to texture, mode of occurrence and mineral
composition.

FORMATION.

Types of Igneous Rocks:

 INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS– are formed from magma that cools and
solidifies within the crust of the earth. Examples of intrusive igneous rocks are
Diabase, Diorite, Gabbro, Granite, Pegmatite, and Peridotite,

GEO101- Engineering Geology | Instructor: Engr. Yvonne Angelyn R. Alias 1

  EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS – are formed on the surface of the Earth
from lava, which is magma that has emerged from underground. These rocks
include Andesite, Basalt, Dacite, Obsidian, Pumice, Rhyolite, Scoria, and
Tuff.

Classification of Igneous rocks: Structure of Igneous

rocks:
 Based on silica percentage
 Based on silica saturation  Layered
Structure
 Based on depth of formation
 Flow
Structure
 Vesicular
Structure
 Amygdaloidal
Structure
Texture of Igneous rocks:  Column
Structure
 Degree of Crystallinity  Sheet
 Granularity Structure
 Shape of Crystals  Pillow
Structure
 Mutual Relationship of Contituent minerals
 Fragmental
(Pyroclastic)
Structure
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Sedimentary rocks are one of three main types of rocks, along with igneous and
metamorphic. They are formed on or near the Earth’s surface from the compression of
ocean sediments or other processes.

Sedimentary rocks are formed on or near the Earth’s surface, in contrast to

metamorphic and igneous rocks, which are formed deep within the Earth. The most
important geological processes that lead to the creation of sedimentary rocks are
erosion, weathering, dissolution, precipitation, and lithification.

Erosion and weathering include the effects of wind and rain, which slowly break down
large rocks into smaller ones. Erosion and weathering transform boulders and even
mountains into sediments, such as sand or mud. Dissolution is a form of weathering—
chemical weathering. With this process, water that is slightly acidic slowly wears away
stone. These three processes create the raw materials for new, sedimentary rocks.
Precipitation and lithification are processes that build new rocks or minerals. Precipitation
is the formation of rocks and minerals from chemicals that precipitate from water.

SEDIMENTS VERSUS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

A distinction must be made between sediments and sedimentary rocks. Sediments

are a product of mechanical and chemical weathering. They are pieces of loose debris
that have not been lithified, that is, have not been hardened into a rock material. In the

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engineering sense such sediments are considered to be soil consisting of a combination
of gravel, sand, silt, and clay. Sediments are found in stream bottoms, deltas and wide
floodplains where deposition by flowing water has occurred. Sedimentary rocks are held
together by various types of cementing agents, such as calcite, quartz, or iron oxide.

Types of sedimentary rocks:

1. CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCK – form from chemical reactions, chiefly in

the ocean. Chemical sedimentary rocks can be found in many places, from the
ocean to deserts to caves. For instance, most limestone forms at the bottom of
the ocean from the precipitation of calcium carbonate and the remains of
marine animals with shells. If limestone is found on land, it can be assumed
that the area used to be under water. Cave formations are also sedimentary
rocks, but they are produced very differently. Stalagmites and stalactites form
when water passes through bedrock and picks up calcium and carbonate ions.
When the chemical-rich water makes its way into a cave, the water evaporates
and leaves behind calcium carbonate on the ceiling, forming a stalactite, or on
the floor of the cave, creating a stalagmite. Examples of Chemical Sedimentary
rocks Limestone, Diatomite, Chert, Flint, Peat, Lignite, Coal, Rock Salt,
Chalk, Gypsum and Anhydrite

2. CLASTIC/DETRIAL/MECHANICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCK – are rocks that

are made of bits of other rocks that have been weathered, eroded, and
deposited. Clastic sedimentary rocks are classified by the shape of their grains.
Grains can be very angular, angular, rounded, or well rounded. The shape of
the grains gives rocks their texture. The texture may feel like sandpaper, or it
may feel smooth and greasy. When mineral grains are carried by wind, water,
or ice, they bump into each other. When they do, the corners of the grains get
broken off and smoothed. Clasts are the fragments of rocks and minerals.
Examples of Clastic Sedimentary rocks Breccia, Conglomerate, Sandstone,
Dolomite, Shale, Mudstone and Claystone.

3. NON-DETRIAL SEDIMENTARY ROCK - rocks are formed either precipitation,

eveporation by accumulation of hand parts of plants and animals.

4. RESIDUAL SEDIMENTARY ROCK

5. CHEMICAL DEPOSITS SEDIMENTARY ROCK

6. ORGANIC DEPOSITS SEDIMENTARY ROCK

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 METAMORPHIC ROCKS

The term “metamorphosis” is most often used in reference to the process of a

caterpillar changing into a butterfly. However, the word “metamorphosis” is a broad term
that indicates a change from one thing to another. Even rocks, a seemingly constant
substance, can change into a new type of rock. Rocks that undergo a change to form a
new rock are referred to as metamorphic rocks. A metamorphic rock, began as a rock—
either a sedimentary, igneous, or even a different sort of metamorphic rock. Then, due to
various conditions within the Earth, the existing rock was changed into a new kind of
metamorphic rock.

Although metamorphic rocks typically form deep in the planet’s crust, they are often
exposed on the surface of the Earth. This happens due to geologic uplift and the erosion
of the rock and soil above them. At the surface, metamorphic rocks will be exposed to
weathering processes and may break down into sediment. These sediments could then
be compressed to form sedimentary rocks, which would start the entire cycle anew.

Metamorphism comes from the Greek: meta = after, morph = form, so

metamorphism means the after form and it is a process of mineral assemblage and
texture variation that results from the physical-chemical changes of solid rocks, caused
by factors such as crust movement, magma activity, or thermal fluid change in the earth.
The metamorphism comprises recrystallization, metamorphic crystallization, deformation,
fragmentation, and alternation. The product of the existing rock (igneous and
sedimentary rocks) suffering metamorphism is called metamorphic rock (Winkler, 1975)
whose chemical composition is related not only to original rock, but also to
metamorphism. During the process of metamorphism, whether the deformation of
original rock or re-composition of material is mostly finished under solid state is not
known; thus the metamorphic rock can keep some aspects of the original rock or layer.
The metamorphic rocks resulting from metamorphism are often characterized by unique
mineral composition, particular texture, and structure to differentiate them from igneous
and sedimentary rocks. Example of metamorphic rocks are Gneiss, Phyllite, Schist,
Slate, Marble, Quartzites, and Hornfels

TEXTURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

The texture of metamorphic rocks is usually coarsely to finely crystalline and in many
instances is platy. The chief importance of platy texture is that it imparts a highly
anisotropic character to the rock, of which cleavage is an outstanding example.

Types of metamorphism:

1. Contact metamorphism – occurs when magma comes in contact with an already

existing body of rock. When this happens the existing rocks temperature rises and
also becomes infiltrated with fluid from the magma. The area affected by the contact
of magma is usually small, from 1 to 10 kilometers. Contact metamorphism produces
non-foliated (rocks without any cleavage) rocks such as marble, hornfels and
quartzite.
2. Dynamic metamorphism – or cataclasis, results mainly from mechanical
deformation with little long-term temperature change. These huge forces of heat and
pressure cause the rocks to be bent, folded, crushed, flattened, and sheared.

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 3. Regional metamorphism – occurs over a much larger area. This metamorphism
produces rocks such as gneiss and schist. Regional metamorphism is caused by
large geologic processes such as mountain-building. These rocks when exposed to
the surface show the unbelievable pressure that cause the rocks to be bent and
broken by the mountain building process.

Two basic types of metamorphic rocks:

1. FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS such as gneiss, phyllite, schist, and slate have
a layered or banded appearance that is produced by exposure to heat and directed
pressure. Foliates are composed of large amounts of micas and chlorites, Foliate
comes from the Latin word that means sheets, as in the sheets of paper in a book.
2. NON-FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS such as hornfels, marble and quartzite
do not have a layered or banded appearance.

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