1️⃣ Chemical Reactions – Deep Understanding

A chemical reaction is a process in which:

 Bonds in reactants break

 New bonds form
 New substances (products) with new properties are formed

📌 Important point for exams

A physical change (like melting ice) is NOT a chemical reaction because no new substance
is formed.

Example:

 Burning magnesium ribbon

Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium oxide
(Shiny metal → white powder → NEW substance)

2️⃣ Writing Chemical Equations (VERY IMPORTANT)

(a) Word Equation

Uses names of substances.

Example:
Hydrogen + Chlorine → Hydrogen chloride

📌 Used to understand the reaction, not for calculations.

(b) Skeletal (Unbalanced) Chemical Equation

Uses symbols but atoms are not equal.

Example:
Fe + H₂O → Fe₃O₄ + H₂ ❌

(c) Balanced Chemical Equation ⭐⭐⭐

A chemical equation where:

 Number of atoms of each element is equal on both sides

 Follows Law of Conservation of Mass
Example (balanced):
3Fe + 4H₂O → Fe₃O₄ + 4H₂ ✅

📌 Examiner checks this strictly. One mistake = mark cut.

3️⃣ State Symbols (Often Ignored, But Important)

Used to show physical state of substances:

 (s) → solid
 (l) → liquid
 (g) → gas
 (aq) → aqueous (dissolved in water)

Example (FULL equation):

2Na(s) + 2H₂O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H₂(g)

📌 Writing state symbols can earn extra credit in long answers.

4️⃣ Balancing a Chemical Equation (Step-by-step)

Steps (WRITE THESE IN EXAM IF ASKED):

1. Write skeletal equation

2. List number of atoms on LHS & RHS
3. Balance metals → non-metals → hydrogen → oxygen
4. Use whole numbers only
5. Check final balance

📌 DO NOT change chemical formulae.

Example mistake ❌:
Changing H₂O to H₂O₂ (wrong)

5️⃣ Types of Chemical Reactions (VERY SCORING)

🔹 (i) Combination Reaction

Two or more substances combine to form one product.

General form:
A + B → AB
Example:
CaO + H₂O → Ca(OH)₂

📌 Heat is often released → Exothermic reaction

🔹 (ii) Decomposition Reaction

One compound breaks into two or more simpler substances.

General form:
AB → A + B

Example (thermal):
CaCO₃ (heat) → CaO + CO₂

Types:

 Thermal decomposition (heat)

 Electrolytic decomposition (electricity)
 Photochemical decomposition (light)

🔹 (iii) Displacement Reaction

A more reactive element displaces a less reactive element.

Example:
Zn + CuSO₄ → ZnSO₄ + Cu

📌 Based on reactivity series.

🔹 (iv) Double Displacement Reaction

Exchange of ions between two compounds.

Example:
Na₂SO₄ + BaCl₂ → BaSO₄↓ + 2NaCl

📌 Formation of precipitate is common.

🔹 (v) Oxidation & Reduction (Redox Reactions) ⭐⭐⭐

  Oxidation:
o Gain of oxygen
o Loss of hydrogen
o Loss of electrons
 Reduction:
o Loss of oxygen
o Gain of hydrogen
o Gain of electrons

📌 Oxidation and reduction ALWAYS occur together.

Example:
CuO + H₂ → Cu + H₂O

 CuO is reduced
 H₂ is oxidised

6️⃣ Effects of Oxidation in Daily Life

🔹 Corrosion

Slow destruction of metals by air, moisture, or chemicals.

Example:

 Rusting of iron

Rust = Hydrated iron(III) oxide

Conditions needed:

 Oxygen
 Water

Prevention:

 Painting
 Oiling/greasing
 Galvanisation
 Alloying

📌 Corrosion causes economic loss.

🔹 Rancidity
Oxidation of oils and fats in food causing:

 Bad smell
 Bad taste

Prevention methods:

 Airtight containers
 Refrigeration
 Nitrogen gas flushing
 Antioxidants

📌 Chips packets are nitrogen-filled → EXAM FAVOURITE.

7️⃣ NCERT Keywords (USE THESE WORDS)

 Reactants
 Products
 Precipitate
 Exothermic
 Endothermic
 Oxidation
 Reduction

Using NCERT words = better marks.

8️⃣ VERY IMPORTANT EXAM QUESTIONS

2 Marks:

 Define oxidation and reduction

 What is rancidity?

3 Marks:

 Balance a chemical equation

 Explain corrosion and its prevention

5 Marks:

 Explain types of chemical reactions with examples

 Explain redox reactions with examples
9️⃣ COMMON MISTAKES (DON’T DO THIS)
❌ Writing only oxidation, forgetting reduction
❌ Wrong balancing
❌ No examples
❌ No equations in theory answers

🔹 Acid

An acid is a substance that:

 Produces H⁺ ions in aqueous solution

 Turns blue litmus red

Examples:

 Hydrochloric acid (HCl)

 Sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄)
 Nitric acid (HNO₃)

📌 Acids show acidic nature only in water.

🔹 Base

A base is a substance that:

  Produces OH⁻ ions
 Turns red litmus blue

Examples:

 Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

 Potassium hydroxide (KOH)

🔹 Alkali

A base soluble in water is called an alkali.

Example:
NaOH, KOH

📌 All alkalis are bases, but not all bases are alkalis.

🔹 Salt

A salt is formed when:

Acid + Base → Salt + Water

Example:
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O

2️⃣ Chemical Properties of Acids

(a) Reaction with Metals

Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen gas

Example:
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl₂ + H₂↑

📌 Pop sound confirms hydrogen gas.

(b) Reaction with Metal Carbonates / Bicarbonates

Acid + Carbonate → Salt + Water + CO₂

Example:
Na₂CO₃ + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H₂O + CO₂

📌 CO₂ turns limewater milky.

(c) Acids in Aqueous Solution

 Dry HCl gas does NOT show acidic nature.

 HCl in water does show acidic nature.

⁺Water is essential for acids to produce H⁺ions.

3️⃣ Chemical Properties of Bases

(a) Reaction with Metals

Base + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen

Example:
2NaOH + Zn → Na₂ZnO₂ + H₂

(b) Reaction with Non-Metals

Bases generally do not react with non-metals.

(c) Neutralisation Reaction

Acid + Base → Salt + Water

Example:
H₂SO₄ + 2NaOH → Na₂SO₄ + 2H₂O

📌 This reaction releases heat → Exothermic

4️⃣ Strength of Acids & Bases – pH Scale ⭐⭐⭐

 pH scale ranges from 0 to 14
 Lower pH → stronger acid
  Higher pH → stronger base
 pH = 7 → neutral (pure water)

Substance pH value
Strong acid 1–3
Weak acid 4–6
Neutral 7
Weak base 8–10
Strong base 11–14

📌 More H⁺ ions = lower pH

5️⃣ Importance of pH in Everyday Life

🔹 pH of Soil

 Low pH → soil becomes acidic

 Fixed by adding quicklime (CaO)

🔹 pH in Human Body

 Normal blood pH ≈ 7.4

 Sudden change can be fatal

🔹 pH of Tooth Decay

 Bacteria produce acid → pH < 5.5

 Tooth enamel corrodes

📌 Toothpaste is basic → neutralises acid.

🔹 pH of Water Bodies

 Acid rain lowers pH → harms aquatic life

6️⃣ Salts – Detailed Study ⭐⭐⭐

🔹 Nature of Salts
Salt may be:

 Acidic
 Basic
 Neutral

Depends on:

 Acid used
 Base used

7️⃣ Important Salts (EXAM FAVOURITES)

🔸 (i) Washing Soda (Na₂CO₃·10H₂O)

Preparation:

 From sodium chloride (NaCl)

Uses:

 Cleaning agent
 Softening hard water
 Manufacture of glass & soap

🔸 (ii) Baking Soda (NaHCO₃)

Preparation:
NaCl + NH₃ + H₂O + CO₂ → NaHCO₃ ↓ + NH₄Cl

Uses:

 Baking cakes
 Fire extinguishers
 Antacid

🔸 (iii) Plaster of Paris (CaSO₄·½H₂O) ⭐⭐⭐

Preparation:
Heating gypsum at 100–120°C

CaSO₄·2H₂O → CaSO₄·½H₂O + 1½H₂O

Properties:

 White powder
 Sets quickly with water

Uses:

 Making casts
 Decorative items
 Toys & statues

📌 Do NOT overheat gypsum → forms anhydrous CaSO₄ (dead plaster)

8️⃣ Common Indicators

Indicator Acid Base
Litmus Red Blue
Methyl orange Red Yellow
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink

9️⃣ VERY IMPORTANT EXAM QUESTIONS

2 Marks:

 What is pH scale?
 Define acid/base

3 Marks:

 Explain pH in tooth decay

 Write uses of baking soda

5 Marks:

 Explain preparation, properties & uses of POP

 Explain importance of pH in daily life

🔴 COMMON MISTAKES
❌ Writing wrong chemical formula
❌ Forgetting water’s role
❌ No equations
❌ Mixing washing soda & baking soda
Class 10 Science – Chapter: METALS AND NON-METALS (DETAILED
NOTES)

1️⃣ What are Metals?

Metals are elements that:

 Lose electrons easily

 Form positive ions (cations)

Physical properties of metals

(Write ANY 4–5 in exam)

 Lustrous (shiny)
 Malleable (can be beaten into sheets)
 Ductile (can be drawn into wires)
 Good conductors of heat & electricity
 Sonorous (produce ringing sound)

📌 Exception questions (VERY IMPORTANT)

 Mercury → liquid metal

 Sodium & potassium → soft metals
 Aluminium → not very lustrous initially (oxide layer)

2️⃣ What are Non-Metals?

Non-metals are elements that:

 Gain electrons
 Form negative ions (anions)

Physical properties of non-metals

 Dull
 Brittle
 Poor conductors
 Not sonorous
📌 Exceptions

 Graphite → good conductor of electricity

 Iodine → lustrous

3️⃣ Chemical Properties of Metals ⭐⭐⭐

(a) Reaction with Oxygen

Metal + Oxygen → Metal oxide

Example:
2Mg + O₂ → 2MgO

 Metal oxides are basic in nature

 Some are amphoteric (VERY IMPORTANT)

📌 Amphoteric oxides:

 Aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃)

 Zinc oxide (ZnO)

They react with both acids and bases.

(b) Reaction with Water

Different metals react differently:

Metal Reaction

Na, K Violent

Ca Slow

Mg With hot water

Fe With steam

Cu No reaction

Example:
2Na + 2H₂O → 2NaOH + H₂↑
(c) Reaction with Acids

Metal + Acid → Salt + Hydrogen gas

Example:
Zn + H₂SO₄ → ZnSO₄ + H₂

📌 Important:
Nitric acid usually does NOT produce hydrogen gas.

(d) Displacement Reaction

More reactive metal displaces less reactive metal.

Example:
Fe + CuSO₄ → FeSO₄ + Cu

4️⃣ Reactivity Series ⭐⭐⭐ (MUST MEMORISE)

K Na Ca Mg Al Zn Fe Pb Cu Ag Au

📌 Uses:

 Predict reactions
 Extraction of metals
 Displacement reactions

5️⃣ Extraction of Metals ⭐⭐⭐

(a) Low Reactivity Metals

 Found free in nature

 Example: Gold, Silver

(b) Medium Reactivity Metals

 Extracted by roasting/calcination
 Reduced using carbon
Example:
ZnO + C → Zn + CO

(c) High Reactivity Metals

 Extracted by electrolysis
 Example: Sodium, Aluminium

📌 Aluminium extraction = very common 5-mark question

6️⃣ Corrosion ⭐⭐⭐

Corrosion is the slow eating away of metals by air, moisture or chemicals.

Example:

 Rusting of iron

Conditions required:

 Oxygen
 Water

Prevention

 Painting
 Oiling
 Galvanisation
 Alloying

7️⃣ Alloys ⭐⭐⭐

An alloy is a mixture of:

 Two or more metals OR

 Metal + non-metal

Advantages:

 Stronger
 Resistant to corrosion
 Better appearance
Examples:

 Brass → Cu + Zn
 Bronze → Cu + Sn
 Steel → Fe + C

8️⃣ Properties of Non-Metals (Chemical)

Reaction with Oxygen

Non-metal + Oxygen → Non-metal oxide

(Usually acidic)

Example:
C + O₂ → CO₂

9️⃣ Uses of Metals & Non-Metals (EXAM GOLD)

Metals:

 Iron → construction
 Copper → electrical wiring
 Aluminium → aircraft bodies

Non-metals:

 Oxygen → respiration
 Nitrogen → fertilisers
 Chlorine → water purification

🔥 VERY IMPORTANT EXAM QUESTIONS

2 Marks:

 Define alloy
 Write two properties of metals

3 Marks:

 What is reactivity series?

 Explain corrosion
5 Marks:

 Explain extraction of metals

 Write physical & chemical properties of metals

⚠️COMMON MISTAKES
❌ Forgetting exceptions
❌ Not writing equations
❌ Skipping reactivity series
❌ Mixing extraction methods

🎯 WHAT YOU MUST DO

 Memorise reactivity series
 Learn extraction methods
 Remember exceptions

CHAPTER: CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

(FULLY DETAILED – NCERT + BOARD LEVEL)

1️⃣ INTRODUCTION: WHY CARBON FORMS

MILLIONS OF COMPOUNDS
Carbon forms a very large number of compounds compared to other elements because:

(i) Atomic size of carbon is small

 Small size → strong nucleus attraction

 Leads to strong covalent bonds
  Bonds do not break easily

📌 This is why carbon compounds are stable.

2️⃣ COVALENT BONDING (IN DEPTH)

Why carbon does NOT form ionic bonds?

 Carbon has 4 valence electrons

 Losing 4 electrons → very high energy needed ❌
 Gaining 4 electrons → unstable ❌

👉 So carbon shares electrons → covalent bond

Example: Methane (CH₄)

 Carbon shares 1 electron with each hydrogen

 Completes octet
 Forms 4 single covalent bonds

📌 Covalent compounds:

 Low melting & boiling point

 Poor conductors of electricity (no free ions)

3️⃣ CATENATION (DETAILED)

Catenation = ability of carbon to form bonds with other carbon atoms

Reasons:

 Strong C–C bond

 Small atomic size

Types of chains formed:

 Straight chains
 Branched chains
 Ring structures

📌 Silicon also shows catenation but to a much lesser extent.

4️⃣ TETRAVALENCY (DETAILED)
Carbon has 4 valence electrons
So it forms 4 covalent bonds.

Because of tetravalency, carbon forms:

 Single bond (–)

 Double bond (=)
 Triple bond (≡)

📌 This gives rise to saturated & unsaturated compounds.

5️⃣ HYDROCARBONS (VERY DEEP)

Definition:

Hydrocarbons are organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen.

(A) Saturated Hydrocarbons – ALKANES

 Only single bonds

 Least reactive
 Burn with clean flame

General formula:
CₙH₂ₙ₊₂

Examples:

 Methane – CH₄
 Ethane – C₂H₆

📌 Used as fuels.

(B) Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

(i) Alkenes

 One double bond

  More reactive than alkanes

Formula:
CₙH₂ₙ

Example:
Ethene – C₂H₄

(ii) Alkynes

 One triple bond

 Highly reactive

Formula:
CₙH₂ₙ₋₂

Example:
Ethyne – C₂H₂

6️⃣ HOMOLOGOUS SERIES (VERY IMPORTANT –

FULL LOGIC)
A homologous series is a group of organic compounds:

 Same functional group

 Same general formula
 Successive members differ by –CH₂–
 Similar chemical properties
 Gradual change in physical properties

📌 Difference of –CH₂– = 14 u increase in molecular mass

7️⃣ NOMENCLATURE (NCERT BASED)

Name =
Prefix (carbon chain) + Suffix (functional group)

Examples:

 CH₄ → Methane
 C₂H₅OH → Ethanol
 CH₃COOH → Ethanoic acid
📌 IUPAC names are mandatory in boards.

8️⃣ FUNCTIONAL GROUPS (DEEP

UNDERSTANDING)
Functional group = atom or group of atoms that decides chemical properties

Group Name Example

–OH Alcohol Ethanol

–COOH Carboxylic acid Ethanoic acid

–CHO Aldehyde Ethanal

–CO– Ketone Propanone

📌 Same functional group = similar reactions.

9️⃣ ETHANOL (COMPLETE)

Physical properties:

 Colourless liquid
 Soluble in water
 Neutral to litmus

Chemical properties:

1. Combustion
2. Oxidation
3. Reaction with sodium

📌 Ethanol is used as:

 Solvent
 Fuel
 Antiseptic

🔟 ETHANOIC ACID (COMPLETE)

Properties:

 Sour smell
 Weak acid
 Turns blue litmus red

Chemical reactions:

 With sodium
 With sodium carbonate
 Esterification

1️⃣1️⃣ ESTERIFICATION (VERY DEEP – 5 MARK

LEVEL)
Reaction between:

 Alcohol + Carboxylic acid

→ Ester + Water

Conditions:

 Concentrated sulphuric acid

 Heat

📌 Produces sweet-smelling ester

1️⃣2️⃣ SOAPS AND DETERGENTS (FULL LOGIC)

Soap molecule:

 Hydrophilic head
 Hydrophobic tail

Cleansing action explained by micelle formation.

📌 Detergents work in hard water; soaps don’t.

Why this chapter is IMPORTANT

 Long answers
  Diagrams
 Reactions
 Logic-based questions

This chapter alone can give 10–12 marks if written properly.

PHYSICS – ELECTRICITY
(DETAILED, PRINT-READY NOTES)

1. Electric Current
Electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge through a conductor.

Formula:
I=Q/t

Where:
I = electric current (ampere)
Q = electric charge (coulomb)
t = time (second)

SI Unit

The SI unit of electric current is ampere (A).

One ampere means one coulomb of charge flows per second through a conductor.

Direction of Current

 Conventional current flows from positive terminal to negative terminal

 Electrons actually flow from negative terminal to positive terminal
 In exams, always use conventional current

2. Electric Circuit
An electric circuit is a closed conducting path through which electric current flows.

Closed Circuit
  Switch is ON
 Current flows

Open Circuit

 Switch is OFF
 No current flows

Components of a Simple Electric Circuit

 Cell or battery
 Switch (key)
 Connecting wires
 Electrical appliance (bulb, resistor)

3. Electric Potential Difference

Electric potential difference is the work done to move a unit charge from one point to
another in a circuit.

Formula:
V=W/Q

Where:
V = potential difference (volt)
W = work done (joule)
Q = charge (coulomb)

Unit

The unit of potential difference is volt (V).

One volt means one joule of work is done to move one coulomb of charge.

4. Ohm’s Law (VERY IMPORTANT)

Ohm’s Law states that at constant temperature, the current through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across it.

Formula:
V=IR

Where:
V = potential difference
I = current
R = resistance

V–I Graph

 Straight line passing through origin

 Shows current is proportional to voltage

Ohm’s Law is valid only when:

 Temperature is constant
 Physical condition of conductor does not change

5. Resistance
Resistance is the property of a conductor that opposes the flow of electric current.

Formula:
R=V/I

Unit

The SI unit of resistance is ohm.

One ohm is the resistance of a conductor when one ampere of current flows at one volt.

6. Factors Affecting Resistance

Resistance depends on:

1. Length of conductor
o Greater length → more resistance
2. Area of cross-section
o Greater area → less resistance
3. Nature of material
4. Temperature

Relation:
R = rho L / A

Where:
rho = resistivity
L = length
A = area of cross-section
7. Resistivity
Resistivity is a material property that decides how strongly a material resists current.

 Unit of resistivity = ohm metre

 Depends only on material, not size or shape

Good conductors (low resistivity): copper, aluminium

Insulators (high resistivity): rubber, glass

8. Combination of Resistors
(A) Series Combination

 Same current flows through all resistors

 Total resistance increases

Formula:
R = R1 + R2 + R3

Used when high resistance is required.

(B) Parallel Combination

 Same voltage across each resistor

 Total resistance decreases

Formula:
1 / R = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3

Used in house wiring.

Why House Wiring is Parallel?

 Same voltage to all appliances

 Independent operation
 Less total resistance

9. Electric Power
Electric power is the rate at which electrical energy is consumed.

Formula:
P=VI

Other forms:
P=IIR
P=VV/R

Unit

The SI unit of power is watt (W).

Commercial unit of electrical energy = kilowatt hour (kWh)

One unit of electricity = one kilowatt hour

10. Heating Effect of Electric Current

When electric current flows through a conductor, heat is produced.

Formula:
H=IIRt

Uses

 Electric heater
 Electric iron
 Toaster
 Fuse

11. Electric Fuse

An electric fuse is a safety device used to protect electrical appliances.

 Made of thin wire

 High resistance
 Low melting point
 Connected in series

When excess current flows, the fuse wire melts and breaks the circuit.
IMPORTANT EXAM QUESTIONS (FROM THIS
CHAPTER)
1–2 Marks

 Define electric current

 SI unit of resistance
 What is electric power

3 Marks

 State Ohm’s Law

 Factors affecting resistance
 Why fuse is used

5 Marks

 Difference between series and parallel circuits

 Explain heating effect of electric current
 Numerical problems based on power and resistance

COMMON MISTAKES TO AVOID

 Writing wrong units
 Forgetting to write formulas
 Not converting milliampere to ampere
 Skipping steps in numericals

CLASS 10 SCIENCE

PHYSICS – MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC

CURRENT
(VERY DETAILED | NCERT COMPLETE | PRINT-READY)

1. Magnetic Effect of Electric Current

When an electric current flows through a conductor, it produces a magnetic field around it.
This phenomenon is called the magnetic effect of electric current.

This discovery was made by Hans Christian Oersted.

Oersted’s Experiment

 A compass needle is placed near a straight current-carrying conductor

 When current flows, the compass needle deflects
 When current stops, the needle returns to its original position

Conclusion:
Electric current produces a magnetic field.

2. Magnetic Field
A magnetic field is the region around a magnet or a current-carrying conductor in which
magnetic force can be felt.

Magnetic Field Lines

Magnetic field lines are imaginary lines that represent the strength and direction of the
magnetic field.

Properties of Magnetic Field Lines

1. They form closed loops

2. Outside a magnet, they go from north pole to south pole
3. Inside a magnet, they go from south pole to north pole
4. They never intersect each other
5. Closer lines indicate stronger magnetic field

3. Magnetic Field Due to a Current-Carrying Straight

Conductor
When current flows through a straight conductor, magnetic field lines are formed as
concentric circles around the conductor.
Direction of Magnetic Field – Right Hand Thumb Rule

 Hold the conductor in your right hand

 Thumb points in the direction of current
 Curled fingers show the direction of magnetic field lines

📌 This rule is VERY IMPORTANT for exams.

4. Magnetic Field Due to a Circular Current-Carrying

Loop
When current flows through a circular loop:

 Magnetic field lines become stronger near the center

 Field pattern looks similar to a bar magnet

More number of turns → stronger magnetic field

5. Solenoid
A solenoid is a long coil of many circular turns of insulated copper wire.

Magnetic Field of a Solenoid

 One end behaves like north pole

 Other end behaves like south pole
 Magnetic field inside the solenoid is uniform

Uses of Solenoid

 Making electromagnets
 Used in electric bells, relays, motors

6. Electromagnet
An electromagnet is a temporary magnet produced by passing electric current through a coil
wound around a soft iron core.

Characteristics

 Strong magnetic field

  Magnetism exists only till current flows
 Strength can be increased by:
o Increasing current
o Increasing number of turns

Difference: Electromagnet vs Permanent Magnet

Electromagnet:

 Temporary
 Strength can be changed
 Made of soft iron

Permanent magnet:

 Permanent
 Fixed strength
 Made of steel

7. Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic

Field
When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force.
This force depends on:

 Strength of magnetic field

 Amount of current
 Length of conductor

8. Fleming’s Left Hand Rule (VERY IMPORTANT)

This rule helps to find the direction of force acting on a current-carrying conductor.

Statement

Stretch the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger of the left hand such that they are
mutually perpendicular:

 Forefinger → direction of magnetic field

 Middle finger → direction of current
 Thumb → direction of force (motion)

📌 Used in electric motors.

9. Electric Motor (CORE TOPIC – 5 MARKS)
An electric motor is a device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.

Principle of Electric Motor

A current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a force.

Construction

 Rectangular coil of insulated copper wire

 Strong magnet
 Split ring commutator
 Carbon brushes
 Battery

Working

 Current flows through the coil

 Magnetic forces act on opposite sides of the coil
 Coil starts rotating
 Split ring reverses current after each half rotation
 Continuous rotation is achieved

Uses of Electric Motor

 Electric fans
 Mixers
 Washing machines
 Water pumps

10. Electromagnetic Induction

The process of producing electric current by changing magnetic field is called
electromagnetic induction.

Discovered by Michael Faraday.

Example

 Moving a magnet inside a coil produces current

 Faster movement → more induced current
11. Fleming’s Right Hand Rule
This rule is used to find the direction of induced current.

Statement

Stretch the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger of the right hand perpendicular to each
other:

 Thumb → direction of motion of conductor

 Forefinger → direction of magnetic field
 Middle finger → direction of induced current

📌 Used in electric generators.

12. Electric Generator (VERY IMPORTANT)

An electric generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Principle

Based on electromagnetic induction.

Types

 AC generator
 DC generator

Working (Simple Idea)

 Coil is rotated in magnetic field

 Magnetic flux changes
 Induced current is produced

13. Direct Current and Alternating Current

Direct Current (DC)

 Flows in one direction

 Given by cells and batteries

Alternating Current (AC)

  Changes direction periodically
 Supplied to homes
 Frequency in India = 50 hertz

14. Domestic Electric Circuits

Live Wire

 High potential
 Dangerous

Neutral Wire

 Zero potential

Earth Wire

 Safety wire
 Prevents electric shock

15. Electric Fuse and MCB

Electric Fuse

 Safety device
 Thin wire with low melting point
 Breaks circuit during overload

MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)

 Automatically switches off

 Can be reused
 Safer than fuse

IMPORTANT EXAM QUESTIONS (FROM THIS

CHAPTER)
1–2 Marks

 Define solenoid
 What is electromagnetic induction
  State Fleming’s left hand rule

3 Marks

 Properties of magnetic field lines

 Difference between AC and DC
 Uses of electromagnet

5 Marks

 Construction and working of electric motor

 Explain electromagnetic induction
 Explain domestic electric circuit with safety devices

COMMON MISTAKES TO AVOID

 Mixing left hand and right hand rules
 Forgetting directions in rules
 Skipping diagrams in long answers
 Writing vague working of motor

HOW THIS CHAPTER HELPS YOU

 Heavy theory + logic
 Repeated 5-mark questions
 Easy diagrams = easy marks

CLASS 10 SCIENCE

PHYSICS – LIGHT: REFLECTION AND

REFRACTION
(VERY DETAILED | NCERT COMPLETE | PRINT-READY)
1. Nature of Light
Light is a form of energy that enables us to see objects.
Light travels in a straight line in a uniform medium.
When light strikes a surface, it can be reflected, refracted, or absorbed.

2. Reflection of Light
Reflection is the bouncing back of light into the same medium after striking a surface.

Laws of Reflection

1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

2. The incident ray, reflected ray, and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the
same plane.

(These two laws are valid for all reflecting surfaces.)

3. Spherical Mirrors
Mirrors whose reflecting surface is part of a sphere are called spherical mirrors.

Types of Spherical Mirrors

1. Concave mirror – reflecting surface curves inward

2. Convex mirror – reflecting surface curves outward

4. Important Terms Related to Spherical Mirrors

 Pole (P): Center of the reflecting surface
 Centre of Curvature (C): Center of the sphere of which the mirror is a part
 Radius of Curvature (R): Distance between pole and centre of curvature
 Principal Axis: Straight line passing through P and C
 Principal Focus (F): Point where rays parallel to principal axis converge (concave)
or appear to diverge (convex)
 Focal Length (f): Distance between pole and focus

Relation between focal length and radius of curvature:

f=R/2
5. Image Formation by Concave Mirror
Ray Diagrams (MUST PRACTICE)

1. Object at infinity
o Image at focus
o Highly diminished, real, inverted
2. Object beyond centre of curvature
o Image between C and F
o Diminished, real, inverted
3. Object at centre of curvature
o Image at C
o Same size, real, inverted
4. Object between C and F
o Image beyond C
o Enlarged, real, inverted
5. Object at focus
o Image at infinity
6. Object between F and P
o Image behind mirror
o Enlarged, virtual, erect

📌 Concave mirror can form both real and virtual images.

6. Image Formation by Convex Mirror

 Image is always formed behind the mirror
 Image is virtual, erect, and diminished
 Convex mirror gives wide field of view

📌 Used as rear-view mirrors in vehicles.

7. Sign Convention for Mirrors (VERY IMPORTANT)

According to the New Cartesian Sign Convention:

 Distances measured to the left of mirror are negative

 Distances measured to the right are positive
 Heights measured above principal axis are positive
 Heights measured below principal axis are negative
8. Mirror Formula
The relation between focal length, image distance, and object distance is:

1/f=1/v+1/u

Where:
f = focal length
v = image distance
u = object distance

📌 Used in numericals.

9. Magnification (for Mirrors)

Magnification is the ratio of height of image to height of object.

m=hi/ho
Also, m = minus v / u

 m positive → virtual image

 m negative → real image

10. Uses of Spherical Mirrors

Concave Mirror

 Shaving mirror
 Dentist mirror
 Reflectors in torches and headlights

Convex Mirror

 Rear-view mirrors
 Security mirrors

11. Refraction of Light

Refraction is the bending of light when it passes from one medium to another due to change
in speed.
Laws of Refraction

1. Incident ray, refracted ray, and normal lie in same plane

2. Ratio of sine of angle of incidence to sine of angle of refraction is constant

This constant is called refractive index.

12. Refractive Index

Refractive index of a medium is defined as:

n = speed of light in vacuum / speed of light in medium

 Higher refractive index → slower light

 Glass has higher refractive index than air

13. Refraction Through Rectangular Glass Slab

 Light bends towards normal while entering glass
 Light bends away from normal while leaving glass
 Emergent ray is parallel to incident ray
 There is a lateral displacement

14. Spherical Lenses

A lens is a transparent medium bound by two curved surfaces.

Types of Lenses

1. Convex lens – converging lens

2. Concave lens – diverging lens

15. Image Formation by Convex Lens

1. Object at infinity
o Image at focus
o Highly diminished, real, inverted
2. Object beyond 2F
o Image between F and 2F
 o Diminished, real, inverted
3. Object at 2F
o Image at 2F
o Same size
4. Object between F and 2F
o Image beyond 2F
o Enlarged
5. Object at F
o Image at infinity
6. Object between F and optical centre
o Image on same side
o Virtual, erect, enlarged

16. Image Formation by Concave Lens

 Image is always virtual, erect, and diminished
 Image forms between focus and optical centre

17. Lens Formula

Relation between focal length, image distance, and object distance:

1/f=1/v+1/u

(Same form as mirror formula, but sign convention differs.)

18. Magnification for Lenses

m=hi/ho
Also, m = v / u

19. Power of a Lens

Power of a lens is the ability to converge or diverge light.

P=1/f

Where f is in metres.
Unit of power = dioptre.
  Convex lens → positive power
 Concave lens → negative power

IMPORTANT EXAM QUESTIONS

1–2 Marks

 Define principal focus

 What is magnification
 Define refractive index

3 Marks

 Difference between concave and convex mirror

 Uses of convex mirror
 Laws of refraction

5 Marks

 Image formation by concave mirror (any case)

 Ray diagram and working of convex lens
 Numerical using mirror or lens formula

COMMON MISTAKES TO AVOID

 Wrong sign convention
 Forgetting ray diagrams
 Writing wrong image nature
 Not converting cm to metre in power numericals

CLASS 10 SCIENCE – BIOLOGY

LIFE PROCESSES
COMPLETE STUDY MATERIAL (FROM THE VERY START)
PART 0: WHAT DOES “LIFE” MEAN? (NCERT BASE)
Why do we need to study life processes?

Living things look very different from each other:

 A plant
 A dog
 A human
 A bacterium

But all living organisms have some common features.

They:

 Need energy
 Need raw materials
 Need waste removal
 Need internal balance

These basic activities are essential to stay alive.

DEFINITION: LIFE PROCESSES

Life processes are the basic functions performed by living organisms to maintain and sustain
life.

If these processes stop:

➡️the organism cannot survive
➡️the organism dies

WHY LIFE PROCESSES ARE NECESSARY (VERY

IMPORTANT)
Living organisms are made up of cells.
Cells are constantly:

 Breaking down substances

 Building new materials
 Producing waste
So cells require:

 Continuous supply of energy

 Transport of substances
 Removal of waste products

Life processes make this possible.

LIST OF LIFE PROCESSES (NCERT)

The life processes studied in Class 10 are:

1. Nutrition
2. Respiration
3. Transportation
4. Excretion

📌 All four are equally important

📌 Absence of even one can cause death

PART 1: NUTRITION (FULL DEPTH)

WHAT IS NUTRITION?
Definition (write exactly like this in exam):

Nutrition is the process by which an organism takes in food and utilises it to obtain energy,
grow, repair damaged tissues, and maintain body functions.

WHY DO ORGANISMS NEED FOOD?

Food is required for:

1. Energy for life activities

2. Growth and development
3. Repair of damaged cells
4. Maintenance of metabolism
COMPONENTS OF FOOD (EXAM GOLD)
Food contains:

 Carbohydrates → main source of energy

 Proteins → growth and repair
 Fats → stored energy
 Vitamins → regulation of body functions
 Minerals → formation of bones, teeth, blood

MODES OF NUTRITION
Based on how food is obtained, nutrition is of two main types:

1. Autotrophic Nutrition

2. Heterotrophic Nutrition

PART 2: AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION (START OF

REAL BIO)

DEFINITION: AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION

Autotrophic nutrition is a mode of nutrition in which organisms prepare their own food
from simple inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide and water using sunlight.

Organisms showing autotrophic nutrition are called autotrophs.

EXAMPLES OF AUTOTROPHS
 Green plants
 Algae
 Cyanobacteria
WHY AUTOTROPHS ARE IMPORTANT (3–5 MARK
QUESTION)
 They are producers in food chains
 They form the base of all food chains
 All heterotrophs depend on them directly or indirectly
 They maintain balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide in nature

PHOTOSYNTHESIS (CORE CONCEPT – VERY LONG

ANSWERS)

DEFINITION: PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants prepare food (glucose) from carbon
dioxide and water using sunlight in the presence of chlorophyll.

WORD EQUATION:
Carbon dioxide + Water → Glucose + Oxygen

BALANCED CHEMICAL EQUATION:

6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
(Sunlight and chlorophyll are required)

📌 Glucose = food
📌 Oxygen = by-product

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

(WRITE POINTWISE)
Photosynthesis requires:

1. Sunlight
  Source of energy
 Provides energy for chemical reactions

2. Chlorophyll

 Green pigment present in leaves

 Absorbs light energy

3. Carbon Dioxide

 Obtained from air

 Enters leaf through stomata

4. Water

 Absorbed by roots
 Transported to leaves by xylem

SITE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts present in green parts of plants, especially leaves.

STRUCTURE OF CHLOROPLAST (DETAILED)

A chloroplast consists of:

 Outer membrane
 Inner membrane
 Grana (contain chlorophyll)
 Stroma (fluid-filled space)

📌 Light reactions occur in grana

📌 Dark reactions occur in stroma

STEPS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS (VERY IMPORTANT –

NEVER SKIP)
Photosynthesis occurs in three main steps:
STEP 1: Absorption of light energy

 Chlorophyll absorbs sunlight

 Light energy is converted into chemical energy

STEP 2: Splitting of water (Photolysis)

 Water molecules split into hydrogen and oxygen

 Oxygen is released into atmosphere

STEP 3: Reduction of carbon dioxide

 Hydrogen combines with carbon dioxide

 Glucose is formed

STOMATA AND THEIR ROLE

What are stomata?

Stomata are tiny pores present on the surface of leaves.

Functions of stomata:

 Allow carbon dioxide to enter

 Allow oxygen to exit
 Help in transpiration

Guard cells:

 Surround stomata
 Control opening and closing
 Turgid → stomata open
 Flaccid → stomata close

TRANSPIRATION (CONNECTED CONCEPT)

Transpiration is the loss of water in the form of water vapour through stomata.

Importance:

 Helps in upward movement of water

 Cools the plant
 Maintains water balance

CLASS 10 SCIENCE – BIOLOGY

LIFE PROCESSES
COMPLETE STUDY MATERIAL (FROM THE VERY START)

PART 0: WHAT DOES “LIFE” MEAN? (NCERT BASE)

Why do we need to study life processes?

Living things look very different from each other:

 A plant
 A dog
 A human
 A bacterium

But all living organisms have some common features.

They:

 Need energy
 Need raw materials
 Need waste removal
 Need internal balance

These basic activities are essential to stay alive.

DEFINITION: LIFE PROCESSES

Life processes are the basic functions performed by living organisms to maintain and sustain
life.
If these processes stop:
➡️the organism cannot survive
➡️the organism dies

WHY LIFE PROCESSES ARE NECESSARY (VERY

IMPORTANT)
Living organisms are made up of cells.
Cells are constantly:

 Breaking down substances

 Building new materials
 Producing waste

So cells require:

 Continuous supply of energy

 Transport of substances
 Removal of waste products

Life processes make this possible.

LIST OF LIFE PROCESSES (NCERT)

The life processes studied in Class 10 are:

1. Nutrition
2. Respiration
3. Transportation
4. Excretion

📌 All four are equally important

📌 Absence of even one can cause death

PART 1: NUTRITION (FULL DEPTH)

WHAT IS NUTRITION?
Definition (write exactly like this in exam):
Nutrition is the process by which an organism takes in food and utilises it to obtain energy,
grow, repair damaged tissues, and maintain body functions.

WHY DO ORGANISMS NEED FOOD?

Food is required for:

1. Energy for life activities

2. Growth and development
3. Repair of damaged cells
4. Maintenance of metabolism

COMPONENTS OF FOOD (EXAM GOLD)

Food contains:

 Carbohydrates → main source of energy

 Proteins → growth and repair
 Fats → stored energy
 Vitamins → regulation of body functions
 Minerals → formation of bones, teeth, blood

MODES OF NUTRITION
Based on how food is obtained, nutrition is of two main types:

1. Autotrophic Nutrition

2. Heterotrophic Nutrition

PART 2: AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION (START OF

REAL BIO)

DEFINITION: AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION

Autotrophic nutrition is a mode of nutrition in which organisms prepare their own food
from simple inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide and water using sunlight.

Organisms showing autotrophic nutrition are called autotrophs.

EXAMPLES OF AUTOTROPHS
 Green plants
 Algae
 Cyanobacteria

WHY AUTOTROPHS ARE IMPORTANT (3–5 MARK

QUESTION)
 They are producers in food chains
 They form the base of all food chains
 All heterotrophs depend on them directly or indirectly
 They maintain balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide in nature

PHOTOSYNTHESIS (CORE CONCEPT – VERY LONG

ANSWERS)

DEFINITION: PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants prepare food (glucose) from carbon
dioxide and water using sunlight in the presence of chlorophyll.

WORD EQUATION:
Carbon dioxide + Water → Glucose + Oxygen

BALANCED CHEMICAL EQUATION:

6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
(Sunlight and chlorophyll are required)

📌 Glucose = food
📌 Oxygen = by-product

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

(WRITE POINTWISE)
Photosynthesis requires:

1. Sunlight

 Source of energy
 Provides energy for chemical reactions

2. Chlorophyll

 Green pigment present in leaves

 Absorbs light energy

3. Carbon Dioxide

 Obtained from air

 Enters leaf through stomata

4. Water

 Absorbed by roots
 Transported to leaves by xylem

SITE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts present in green parts of plants, especially leaves.

STRUCTURE OF CHLOROPLAST (DETAILED)

A chloroplast consists of:

 Outer membrane
 Inner membrane
  Grana (contain chlorophyll)
 Stroma (fluid-filled space)

📌 Light reactions occur in grana

📌 Dark reactions occur in stroma

STEPS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS (VERY IMPORTANT –

NEVER SKIP)
Photosynthesis occurs in three main steps:

STEP 1: Absorption of light energy

 Chlorophyll absorbs sunlight

 Light energy is converted into chemical energy

STEP 2: Splitting of water (Photolysis)

 Water molecules split into hydrogen and oxygen

 Oxygen is released into atmosphere

STEP 3: Reduction of carbon dioxide

 Hydrogen combines with carbon dioxide

 Glucose is formed

STOMATA AND THEIR ROLE

What are stomata?

Stomata are tiny pores present on the surface of leaves.

Functions of stomata:

 Allow carbon dioxide to enter

  Allow oxygen to exit
 Help in transpiration

Guard cells:

 Surround stomata
 Control opening and closing
 Turgid → stomata open
 Flaccid → stomata close

TRANSPIRATION (CONNECTED CONCEPT)

Transpiration is the loss of water in the form of water vapour through stomata.

Importance:

 Helps in upward movement of water

 Cools the plant
 Maintains water balance

WHAT IS RESPIRATION?
Definition (write exactly like this):

Respiration is the biochemical process by which food (glucose) is broken down in cells to
release energy required for various life activities.

📌 Energy released is stored in the form of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate).

WHY RESPIRATION IS NECESSARY

Respiration is essential because:

 Energy is required for movement

 Energy is needed for growth and repair
 Energy is required for synthesis of substances
 Energy is needed to maintain body temperature

📌 Without respiration, life processes cannot continue.

BREATHING vs RESPIRATION (VERY COMMON
QUESTION)
Breathing:

 Physical process
 Exchange of gases
 Occurs in lungs
 No energy released

Respiration:

 Chemical process
 Breakdown of food
 Occurs in cells
 Energy is released

📌 Breathing is only a part of respiration.

TYPES OF RESPIRATION
Respiration is of two types:

1. Aerobic respiration
2. Anaerobic respiration

1. AEROBIC RESPIRATION
Definition:

Aerobic respiration is the process of respiration that occurs in the presence of oxygen.

Characteristics:

 Requires oxygen
 Complete breakdown of glucose
 Large amount of energy released
 Occurs in mitochondria
Chemical equation:

Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy (ATP)

📌 End products: CO₂ and H₂O

📌 Energy released is high

Where does aerobic respiration occur?

 Glycolysis → cytoplasm
 Krebs cycle & ETC → mitochondria

(You don’t need deep chemistry, just mitochondria = powerhouse)

2. ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
Definition:

Anaerobic respiration is the process of respiration that occurs in the absence of oxygen.

Characteristics:

 No oxygen required
 Incomplete breakdown of glucose
 Less energy released
 Occurs in cytoplasm

Anaerobic respiration in yeast:

Glucose → Ethanol + Carbon dioxide + Energy

Anaerobic respiration in human muscles:

Glucose → Lactic acid + Energy

📌 Lactic acid accumulation causes muscle cramps.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AEROBIC AND
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
(WRITE AS TABLE IN EXAM)

Aerobic Anaerobic

Oxygen required Oxygen not required

Complete breakdown Incomplete breakdown

More energy Less energy

CO₂ + H₂O formed Alcohol or lactic acid

Occurs in mitochondria Occurs in cytoplasm

PART 6: HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

(VERY HIGH WEIGHTAGE + DIAGRAM QUESTION)

INTRODUCTION
The human respiratory system helps in:

 Taking in oxygen
 Giving out carbon dioxide
 Supporting cellular respiration

PARTS OF HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

In order of airflow:

1. Nostrils
2. Nasal cavity
3. Trachea
4. Bronchi
5. Bronchioles
6. Alveoli
7. Lungs
📌 Diagram almost always asked.

FUNCTIONS OF EACH PART

1. Nostrils

 Allow air to enter

 Filter dust particles

2. Nasal Cavity

 Warms air
 Moistens air
 Traps dust using mucus

3. Trachea (Windpipe)

 Carries air to lungs

 Supported by C-shaped cartilage rings
 Prevents collapse

4. Bronchi

 Two branches of trachea

 Carry air into lungs

5. Bronchioles

 Smaller branches inside lungs

 Lead to alveoli

6. Alveoli (MOST IMPORTANT)

Alveoli are tiny air sacs present in lungs.

Features of alveoli:

 Thin walls (one cell thick)

 Large surface area
 Rich blood supply

Function:

 Exchange of gases
 Oxygen diffuses into blood
 Carbon dioxide diffuses out

📌 Alveoli are the site of gaseous exchange.

MECHANISM OF BREATHING
Inhalation:

 Diaphragm contracts
 Ribs move upward
 Chest cavity expands
 Air enters lungs

Exhalation:

 Diaphragm relaxes
 Ribs move downward
 Chest cavity contracts
 Air moves out

TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE

Oxygen:

 Carried by haemoglobin
 Forms oxyhaemoglobin

Carbon dioxide:

WHAT IS TRANSPORTATION?
Definition (write exactly):

Transportation is the process by which substances such as food, oxygen, carbon dioxide,
hormones, and waste materials are moved from one part of the body to another.

WHY TRANSPORTATION IS NECESSARY?

Transportation is needed because:

 All cells do not get food and oxygen directly

 Waste materials must be removed
 Hormones need to reach target organs

TRANSPORTATION IN HUMANS

HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The human circulatory system consists of:

1. Heart
2. Blood
3. Blood vessels

📌 Humans have a closed circulatory system.

HEART (EXTREMELY IMPORTANT – 5 MARKS)

Location:

 Located in chest cavity

 Slightly towards the left

Structure of Heart

The heart has four chambers:

1. Right atrium
 2. Right ventricle
3. Left atrium
4. Left ventricle

Function of Chambers

 Right atrium → receives deoxygenated blood

 Right ventricle → pumps blood to lungs
 Left atrium → receives oxygenated blood
 Left ventricle → pumps blood to whole body

📌 Left ventricle has thickest walls.

Valves in Heart

 Prevent backflow of blood

 Maintain one-way flow

DOUBLE CIRCULATION (VERY IMPORTANT)

Definition:

Double circulation means blood passes through the heart twice during one complete cycle.

Types:

1. Pulmonary circulation
2. Systemic circulation

Pulmonary Circulation:

 Heart → lungs → heart

 Deoxygenated blood becomes oxygenated

Systemic Circulation:
  Heart → body → heart
 Oxygenated blood supplies tissues

📌 Ensures efficient oxygen supply.

BLOOD VESSELS
1. Arteries

 Carry blood away from heart

 Thick walls
 Carry oxygenated blood (except pulmonary artery)

2. Veins

 Carry blood towards heart

 Thin walls
 Have valves
 Carry deoxygenated blood (except pulmonary vein)

3. Capillaries

 Very thin walls

 Exchange of materials occurs
 Connect arteries and veins

BLOOD
Components of Blood:

1. Red Blood Cells (RBCs)

 Contain haemoglobin
 Transport oxygen

2. White Blood Cells (WBCs)

 Fight infections
  Provide immunity

3. Platelets

 Help in blood clotting

 Prevent excessive bleeding

TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS
Plants do not have a circulatory system, but they transport substances using vascular tissues.

XYLEM
Function:

 Transports water and minerals

 From roots to leaves

Components:

 Vessels
 Tracheids

PHLOEM
Function:

 Transports food
 From leaves to all parts of plant

Components:

 Sieve tubes
 Companion cells

MECHANISM OF TRANSPORT IN PLANTS

Transpiration Pull:

 Loss of water from leaves creates suction

 Pulls water upward

Root Pressure:

 Pressure created by roots

 Pushes water upward

LIFE PROCESSES

PART 8: EXCRETION
(FINAL PART — EASY BUT SCORING)

WHAT IS EXCRETION?
Definition:

Excretion is the process of removal of metabolic waste products from the body.

WHY EXCRETION IS NECESSARY?

Waste materials like:

 Urea
 Excess salts
 Excess water

are toxic if accumulated.

EXCRETION IN HUMANS

HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Organs:

1. Kidneys
2. Ureters
3. Urinary bladder
4. Urethra

KIDNEY (FUNCTION + STRUCTURE)

 Bean-shaped organs
 Filter blood
 Form urine

NEPHRON (MOST IMPORTANT PART)

Definition:

Nephron is the functional unit of kidney.

Structure of Nephron:

 Bowman’s capsule
 Glomerulus
 Tubules

FUNCTIONS OF NEPHRON

1. Filtration
o Blood filtered in glomerulus
2. Reabsorption
o Useful substances reabsorbed
3. Secretion
o Extra wastes added to urine

📌 Final product = urine

EXCRETION IN PLANTS
Plants excrete waste by:

 Stomata (gases)
 Storing waste in leaves, bark
 Shedding leaves

CLASS 10 SCIENCE – BIOLOGY

CONTROL AND COORDINATION

COMPLETE STUDY MATERIAL (FROM THE START)

PART 0: WHY CONTROL AND COORDINATION IS

NEEDED
Living organisms perform many life processes like:

 Nutrition
 Respiration
 Transportation
 Excretion

But these processes cannot work independently.

👉 They must be:

 Controlled (regulated properly)

 Coordinated (work together at the right time)

Example:

 You eat → digestion starts

 You run → heart rate increases
 You touch fire → hand withdraws immediately

All this happens because of control and coordination.

DEFINITION: CONTROL AND COORDINATION

Control and coordination is the process by which the activities of different organs and
organ systems are regulated, integrated, and synchronized to produce an appropriate response
to a stimulus.
WHAT IS A STIMULUS?
Definition:

A stimulus is any change in the environment that causes a response in an organism.

Examples:

 Heat
 Light
 Sound
 Touch
 Smell

WHAT IS A RESPONSE?
A response is the reaction of an organism to a stimulus.

Example:

 Withdrawing hand from hot object

 Blinking eyes in bright light

PART 1: CONTROL AND COORDINATION IN

ANIMALS
In animals, control and coordination are carried out by:

1. Nervous system
2. Endocrine system (hormones)

PART 2: NERVOUS SYSTEM

(MOST IMPORTANT – VERY HIGH WEIGHTAGE)

WHY NERVOUS SYSTEM IS NEEDED?
The nervous system is required because:

 It produces quick responses

 It controls muscles and glands
 It helps organisms react immediately to stimuli

📌 Nervous system responses are fast but short-lived.

BASIC UNIT OF NERVOUS SYSTEM: NEURON

Definition:

A neuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system.

STRUCTURE OF A NEURON (DIAGRAM QUESTION)

A neuron consists of three parts:

1. Dendrites
2. Cell body (Cyton)
3. Axon

Functions of Parts of Neuron

1. Dendrites

 Receive impulses
 Carry impulses towards cell body

2. Cell body (Cyton)

 Contains nucleus
 Controls metabolic activities

3. Axon

 Long fibre
 Carries impulses away from cell body
📌 Direction of impulse:
Dendrite → Cell body → Axon

TYPES OF NEURONS (IMPORTANT)

1. Sensory neurons
o Carry impulses from receptors to brain/spinal cord
2. Motor neurons
o Carry impulses from brain/spinal cord to muscles or glands
3. Relay neurons
o Connect sensory and motor neurons

HOW DOES NERVOUS TISSUE WORK?

 Nerve impulses are electrical in nature
 They travel as electrochemical signals
 Synapse helps transmit impulse from one neuron to another

SYNAPSE
Definition:

A synapse is the gap between two neurons.

Function:

 Helps transmission of nerve impulse

 Uses chemicals called neurotransmitters

PART 3: REFLEX ACTION

(VERY COMMON 3–5 MARK QUESTION)

WHAT IS A REFLEX ACTION?

Definition:

A reflex action is a sudden, automatic, and involuntary response to a stimulus.

Examples:

 Withdrawing hand from hot object

 Blinking of eyes
 Knee-jerk reaction

WHY ARE REFLEX ACTIONS IMPORTANT?

 Protect the body from injury
 Save time
 Do not involve thinking

📌 Reflex actions are controlled by spinal cord, not brain.

REFLEX ARC (DIAGRAM + THEORY)

Definition:

A reflex arc is the pathway followed by nerve impulse during a reflex action.

Parts of Reflex Arc:

1. Receptor
2. Sensory neuron
3. Spinal cord
4. Motor neuron
5. Effector (muscle/gland)

Sequence of Reflex Action:

Stimulus → Receptor → Sensory neuron → Spinal cord → Motor neuron → Effector →

Response
ROLE OF BRAIN IN REFLEX ACTION
 Brain is informed after the reflex
 Brain does not control the immediate response

PART 4: HUMAN BRAIN

(VERY HIGH WEIGHTAGE + DIAGRAM)

INTRODUCTION TO BRAIN
The brain is the main coordinating centre of the body.

It:

 Receives information
 Processes information
 Sends instructions

PARTS OF HUMAN BRAIN

The brain has three main parts:

1. Forebrain
2. Midbrain
3. Hindbrain

FOREBRAIN (MOST IMPORTANT)

Components:

 Cerebrum
 Thalamus
 Hypothalamus
Cerebrum:

 Largest part of brain

 Controls:
o Thinking
o Memory
o Intelligence
o Voluntary actions

📌 Divided into two hemispheres.

Thalamus:

 Relay centre
 Passes sensory impulses to cerebrum

Hypothalamus:

 Controls:
o Hunger
o Thirst
o Body temperature
o Emotions

MIDBRAIN
 Controls visual and auditory reflexes
 Connects forebrain and hindbrain

HINDBRAIN
Components:

 Cerebellum
 Pons
 Medulla
Cerebellum:

 Maintains balance
 Coordinates muscular movements

Pons:

 Regulates breathing
 Acts as bridge

Medulla:

 Controls involuntary actions:

o Heartbeat
o Breathing
o Blood pressure

Protection of Brain:

 Skull
 Meninges
 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

PART 5: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (HORMONAL

CONTROL IN HUMANS)

WHY DO WE NEED HORMONES?

The nervous system:

 Works very fast

 Produces quick responses
 Effects are short-lasting

But many body activities need:

 Slow control
  Long-lasting effects
 Continuous regulation

👉 This is done by the endocrine system using hormones.

WHAT IS A HORMONE?
Definition (write exactly):

A hormone is a chemical messenger secreted by endocrine glands directly into the

bloodstream to regulate specific functions of the body.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HORMONES
 Secreted in small quantities
 Act on specific target organs
 Effects are slow but long-lasting
 Transported by blood

ENDOCRINE GLANDS
Definition:

Endocrine glands are ductless glands that release hormones directly into the blood.

MAJOR ENDOCRINE GLANDS IN HUMANS

(DIAGRAM QUESTION)
1. Pituitary gland
2. Thyroid gland
3. Adrenal glands
4. Pancreas
5. Testes
6. Ovaries

📌 Diagram is very important in exams.

PITUITARY GLAND (MASTER GLAND)
Location:

 At the base of the brain

Why called master gland?

 Controls other endocrine glands

 Secretes growth hormone

Growth Hormone

Function:

 Controls growth and development of body

Disorders:

 Excess secretion → Gigantism

 Less secretion → Dwarfism

THYROID GLAND
Location:

 In the neck region

Hormone secreted:

 Thyroxine

Function of Thyroxine:

 Regulates metabolism
 Controls growth and development

📌 Thyroxine needs iodine.

Deficiency Disease:

 Goitre
 Caused due to lack of iodine

ADRENAL GLANDS
Location:

 On top of kidneys

Hormone secreted:

 Adrenaline

Function of Adrenaline:

 Prepares body for emergency situations

 Known as fight or flight hormone

Effects:

 Increases heart rate

 Increases blood pressure
 Increases breathing rate

PANCREAS (MIXED GLAND)

Hormones secreted:

 Insulin
 Glucagon

Insulin:

 Regulates blood sugar level

 Converts excess glucose into glycogen
Deficiency of Insulin:

 Diabetes mellitus
 High blood sugar level

TESTES (MALE)
Hormone:

 Testosterone

Functions:

 Development of male secondary sexual characters

 Sperm formation

OVARIES (FEMALE)
Hormones:

 Oestrogen
 Progesterone

Functions:

 Development of female secondary sexual characters

 Regulation of menstrual cycle
 Maintenance of pregnancy

COMPARISON: NERVOUS vs HORMONAL

CONTROL
(VERY COMMON 3–5 MARK QUESTION)

Nervous Control Hormonal Control

Electrical signals Chemical messengers

Very fast Slow

 Nervous Control Hormonal Control

Short-lasting effect Long-lasting effect

Acts on muscles/glands Acts on target organs

Controlled by nerves Controlled by hormones

PART 6: CONTROL AND COORDINATION IN PLANTS

(VERY SCORING, EASY MARKS)

HOW DO PLANTS RESPOND TO STIMULI?

Plants:

 Do not have nervous system

 Use chemical substances (plant hormones)

PLANT HORMONES (PHYTOHORMONES)

Definition:

Plant hormones are chemical substances produced in plants that control growth,
development, and responses to stimuli.

MAIN PLANT HORMONES (MUST MEMORISE)

1. Auxins
2. Gibberellins
3. Cytokinins
4. Ethylene
5. Abscisic acid
AUXINS
Function:

 Promote cell elongation

 Cause bending of plants towards light

📌 Responsible for phototropism.

GIBBERELLINS
Function:

 Increase stem length

 Promote seed germination

CYTOKININS
Function:

 Promote cell division

 Delay ageing of leaves

ETHYLENE
Function:

 Ripening of fruits

📌 Only gaseous hormone.

ABSCISIC ACID
Function:

 Inhibits growth
 Causes dormancy
 Known as stress hormone
MOVEMENTS IN PLANTS
Plant movements are of two types:

1. Tropic movements

2. Nastic movements

TROPIC MOVEMENTS
Definition:

Directional growth response of plant parts towards or away from stimulus.

Types of Tropism:

 Phototropism → light
 Geotropism → gravity
 Hydrotropism → water
 Thigmotropism → touch

NASTIC MOVEMENTS
Definition:

Non-directional movement of plant parts in response to stimulus.

Example:

 Closing of leaves of touch-me-not plant

FINAL EXAM SECTION: CONTROL & COORDINATION

MOST REPEATED 5-MARK QUESTIONS

 Reflex action and reflex arc

  Human brain with functions
 Endocrine glands and hormones
 Plant hormones and their functions

WHY THIS CHAPTER IS A MARK-BOOSTER

 Fixed theory
 Diagrams = free marks
 Repeated questions
 Easy language