12 PHYSICS UNIT – 10 ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION COMPLETE GUIDE AND MODEL QUESTION

PART – I 1 MARK MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS 5. The zener diode is primarily used as
1. The barrier potential of a silicon diode is approximately, (a) Rectifier (b) Amplifier
(a) 0.7 V (b) 0.3V (c) 2.0 V (d) 2.2V (c) Oscillator (d) Voltage regulator
Solution:- Solution:-
 A thin region formed near the PN-junction which is free from charge carriers  Zener diode working in the breakdown region can serve as a voltage regulator
(free electrons and holes) is called depletion region. The difference in potential Answer (d) Voltage regulator
across the depletion layer is called the barrier potential (𝑉𝑏 ) . 6. The principle based on which a solar cell operates is
 At 250C, this barrier potential is approximately 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for (a) Diffusion (b) Recombination
germanium (c) Photovoltaic action (d) Carrier flow
Answer (a) 0.7 V Solution:-
2. Doping a semiconductor results in  A solar cell, also known as photovoltaic cell, works on the principle of
(a) The decrease in mobile charge carriers (b) The change in chemical properties photovoltaic effect. Accordingly, the p-n junction of the solar cell generates
(c) The change in the crystal structure (d) The breaking of the covalent bond emf when solar radiation falls on it.
Solution:- Answer (c) Photovoltaic action
 The process of adding impurities to the intrinsic semiconductor is called doping. 7. The light emitted in an LED is due to
It increases the concentration of charge carriers (electrons and holes) in the (a) Recombination of charge carriers
semiconductor and in turn, its electrical conductivity. (b) Reflection of light due to lens action
Answer (c) The change in the crystal structure (c) Amplification of light falling at the junction
3. In an unbiased p-n junction, the majority charge carriers (that is, holes) in the (d) Large current capacity.
p -region diffuse into n-region because of Solution:-
(a) the potential difference across the p-n junction  The excess minority carriers formed due to diffusion recombine with oppositely
(b) the higher hole concentration in p-region than that in n-region charged majority carriers in the respective regions. During recombination
(c) the attraction of free electrons of n-region process, energy is released in the form of light (radiative) or heat (non-
(d) the higher concentration of electrons in the n-region than that in the p-region radiative).
Solution:- Answer (a) Recombination of charge carriers
 Whenever p-n junction is formed, some of the free electrons diffuse from the 8. The barrier potential of a p-n junction depends on (i) type of semiconductor
n-side to the p-side while the holes from the p-side to the n-side. The diffusion of material (ii) amount of doping (iii) temperature. Which one of the following is
charge carriers happens due to the fact that the n-side has higher electron correct?
concentration and the p-side has higher hole concentration. (a) (i) and (ii) only (b) (ii) only
(b) the higher hole concentration in p-region than (c) (ii) and (iii) only (d) (i) (ii) and (iii)
that in n-region Solution:-
Answer the higher concentration of electrons in the n-  Barrier potential (𝑉𝑏 ) is 0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge
(d) region than that in the p-region  If concentration of dopping is increased, number of charged carrier also
4. If a positive half –wave rectified voltage is fed to a load resistor, for which part increases. Due to this width of depletion region decreases and hence potential
of a cycle there will be current flow through the load? barrier increases.
(a) 00–900 (b) 900–1800  As temperature increases, the value of barrier potential decreases, because the
(c) 00–1800 (d) 00–3600 temperature affects the kinetic energy of the charge carriers.
Solution:- Answer (d) (i) (ii) and (iii)

Answer (c) 00–1800

12 PHYSICS UNIT – 10 ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION COMPLETE GUIDE AND MODEL QUESTION
9. What is called P-type semiconductor?
PART – II & III 2 AND 3 MARK SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS & ANSWERS  A P - type semiconductor is obtained by doping a pure Germanium (or Silicon)
1. What is called electronics? crystal with a dopant of trivalent elements (acceptor impurity) like Boron,
 Electronics is the branch of physics incorporated with technology towards the Aluminium, Gallium and Indium. In P-type semicondutors,
design of circuits using transistors and microchips. Holes are majority charge carriers
 It depicts the behaviour and movement of electrons in a semiconductor, Electrons are minority charge carriers
vacuum, or gas. 10. What is N-type semiconductor?
2. What are passive components and active components?  A N - type semiconductor is obtained by doping a pure Germanium (or Silicon)
 Components that cannot generate power in a circuit are called passive crystal with a dopant of pentavalent elements (donor impurity) like
components Phosphorus, Arsenic and Antimony. In N-type semicondutors,
(e.g.) Resistors, inductors, capacitors Electrons are majority charge carriers
 Components that can generate power in a circuit are called active components. Holes are minority charge carriers
(e.g.) transistors 11. Define junction potential or barrier potential.
3. What is energy band?  When P - type and N - type semiconductors combine to form PN junction, due to
 When millions of atoms are brought close to each other, the valence orbitals diffusion of majority charge carriers a depletion region is formed near the
and the unoccupied orbitals are split according to the number of atoms. Their junction.
energy levels will be closely spaced and will be difficult to differentiate the  It prevents the charge carriers to further diffusion across the junction. Because
orbitals of one atom from the other and they look like a band a potential difference is set up by the immobile ions in this depletion region.
 This band of very large number of closely spaced energy levels in a very small  This difference in potential across the depletion layer is called the barrier
energy range is known as energy band. potential or junction potential. This barrier potential approximately equals
4. What is valance band, conduction band and forbidden energy gap? 0.7 V for Silicon and 0.3 V for Germanium.
 The energy band formed due to the valence orbitals is called valence band. 12. What is P-N juction diode? Give its symbol.
 The energy band that formed due to the unoccupied orbitals is called the  A P-N junction diode is formed when a P -type semiconductor is fused with a N-
conduction band type semiconductor. It is a device with single P-N junction
 The energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band is called  The Schematic representation and circuit symbol is given below.
forbidden energy gap.
5. What is called intrinsic semiconductor?
 A semiconductor in its pure form without impurity is called an intrinsic
semiconductor.
 Its conduction is low. (e.g.) Silicon, Germanium
6. Define dopping. 13. What is called biasing? Give its types.
 The process of adding impurities to the intrinsic semiconductor is called  Biasing is the process of giving external energy to charge carriers to overcome
doping. the barrier potential and make them move in a particular direction.
 It increases the concentration of charge carriers (electrons and holes) in the  The external voltage applied to the p-n junction is called bias voltage.
semiconductor and in turn, its electrical conductivity. (1) Forward bias
 The impurity atoms are called dopants. (2) Reverse bias
7. What is extrinsic semiconductors? 14. Differentiate forward bias and reverse bias.
 The semiconductor obtained by dopping either pentavalent impurity or Forward bias :
trivalent impurity is called extrinsic semiconductor.  If the positive terminal of the external voltage source is connected to the P-side
(e.g.) P - type and N-type semicondutor and the negative terminal to the N-side, it is called forward biased
8. Define hole.  It reduces width of the depletion region.
 When an electron is excited, covalent bond is broken. Now octet rule will not be Reverse bias :
satisfied.  If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the N-side and the
 Thus each excited electron leaves a vacancy to complete bonding. negative potential to the P-side, the junction is said to be reverse biased
 This ‘deficiency’ of electron is termed as a ‘hole’  It increases width of the depletion region.
12 PHYSICS UNIT – 10 ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION COMPLETE GUIDE AND MODEL QUESTION
26. Give the applications of photo diode. 31. Draw the circuit diagram of common base configurations of NPN transistor.
 Alarm system Common base configuration :
 Count items on a conveyer belt  Input termial - Emitter
 Photoconductors Output terminal - Collector
 Compact disc players, smoke detectors Common terminal - Base
 Medical applications such as detectors for computed tomography etc.  Input current = 𝐼𝐸
27. What are called solar cells? Output current = 𝐼𝐶
 A solar cell, also known as photovoltaic cell, converts light energy directly into  The input signal (VBE) is applied across
electricity or electric potential difference by photovoltaic effect. emitter - base junction
 It is basically a P-N junction which generates emf when solar radiation falls on  The output signal (VCB) is measured across collector - base junction.
the P-N junction. 32. Draw the circuit diagram of common emitter configurations of NPN transistor.
28. Give the applications of solar cells. Common emitter configuration :
 Solar cells are widely used in calculators, watches, toys, portable power  Input termial - Base
supplies, etc. Output terminal - Collector
 Solar cells are used in satellites and space applications Common terminal - Emitter
 Solar panels are used to generate electricity.  Input current = 𝐼𝐵
29. Write a note on bipolar junction transistor(BJT). Output current = 𝐼𝐶
 The bipolar junction transistor  The input signal (VBE) is applied across
(BJT) consists of a semiconductor base - emitter junction
(Silicon or Germanium) crystal in  The output signal (VCE) is measured across collector - emitter junction.
which an N-type material is 33. Draw the circuit diagram of common emitter configurations of NPN transistor.
sandwiched between two P-type Common collector configuration :
materials called PNP transistor or  Input termial - Base
a P -type material sandwiched Output terminal - Emitter
between two N-type materials Common terminal - Collector
called NPN transistor.  Input current = 𝐼𝐵
 The three regions formed are called Output current = 𝐼𝐸
emitter (E), base (B) and collector  The input signal (VBC) is applied across
(C) base - collector junction
30. Discuss the different modes of transistor biasing.  The output signal (VEC) is measured across emitter - collector junction.
(1) Forward Active : 34. Define input resistance of transistor.
 In this bias the emitter-base junction (JEB) is forward biased and the  The ratio of the change in base-emitter voltage (ΔVBE) to the change in base
collector-base junction (JCB) is reverse biased. current (ΔIB) at a constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is called the input
 The transistor is in the active mode and in this mode, the transistor resistance (𝒓𝒊 ).
functions as an amplifier. ∆ 𝑽𝑩𝑬
𝒓𝒊 = [ ]
(2) Saturation : ∆ 𝑰𝑩 𝑽
𝑪𝑬
 Here, both the emitter-base junction (JEB) and collector-base junction (JCB)  The input resistance is high for a transistor in common emitter configuration.
are forward biased. 35. Define output resistance of transistor.
 The transistor has a very large flow of currents across the junctions and in  The ratio of the change in collector-emitter voltage (ΔVCE) to the change in
this mode, transistor is used as a closed switch. collector current (ΔIC) at a constant base current (IB) is called the output
(3) Cut-off : resistance (𝒓𝑶 ).
 In this bias, both the emitter-base junction (JEB) and collector-base junction ∆ 𝑽𝑪𝑬
(JCB) are reverse biased. 𝒓𝑶 = [ ]
∆ 𝑰𝑪 𝑰
 Transistor in this mode is an open switch. 𝑩
 The output resistance is very low for a transistor in common emitter
configuration.
12 PHYSICS UNIT – 10 ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION COMPLETE GUIDE AND MODEL QUESTION
48. Give the circuit symbol, Boolean expression, logical operation and truth table 51. Give the circuit symbol, Boolean expression, logical operation and truth table
of AND gate . of NAND gate .
AND gate - circuit symbol : Inputs Output NAND gate - circuit symbol :
A B Y=A.B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1 Boolean expression :
Boolean expression :  Ley A and B are the inputs and Y be the output, then 𝒀 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨 .𝑩
 Ley A and B are the inputs and Y be the output, then 𝑌 = 𝐴 . 𝐵 Logical operation :
Logical operation :  The output Y equals the complement of AND operation.
 The output of AND gate is high (1) only when all the inputs are high (1).  The circuit is an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. Therefore, it is summarized
 The rest of the cases the output is low (0) as NAND.
49. Give the circuit symbol, Boolean expression, logical operation and truth table  The output is at low (0) only when all the inputs are high (1).
of OR gate .  The rest of the cases, the output is high (1)
OR gate - circuit symbol : Truth table :
Inputs Inputs
Output Output
A B 𝒀=𝑨+𝑩 Input
(AND) (NAND)
0 0 0 A B Z=A.B 𝒀 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨 .𝑩
0 1 1
0 0 0 1
1 0 1
0 1 0 1
1 1 1
1 0 0 1
Boolean expression : 1 1 1 0
 Ley A and B are the inputs and Y be the output, then 𝑌 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 52. Give the circuit symbol, Boolean expression, logical operation and truth table
Logical operation : of NOR gate .
 The output of OR gate is high (1) when either of the inputs or both are high (1) NOR gate - circuit symbol :
50. Give the circuit symbol, Boolean expression, logical operation and truth table
of NOT gate .
NOT gate - circuit symbol :
Input Output
A 𝒀=𝑨 ̅ Boolean expression :
0 1  Ley A and B are the inputs and Y be the output, then 𝒀 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+𝑩
1 0 Logical operation :
Boolean expression :  The output Y equals the complement of OR operation
 If A be the input and Y be the output, then  The circuit is an OR gate followed by a NOT gate and is summarized as NOR
𝒀=𝑨 ̅  The output is high (1) when all the inputs are low (0).
Logical operation :  The rest of the cases, the output is low (0)
 The output is the complement of the input. It is represented with an overbar. Truth table :
 It is also called as inverter. Output Output
Input
 The output Y is high (1), when input is low (0) and vice versa. (OR) (NOR)
A B Z = A + B 𝒀 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+𝑩
0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0
12 PHYSICS UNIT – 10 ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION COMPLETE GUIDE AND MODEL QUESTION
 The transmission efficiency is very high as all the transmitted power is useful. 72. What are the three modes of propagation of electromagnetic waves through
 FM bandwidth covers the entire frequency range which humans can hear. Due space.
to this, FM radio has better quality compared to AM radio.  Ground wave propagation (or) surface wave propagation (nearly 2 kHz to 2
Limitations of FM : MHz)
 FM requires a much wider channel.  Sky wave propagation (or) ionospheric propagation (nearly 3 MHz to 30 MHz)
 FM transmitters and receivers are more complex and costly.  Space wave propagation (nearly 30MHz to 400GHz)
 In FM reception, less area is covered compared to AM. 73. Write a note on ground wave propagation.
66. Define phase modulation (PM)  If the electromagnetic waves transmitted by the transmitter glide over the
 The instantaneous amplitude of the baseband signal modifies the phase of the surface of the earth to reach the receiver, then the propagation is called ground
carrier signal keeping the amplitude and frequency constant is called phase wave propagation.
modulation  The corresponding waves are called ground waves or surface waves.
67. What is called centre frequency (resting frequency)?  It is mainly used in local broadcasting, radio navigation, for ship-to-ship, shipto-
 When the frequency of the baseband signal is zero (no input signal), there is no shore communication and mobile communication.
change in the frequency of the carrier wave. 74. Give the factors that are responsible for transmission impairments.
 It is at its normal frequency and is called as centre frequency or resting Increasing distance :
frequency.  The attenuation of the signal depends on
 Practically 75 kHz is the allotted frequency of the FM transmitter. (1) power of the transmitter
68. Compare FM and PM ? (2) frequency of the transmitter, and
Comparison between FM and PM : (3) condition of the earth surface.
 PM wave is similar to FM wave. Absorption of energy by the Earth :
 PM generally uses a smaller bandwidth than FM. In other words, in PM, more  When the transmitted signal in the form of EM wave is in contact with the Earth,
information can be sent in a given bandwidth. it induces charges in the Earth and constitutes a current.
 Hence, phase modulation provides high transmission speed on a given  Due to this, the earth behaves like a leaky capacitorwhich leads to the
bandwidth. attenuation of the wave.
69. What is called base band signals? Tilting of the wave: As the wave :
 Information can be in the form of a sound signal like speech, music, pictures, or  As the wave progresses, the wavefront starts gradually tilting according to the
computer data. curvature of the Earth.
 The electrical equivalent of the original information is called the baseband  This increase in the tilt decreases the electric field strength of the wave.
signal.  Finally, at some distance, the surface wave dies out due to energy loss.
70. Define band width. 75. Define sky wave propagation.
 The frequency range over which the baseband signals or the information signals  The mode of propagation in which the electromagnetic waves radiated from an
such as voice, music, picture, etc. is transmitted is known as bandwidth. antenna, directed upwards at large angles gets reflected by the ionosphere back
 Bandwidth gives the difference between the upper and lower frequency limits to earth is called sky wave propagation or ionospheric propagation.
of the signal.  The corresponding waves are called sky waves
 If ν1 and ν2 are the lower and upper-frequency limits of a signal, then the 76. Define skip distance.
bandwidth,  The shortest distance between the transmitter and the point of reception of the
𝑩𝑾 = 𝝂𝟐 − 𝝂𝟏 sky wave along the surface is called as the skip distance
71. Define the size of the antenna. 77. Define skip zone.
 Antenna is used at both transmitter and receiver end.  There is a zone in between where there is no reception of electromagnetic
 Antenna height is an important parameter to be discussed. The height of the waves neither ground nor sky, called as skip zone or skip area.
𝝀 78. What is space wave propagation?
antenna must be a multiple of . (i.e.)
𝟒  The process of sending and receiving information signal through space is alled
𝝀 𝒄 space wave communication
𝒉= =
𝟒 𝟒𝝂  The electromagnetic waves of very high frequencies above 30 MHz are called as
space waves.
12 PHYSICS UNIT – 10 ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION COMPLETE GUIDE AND MODEL QUESTION
 Thus, the electrical conduction increases with the increase in temperature. (i.e.)
PART – IV 5 MARK LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS & ANSWERS resistance decreases with increase in temperature.
1. Explain the classification of solids on the basis of energy band theory.  Hence, semiconductors are said to have negative temperature coefficient of
Classification of solids : resistance.
 Based on the energy band theory, solids are classified in to three types, namely  The most important elemental semiconductor materials are Silicon (Si) and
(1) Insulators Germanium (Ge).
(2) Metals (Condutors)  At room temperature,
(3) Semiconductors forbidden energy gap for Si ; 𝑬𝒈 = 𝟏. 𝟏 𝒆𝑽 and
forbidden energy gap for Ge ; 𝑬𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟕 𝒆𝑽
2. Explain in detail the intrinsic semiconductor.
Intrinsic semiconductor :
 A semiconductor in its pure form without impurity is called an intrinsic
semiconductor.
(e.g) silicon, germanium
 Consider Silicon lattice. Each Silicon atom is covalently bonded with the
neighbouring four atoms to form the lattice.
Insulators :  At absolute zero (0 K), this will behaves as insulator, because there is no free
 In insulator the valence band (VB) and the conduction band (CB) are separated charges.
by a large energy gap.
 The forbidden energy gap (𝐸𝑔 ) is approximately 6 eV in insulators.
 The gap is very large that electrons from valence band cannot move into
conduction band even on the application of strong external electric field or the
increase in temperature.
 Therefore, the electrical conduction is not possible as the free electrons are
almost nil and hence these materials are called insulators.
 Its resistivity is in the range of 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗 𝛀 𝒎
Metals (Conductors) :  But at room temperature, some of the covalent bonds are brakes and releases
 In metals, the valence band and onduction band overlap the electrons free from the lattice.
 Hence, electrons can move freely into the conduction band which results in a  As a result, some states in the valence band become empty and the same
large number of free electrons in the conduction band. number of states in the conduction band will be occupied.
 Therefore, conduction becomes possible even at low temperatures.  The vacancies produced in the valence band are called holes which are treates
 The application of electric field provides sufficient energy to the electrons to as positive charges.
drift in a particular direction to constitute a current.  Hence, electrons and holes are the two charge carriers in semiconductors.
 For metals, the resistivity value lies between 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝛀 𝒎  In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of electrons in the conduction band is
Semiconductors : equal to the number of holes in the valence band.
 In semiconductors, there exists a narrow forbidden energy gap (𝐸𝑔 < 3 𝑒𝑉)  The conduction is due to the electrons in the conduction band and holes in the
between the valence band and the conduction band. valence band
 At a finite temperature, thermal agitations in the solid can break the covalent  The total current (I) is always the sum of the electron current (𝑰𝒆 ) and the hole
bond between the atoms. current (𝑰𝒉 )
 This releases some electrons from valence band to conduction band. 𝑰 = 𝑰𝒆 + 𝑰𝒉
 Since free electrons are small in number, the conductivity of the  The increase in temperature increases the number of charge carriers (electrons
semiconductors is not as high as that of the conductors. and holes).
 The resistivity value of semiconductors is from 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 − 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝛀 𝒎.
 When the temperature is increased further, more number of electrons is
promoted to the conduction band and increases the conduction.
12 PHYSICS UNIT – 10 ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION COMPLETE GUIDE AND MODEL QUESTION
V -I characteristics : For Silicon ; 𝑰𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝟐𝟎 𝝁 𝑨
 It is the study of the variation in current through the diode with respect to the For Germanium ; 𝑰𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝟓𝟎 𝝁 𝑨
applied voltage across the diode when it is forward or reverse biased.  Besides, the current is almost independent of the voltage.
 The reverse bias voltage can be increased only up to the rated value otherwise
the diode will enter into the breakdown region.
5. Draw the circuit diagram of a half wave rectifier and explain its working.
Half wave rectifier :
 In a half wave rectifier circuit,
either a positive half or the
negative half of the AC input is
passed through while the other
half is blocked.
 Only one half of the input wave
reaches the output. Therefore, it
is called half wave rectifier.
 This circuit consists of a transformer, a P-N junction diode and a resistor (𝑅𝐿 )
 Here, a P-N junction diode acts as a rectifying diode.
Forward bias characteristics : During positive half cycle of input During negative half cycle of
 If the positive terminal of the external voltage source is connected to the P-side AC input AC
and the negative terminal to the N-side, it is called forward biased. Terminal A becomes positive with Terminal B becomes positive with
 A graph is plotted by taking the forward bias voltage (V) along the x-axis and respect to terminal B. respect to terminal A.
the current (I) through the diode along the y-axis. This graph is called the The diode is forward biased and The diode is reverse biased and
forward V-I characteristics. hence it conducts hence it does not conducts
 From the graph, The current flows through the load No current passes through RL and
(1) At room temperature, a potential difference equal to the barrier potential is resistor RL and the AC voltage there is no voltage drop across RL
required before a reasonable forward current starts flowing across the developed across RL constitutes the (The reverse saturation current in a
diode. This voltage is known as threshold voltage or cut-in voltage or output voltage V0 diode is negligible)
knee voltage (Vth).  The output waveform is shown below.
For Silicon ; 𝑽𝒕𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟕 𝑽
For Germanium ; 𝑽𝒕𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟑 𝑽
(2) The graph clearly infers that the current flow is not linear and is
exponential. Hence it does not obey Ohm’s law.
(3) The forward resistance (𝒓𝒇 ) of the diode is the ratio of the small change in
voltage (ΔV)to the small change in current(ΔI),
∆𝑽
𝒓𝒇 =
∆𝑰
(4) Thus the diode behaves as a conductor when it is forward biased.
Reverse bias characteristics :
 If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the n-side and the negative
potential to the p-side, the junction is said to be reverse biased.  The output of the half wave rectifier is not a steady dc voltage but a pulsating
 A graph is drawn between the reverse bias voltage and the current across the wave.
junction, which is called the reverse V - I characteristics.  A constant ora steady voltage is required which can be obtained with the help of
 Under this bias, a very small current in μA, flows across the junction. This is due filter circuits and voltage regulator circuits.
to the flow of the minority charge carriers called the leakage current or  Efficiency (𝜼) is the ratio of the output dc power to the ac input power supplied
reversesaturation current. to the circuit. Its value for half wave rectifier is 40.6 %
12 PHYSICS UNIT – 10 ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION COMPLETE GUIDE AND MODEL QUESTION
 The Zener diode is operated in the reverse bias having the voltage greater than  A transparent window is used to allow light to travel in the desired direction.
VZ and current less than IZ(max).  In addition, it has two leads; anode and cathode.
 The reverse characteristic is not exactly vertical which means that the diode  When the P-N junction is forward biased, the conduction band electrons on N-
possesses some small resistance called Zener dynamic impedance. side and valence band holes on P-side diffuse across the junction.
 Zener resistance is the inverse of the slope in the breakdown region. It means  When they cross the junction, they become excess minority carriers (electrons
an increase in the Zener current produces only a very small increase in the in P-side and holes in N-side).
reverse voltage which can be neglected.  These excess minority carriers recombine with oppositely charged majority
 Thus the voltage of an ideal Zener diode does not change once it goes into carriers in the respective regions, i.e. the electrons in the conduction band
breakdown. recombine with holes in the valence band
 It means that VZ remains almost constant even when IZ increases considerably.  During recombination process, energy is released in the form of light (radiative)
8. Explain the working of Zener diode as a voltage regulator. or heat (non-radiative).
Zener diode as a voltage regulator :  For radiative recombination, a photon of energy hv isemitted. For non-radiative
 A Zener diode working in the recombination, energy is liberated in the form of heat.
breakdown region can serve  The colour of the light is determined by the energy band gap of the material.
as a voltage regulator.  Therefore, LEDs are available in a wide range of colours such as blue (SiC),
 It maintains a constant output green (AlGaP) and red (GaAsP). Now a days, LED which emits white light
voltage even when input (GaInN) is also available.
voltage (𝑉𝑖 ) or load current 10. Explain in detail about the photo diode.
(𝐼𝐿 ) varies. Photo diode :
 Here, in this circuit the input  A P-N junction diode which converts an
voltage 𝑉𝑖 is regulated at a optical signal into electric current is known
constant voltage Vz (Zener as photodiode.
voltage) at the output represented as V0 using a Zener diode.  Thus, the operation of photodiode is exactly
 The output voltage is maintained constant as long as the input voltage does not opposite to that of an LED.
fall below Vz .  Photo diode works in reverse bias. The direction of arrows indicates that the
 When the potential developed across the diode is greater than V Z, the diode light is incident on the photo diode.
moves into the Zener breakdown region.  The device consists of a P-N junction semiconductor made of photosensitive
 It conducts and draws relatively large current through the series resistance 𝑹𝑺 material kept safely inside a plastic case . It has a small transparent window
 The total current I passing through 𝑹𝑺 equals the sum of diode current IZ and that allows light to be incident on the P-N junction.
load current IL (i.e.) 𝑰 = 𝑰𝒁 + 𝑰𝑳  Photodiodes can generate current when the P-N junction is exposed to light and
 It is to be noted that the total current is always less than the maximum Zener hence are called as light sensors.
diode current. Under all conditions 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽𝒁 .  When a photon of sufficient energy (h) strikes the depletion region of the
 Thus, output voltage is regulated. diode, some of the valence band electrons are elevated into conduction band, in
9. What is meant by light emitting diode? Explain its working principle with turn holes are developed in the valence band. This creates electron-hole pairs.
diagram.  The amount of electronhole pairs generated depends on the intensity of light
Light Emitting Diode (LED) : incident on the P-N junction.
 LED is a p-n junction diode which  These electrons and holes are swept across the P-N junction by the electric
emits visible or invisible light field created by reverse voltage before recombination takes place.
when it is forward biased.  Thus, holes move towards the N-side and electrons towards the P-side.
 Since, electrical energy is  When the external circuit is made, the electrons flow through the external
converted into light energy, this circuit and constitute the photocurrent.
process is also called electro  When the incident light is zero, there exists a reverse current which is
luminescence negligible.
 It consists of a P-layer, N-layer  This reverse current in the absence of any incident light is called dark current
and a substrate. and is due to the thermally generated minority carriers.
12 PHYSICS UNIT – 10 ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION COMPLETE GUIDE AND MODEL QUESTION
 The α of a transistor is a measure of the quality of a transistor. Higher the value  The input resistance is high for a transistor in common emitter
of α better is the transistor. configuration.
 The value of α is less than unity and ranges from 0.95 to 0.99. (2) Output characteristics :
13. Sketch the static characteristics of a common emitter transistor and bring out  The output characteristics give the
the essence of input and output characteristics. relationship between the variation
Static characteristics of NPN transistor in CE mode : in the collector current (ΔIC) with
respect to the variation in collector-
emitter voltage (ΔVCE) at constant
input current (IB)
 There are four important regions in
the curve
(i) Saturation region
(ii) Cut-off region
(iii) Active region
𝑽𝑩𝑬 − Base - emitter voltage (iv) Break down region
𝑽𝑪𝑬 − Collector - emitter voltage  The ratio of the change in the collectoremitter voltage (ΔVCE) to the
𝑰𝑩 − Base current corresponding change in the collector current (ΔI C) at constant base current
𝑰𝑪 − Collector current (IB) is called output resistance (𝒓𝑶 ).
𝑽𝑩𝑩 & 𝑽𝑪𝑪 −Biasing voltages ∆𝑽𝑪𝑬
𝒓𝑶 = [ ]
𝑹𝟏 & 𝑹𝟐 − Variable resistors ∆𝑰𝑪 𝐼
𝐵
(1) Input characteristics :  The output resistance for transistor in common emitter configuration is
 Input Characteristics curves give the relationship between the base current very low.
(IB) and base to emitter voltage (VBE) at constant collector to emitter (3) Current transfer characteristics :
voltage (VCE)  This gives the variation of collector current (IC) with changes in
 The curve looks like the forward base current (IB) at constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE)
characteristics of an ordinary P-N  It is seen that a small IC flows even
junction diode. when IB is zero.
 There exists a threshold voltage or knee  This current is called the common
voltage (Vk) below which the base emitter leakage current (ICEO), which
current is very small. is due to the flow of minority charge
 Beyond the knee voltage, the base current carriers.
increases with the increase in base-  The ratio of the change in collector
emitter voltage. current (ΔIC) to the change in base
 It is also noted that the increase in the current (ΔIB) at constant collector-
collector-emitter voltage decreases the emitter voltage (VCE) is called
base current. This shifts the curve forward current gain (β).
outward. ∆𝑰𝑪
 This is because the increase in collector-emitter voltage increases the width 𝜷= [ ]
∆𝑰𝑩 𝑉
of the depletion region in turn, reduces the effective base width and thereby 𝐶𝐸

the base current.  Its value is very high and it generally ranges from 50 to 200.
 The ratio of the change in base-emitter voltage (ΔVBE) to the change in base
current (ΔIB) at a constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is called the input
resistance (𝒓𝒊 ).
∆𝑽𝑩𝑬
𝒓𝒊 = [ ]
∆𝑰𝑩 𝑽
𝑪𝑬
12 PHYSICS UNIT – 10 ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION COMPLETE GUIDE AND MODEL QUESTION
16. Explain the action transistor as an oscillator. 17. State and prove De Morgan’s First and Second theorems.
Transistor as an oscillator : De Morgan’s First Theorem :
 An electronic oscillator basically  The complement of the sum of two logical inputs is equal to the product of its
converts dc energy into ac energy complements.
of high frequency ranging from a ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+𝑩 = 𝑨 ̅ .𝑩
̅
few Hz to several MHz. Proof :
 Hence, it is a source of alternating A B A+B ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+𝑩 ̅
𝑨 ̅
𝑩 ̅ .𝑩
𝑨 ̅
current or voltage. 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
 Unlike an amplifier, oscillator 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
does not require any external
1 0 1 0 0 1 0
signal source.
 Basically, there are two types of 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
oscillators: Sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal.  From the above truth table, we can conclude
Amplifier : ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+𝑩 = 𝑨 ̅ .𝑩̅
 Amplification is the process of increasing amplitude of weak signals (i.e)  It also says that a NOR gate is equal to a bubbled AND gate.
Amplifier amplifies the input ac signal  The corresponding logic circuit diagram
Feedback network :
 The circuit used to feedback a portion of the output to the input is called the
feedback network.
 If the portion of the output fed to the input is in phase with the input, then the
magnitude of the input signal increases. De Morgan’s First Theorem :
 It is necessary for sustained oscillations.  The complement of the products of two logical inputs is equal to the sum of its
Tank circuit : complements.
 The LC tank circuit consists of an inductance and a capacitor connected in ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨 .𝑩 = 𝑨 ̅+𝑩̅
parallel Proof :
 Whenever energy is supplied to the tank ̅̅̅̅̅ ̅ ̅ ̅+𝑩 ̅
A B A .B 𝑨. 𝑩 𝑨 𝑩 𝑨
circuit from a DC source, the energy is
stored in inductor and capacitor 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
alternatively. 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
 This produces electrical oscillations of 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
definite frequency. 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
 But in practical oscillator circuits there  From the above truth table, we can conclude
will be loss of energy across resistors, ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨 .𝑩 = 𝑨 ̅+𝑩 ̅
inductor coils and capacitors.  It also says that a NAND gate is equal to a bubbled OR gate.
 Due to this, the amplitude of the  The corresponding logic circuit diagram
oscillations decreases gradually.
 Hence, the tank circuit produces damped
electrical oscillations.
 Therefore, in order to produce undamped oscillations, a positive feedback is
provided from the output circuit to the input circuit.
 The frequency of oscillations is determined by the values of L and C using the
equation.
𝟏
𝒇=
𝟐 𝝅 √𝑳 𝑪
12 PHYSICS UNIT – 10 ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION COMPLETE GUIDE AND MODEL QUESTION
Frequency modulation (FM) : 20. Elaborate on the basic elements of communication system with the necessary
 If the frequency of the carrier signal is modified according to the instantaneous block diagram.
amplitude of the baseband signal, then it is called frequency modulation. Communication system :
 Here the amplitude and the phase of the carrier signal remain constant.  Electronic communication is nothing but the transmission of sound, text,
pictures, or data through a medium.
Basic elements of communication system :
(1) Input transducer :
 A transducer is a device that converts variations in a physical quantity
(pressure, temperature, sound) into an equivalent electrical signal or vice
versa.
 In communication system, the transducer converts the information which is
in the form of sound, music, pictures or computer data into corresponding
electrical signals.
 The electrical equivalent of the original information is called the baseband
signal. (e.g.) microphone
(2) Transmitter :
 It feeds the electrical signal from the transducer to the communication
channel.
 When the amplitude of the baseband signal is zero, the frequency of the  The transmitter is located at the broadcasting station.
modulated signal is the same as the carrier signal.
 The frequency of the modulated wave increases when the amplitude of the
baseband signal increases in the positive direction (A, C).
 The increase in amplitude in the negative half cycle (B, D) reduces the
frequency of the modulated wave
 When the frequency of the baseband signal is zero (no input signal), there is no
change in the frequency of the carrier wave.
 It is at its normal frequency and is called as centre frequency or resting
frequency.
 It consists,
 Practically 75 kHz is the allotted frequency of the FM transmitter.
(i) Amplifier : The transducer output is very weak and is amplified by the
Advantages of FM :
amplifier.
 Large decrease in noise. This leads to an increase in signal-noise ratio.
(ii) Oscillator : It generates high-frequency carrier wave (a sinusoidal
 The operating range is quite large. wave) for long distance transmission into space.
 The transmission efficiency is very high as all the transmitted power is useful. (iii) Modulator : It superimposes the baseband signal onto the carrier
 FM bandwidth covers the entire frequency range which humans can hear. Due signal and generates the modulated signal.
to this, FM radio has better quality compared to AM radio. (iv) Power amplifier : It increases the power level of the electrical signal in
Limitations of FM : order to cover a large distance.
 FM requires a much wider channel. (3) Transmitting antenna :
 FM transmitters and receivers are more complex and costly.  It radiates the radio signal into space in all directions.
 In FM reception, less area is covered compared to AM.  It travels in the form of electromagnetic waves with the velocity of light (3 ×
Phase modulation (PM) : 108 m s–1)
 The instantaneous amplitude of the baseband signal modifies the phase of the (4) Communication channel :
carrier signal keeping the amplitude and frequency constant is called phase  Communication channel is used to carry the electrical signal from transmitter
modulation to receiver with less noise or distortion.
 This modulation is used to generate frequency modulated signals.  The communication medium is basically of two types: wireline
communication and wireless communication.
12 PHYSICS UNIT – 10 ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION COMPLETE GUIDE AND MODEL QUESTION
 The message signal from the Earth station is transmitted to the satellite on board 24. Fiber optic communication is gaining popularity among the various
via an uplink (frequency band 6 GHz), amplified by a transponder and then transmission media -justify.
retransmitted to another earth station via a downlink (frequency band Fiber optic communication :
4 GHz)  The method of transmitting information from one place to another in terms of
 The high-frequency radio wave signals travel in a straight line (line of sight) light pulses through an optical fiber is called fiber optic communication.
may come across tall buildings or mountains or even encounter the curvature of  It is in the process of replacing wire transmission in communication systems.
the earth.  Light has very high frequency (400THz –790 THz) than microwave radio
 A communication satellite relays and amplifies such radio signals via systems.
transponder to reach distant and far off places using uplinks and downlinks.  The fibers are made up of silica glass or silicon dioxide which is highly abundant
 It is also called as a radio repeater in sky. on Earth.
Applications :  Now it has been replaced with materials such as chalcogenide glasses,
(1) Weather Satellites: fluoroaluminate crystalline materials because they provide larger infrared
 They are used to monitor the weather and climate of Earth. wavelength and better transmission capability.
 By measuring cloud mass, these satellites enable us to predict rain and  As fibers are not electrically conductive, it is preferred in places where multiple
dangerous storms like hurricanes, cyclones etc. channels are to be laid and isolation is required from electrical and
(2) Communication satellites: electromagnetic interference.
 They are used to transmit television, radio, internet signals etc. Multiple Applications :
satellites are used for long distances.  Optical fiber system has a number of applications namely, international
(3) Navigation satellites: communication, inter-city communication, data links, plant and traffic control
 These are employed to determine the geographic location of ships, aircrafts and defense applications.
or any other object. Merits :
23. Explain the function of RADAR. Give its applications.  Fiber cables are very thin and weigh lesser than copper cables.
RADAR :  This system has much larger band width. This means that its information
 Radar basically stands for RAdioDetection And Ranging System. carrying capacity is larger.
 It is one of the important applications of communication systems and is mainly  Fiber optic system is immune to electrical interferences.
used to sense, detect, and locate distant objects like aircraft, ships, spacecraft, etc.  Fiber optic cables are cheaper than copper cables.
 The angle, range, or velocity of the objects that are invisible to the human eye Demerits :
can be determined.  Fiber optic cables are more fragile when compared to copper wires.
 Radar uses electromagnetic waves for communication.  It is an expensive technology.
 The electromagnetic signal is initially radiated into space by an antenna in all directions . Importance :
 When this signal strikes the targeted object, it gets reflected or reradiated in  Fiber optic cables provide the fastest transmission rate compared to any other
many directions. form of transmission.
 This reflected (echo) signal is received by the radar antenna which in turn is  It can provide data speed of 1 Gbps for homes and business.
delivered to the receiver.  Multimode fibers operate at the speed of 10 Mbps.
 Then, it is processed and amplified to determine the geographical statistics of  Recent developments in optical communication provide the data speed at the
the object. rate of 25 Gbps
 The range is determined by calculating the time taken by the signal to travel
from RADAR to the target and back.
Applications :
 In military, it is used for locating and detecting the targets.
 It is used in navigation systems such as ship borne surface search, air search
and weapons guidance systems.
 To measure precipitation rate and wind speed in meteorological observations, Radars
are used.
 It is employed to locate and rescue people in emergency situations.
12 PHYSICS UNIT – 10 ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION COMPLETE GUIDE AND MODEL QUESTION
EXAM NO 10. If the input to the NOT gate is A = 1011, its output is
NAME : (a) 0100 (b) 1000
UNIT -10 ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION (c) 1100 (d) 0011
11. Which one of the following represents forward bias diode?
Time - 2 : 30 hours Total - 60 marks
PART - I 15 X 1 = 15 (a) (b)
Note : (i) Answer all the questions
(ii) Choose the best answer and write the option code and (c) (d)
corresponding answer 12. The given electrical network is equivalent to
1. The barrier potential of a silicon diode is approximately,
(a) 0.7 V (b) 0.3V
(c) 2.0 V (d) 2.2V
2. Doping a semiconductor results in
(a) The decrease in mobile charge carriers (b) The change in chemical properties (a) AND gate (b) OR gate
(c) The change in the crystal structure (d) The breaking of the covalent bond (c) NOR gate (d) NOT gate
3. In an unbiased p-n junction, the majority charge carriers (that is, holes) in the 13. The output of the following circuit is 1 when the input ABC is
p -region diffuse into n-region because of
(a) the potential difference across the p-n junction
(b) the higher hole concentration in p-region than that in n-region
(c) the attraction of free electrons of n-region
(d) the higher concentration of electrons in the n-region than that in the p-region
4. If a positive half –wave rectified voltage is fed to a load resistor, for which part
of a cycle there will be current flow through the load? (a) 101 (b) 100
(a) 00–900 (b) 900–1800 (c) 110 (d) 010
(c) 0 –180
0 0 (d) 00–3600 14. The variation of frequency of carrier wave with respect to the amplitude of
5. The zener diode is primarily used as the modulating signal is called
(a) Rectifier (b) Amplifier (a) Amplitude modulation (b) Frequency modulation
(c) Oscillator (d) Voltage regulator (c) Phase modulation (d) Pulse width modulation
6. The principle based on which a solar cell operates is 15. The frequency range of 3 MHz to 30 MHz is used for
(a) Diffusion (b) Recombination (a) Ground wave propagation (b) Space wave propagation
(c) Photovoltaic action (d) Carrier flow (c) Sky wave propagation (d) Satellite communication
7. The light emitted in an LED is due to
(a) Recombination of charge carriers PART - II 6 X 2 = 12
(b) Reflection of light due to lens action Note : (i) Answer any 6 of the following questions .
(c) Amplification of light falling at the junction
(ii) Question No. 23 is compulsory
(d) Large current capacity.
16. What is extrinsic semiconductor?
8. The barrier potential of a p-n junction depends on (i) type of semiconductor
17. Define junction potential (barrier potential)
material (ii) amount of doping (iii) temperature. Which one of the following is
correct? 18. What is called LED? Give its symbol
(a) (i) and (ii) only (b) (ii) only 19. Define input resistance of transistor.
(c) (ii) and (iii) only (d) (i) (ii) and (iii) 20. What is Barkhausen condition for sustained oscillations?
9. To obtain sustained oscillation in an oscillator, 21. Distinguish between analog and digital signals?
(a) Feedback should be positive (b) Feedback factor must be unity 22. Define amplitude modulation.
(c) Phase shift must be 0 or 2π (d) All the above 23. In a transistor connecten in common base configuration 𝛼 = 0.95, 𝐼𝐸 = 1 𝑚𝐴 .
Calculate the value of 𝐼𝐶 and 𝐼𝐵
12 PHYSICS UNIT – 11 RECENT DEVELOPMENT IN PHYSICS COMPLETE GUIDE AND MODEL QUESTION

PART – I 1 MARK MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS 6. The materials used in Robotics are
1. The particle size of ZnO material is 30 nm. Based on the dimension it is (a) Aluminium and silver (b) Silver and gold
classified as (c) Copper and gold (d) Steel and aluminum
(a) Bulk material (b) Nano material Solution :-
(c) Soft material (d) Magnetic material  For robots aluminium and steel are the most common metals. Alluminium is a
Solution :- softer metal but steel is several times stronger.
 If the particle of a solid size less than 100 nm,it is said to be a ‘nano solid’ Answer (d) Steel and aluminum
 When the particle size exceed 100 nm, it is ‘bulk solid’ 7. The alloys used for muscle wires in Robots are
Answer (b) Nano material (a) Shape memory alloys (b) Gold copper alloys
2. Which one of the following is the natural nano material. (c) Gold silver alloys (d) Two dimensional alloys
(a) Peacock feather (b) Peacock beak Solution :-
(c) Grain of sand (d) Skin of the Whale  Muscle wires are thin strands of wire made of shape memory alloys. They can
Solution :- contracted by 5% when electric current is passed through them.
 Single strand DNA, double strand DNA, wings of a morpho butterfly, peacock Answer (a) Shape memory alloys
feathers, lotus leaf surface, parrot fist teeth are examples for nono in nature 8. The technology used for stopping the brain from processing pain is
Answer (a) Peacock feather (a) Precision medicine (b) Wireless brain sensor
3. The blue print for making ultra durable synthetic material is mimicked from (c) Virtual reality (d) Radiology
(a) Lotus leaf (b) Morpho butterfly Solution :-
(c) Parrot fish (d) Peacock feather  Medical virtual reality is effectively used to stop the brain from processing pain
Solution :- an cure soreness in the hospitalized patients. It helpsin the treatment of Autism.
 Parrot fish crunches up coral all day because of interwoven fibre nano structure Memory loss and Mental illness
of its teeth. Crystal of a mineral called fluorapatite are woven together in a Answer (c) Virtual reality
chain mail like arrangement which gives parrot fish teeth incredible durability. 9. The particle which gives mass to protons and neutrons are
Mimic of this nano structure provides the blue print for making ultra durable (a) Higgs particle (b) Einstein particle
synthetic materials (c) Nanoparticle (d) Bulk particle
Answer (c) Parrot fish Solution :-
4. Method of making nanomaterial by assembling the atoms is called  ‘Higgs particles’ also known as “God” particles were discovered by Peter Higgs
(a) Top down approach (b) Bottom up approach and Englert which gives mass to many particles like protons, neutrons etc
(c) Cross down approach (d) Diagonal approach Answer (a) Higgs particle
Solution :- 10. The gravitational waves were theoretically proposed by
 Top Down approach - breaking down bulk solids in to nano sizes (a) Conrad Rontgen (b) Marie Curie
 Bottom Up approach - assembling the atoms/molecules together (c) Albert Einstein (d) Edward Purcell
Answer (b) Bottom up approach Solution :-
5. “ Ski wax” is an application of nano product in the field of  Gravitational waves are the disturbances in the curvature of space-time and it
(a) Medicine (b) Textile travels with speed of light. Any accelerated charge emits electromagnetic wave.
(c) Sports (d) Automotive industry Similarly any accelerated mass emits gravitational waves.
Answer (c) Sports  The strongest source of gravitational waves are black holes.
 Albert Einstein theoretically proposed the existence of ‘gravitational waves’ in
the year 1915. After 100 years, it is experimentally proved that his predictions
are correct.
Answer (c) Albert Einstein
12 PHYSICS UNIT – 11 RECENT DEVELOPMENT IN PHYSICS COMPLETE GUIDE AND MODEL QUESTION
11. Write a note on nano robots.
Nano robots : PART – IV 5 MARK LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
 The size of the nano ronots is reduced to microscopic level to perform a task in 1. Explain Nano structure in nature with examples.
very small spaces. Nano in nature :
 In future nano robots are used in the medical fields. (1) Single strand DNA :
 Nano robots in blood stream to perform small surgical procedures, to fight  It is the basic building block of all living things.
against bacteria, repairing individual cell in the body.  It is about 3 nm wide
 It can travel into the body and once after the job is performed it can find its way out. (2) Morpho butterfly :
12. Why steels are preferred to make robots?  The scales of the wings of this butterfly contains nano structures.
 For robots, aluminum and steel are the most common metals.  When light wave interact with this giving the wings brilliant metallic blue
 Aluminum is a softer metal and is therefore easier to work with it. and green hues.
 But steel is several times stronger and because of the inherent strength of steel, (3) Peacock feathers :
robot bodies are made using sheet, bar, rod, channel and other shapes.  They get their iridescent coloration from light interacting with 2
13. What is particle physics? Write down its recent development. dimensional photonic crystal structres just tens of nanometers thick
Particle physics and its development :  Similar nano structrures are made in lab to glow in different colors
 The study of the theory of fundamental particles of nature is called particle physics. (4) Parrot fish :
 Initially it was thought that atom is the fundamental entity of matter. But in  It crunches up coral all day.
1930, it was established that atoms are made up of electrons, protons and  The source of powerful bite is the interwoven fibre nanostructure.
neutrons  Crystals of a mineral called fluorapatite are woven together in a chain
 In 1960, it was discovered that protons and neutrons were made up of quarks. mail-like arrangement. This structure gives parrot fish teeth incredible
 Later it was found that quarks interact through gluons. durability.
 Recently in 2013, famous Higgs particles also known as God particles were  It provides a blue print for creating ultr-durable synthetic materials that
discovered which gives mass to many particles like protons, neutrons etc ., could be useful for mechanical components in electronics and in other
14. Write a note on Cosmology. devices that undergo repetitive movement, abrasion and contact stress
 Cosmology is the branch that involves the origin and evolution of the universe. (5) Lotus Leaf surface :
 It deals with the formation of stars, galaxy etc.  Scaning electron micrograph (SEM) gives the nano structures on the
15. What are called gravitational waves? surface of a leaf from a lotus plant.
 The disturbances in the curvature of space-time is called gravitational waves.  This is the reason for self cleaning process on lotus leaf.
Its travels with speed of light. 2. Discuss the applications of Nanomaterials in various fields.
 Any accelerated charge emits electromagnetic waves. Similarly any accelerated Automotive industry :
mass emits gravitational waves.  Lightweight construction
 But these gravitational waves are very weak even for masses like earth.  Painting (fillers, base coat, clear coat)
 The strongest source of gravitational waves are black holes.  Catalysts
 The recent discoveries of gravitational waves are emitted by two black holes  Tires (fillers)
when they merge to a single black hole.  Sensors
 In 1915, Albert Einstein theoretically proposed the existence of gravitational  Coatings for windscreen and car bodies
waves. After 100 years, it is experimentally proved that his predictions are correct. Chemical industry :
16. Write a note on black holes.  Fillers for paint systems
Black holes :  Coating systems based on nanocomposites
 Black holes are end stage of stars which are highly dense massive object.  Impregnation of papers
 Its mass ranges 20 times mass of the sun to 1 million times mass of the sun.  Switchable adhesives
 It has very strong gravitational force such that no particle or even light can escape from it .  Magnetic fluids
 The existence of black hole is studied when the stars orbiting the black hole Engineering :
behave differently from the other stars.  Wear protection for tools and machines
 Every galaxy has black hole at its centre.  Lubricant-free bearings
 Sagittarius A* is the black hole at the centre of the Milky Way galaxy.
12 PHYSICS UNIT – 11 RECENT DEVELOPMENT IN PHYSICS COMPLETE GUIDE AND MODEL QUESTION
 The robots are well programmed to do a job and if a small thing goes wrong it 6. Discuss the functions of key components in Robots?
ends up in a big loss to the company. Functions of key components of Robots :
 If a robot malfunctions, it takes time to identify the problem, rectify it, and even  Most robots are composed of 3 main parts:
reprogram if necessary. This process requires significant time. (1) Controller
 Humans cannot be replaced by robots in decision making. (2) Mechanical parts
 Till the robot reaches the level of human intelligence, the humans in work place will exit. (3) Sensors
5. Comment on the recent advancement in medical diagnosis and therapy. Controller :
(1) Virtual reality :  It is also known as the "brain" which is run by a computer program.
 Medical virtual reality is effectively used to stop the brain from processing  It gives commands for the moving parts to perform the job.
pain and cure soreness in the hospitalized patients. Mechanical parts :
 It helps in the treatment of Autism, Memory loss, and Mental illness.  It consists motors, pistons, grippers, wheels, and gears that make the robot
(2) Precision medicine : move, grab, turn, and lift.
 Precision medicine is an emerging approach for disease treatment and Sensors :
prevention that takes into account individual variability in genes,  It tells the robot about its surroundings. It helps to determine the sizes and
environment, and lifestyle for each person. shapes of the objects around, distance between the objects, and directions as well.
(3) Health wearables : 7. Explain the various components of robotics.
 A health wearable is a device used for tracking a wearer's vital signs or Power conversion unit:
health and fitness related data, location, etc.  Robots are powered by batteries, solar power, and hydraulics.
 Medical wearables with articial intelligence and big data provide an added Actuators:
value to healthcare with a focus on diagnosis, treatment, patient monitoring  Converts energy into movement. The majority of the actuators produce
and prevention. rotational or linear motion.
(4) Articial organs : Electric motors:
 An articial organ is an engineered device or tissue that is implanted or  They are used to actuate the parts of the robots like wheels, arms, fingers, legs,
integrated into a human. sensors, camera, weapon systems etc.
 It is possible to interface it with living tissue or to replace a natural organ. It  Different types of electric motors are used. The most often used ones are AC
duplicates or augments a specic function or functions of human organs so motor, Brushed DC motor, Brushless DC motor, Geared DC motor, etc.
that the patient may return to a normal life as soon as possible. Pneumatic Air Muscles:
(5) 3D printing :  They are devices that can contract and expand when air is pumped inside.
 Advanced 3D printer systems and materials assist physicians in a range of  It can replicate the function of a human muscle. ey contract almost 40% when
operations in the medical field from audiology, dentistry, orthopedics and the air is sucked inside them.
other applications. Muscle wires:
(6) Wireless brain sensors :  They are thin strands of wire made of shape memory alloys. ey can contract by
 Wireless brain sensors monitor intracranial pressure and temperature and 5% when electric current is passed through them.
then are absorbed by the body. Hence there is no need for surgery to Piezo Motors and Ultrasonic Motors:
remove these devices.  Basically, we use it for industrial robots.
(7) Robotic surgery : Sensors:
 Robotic surgery is a type of surgical procedure that is done using robotic systems.  Generally used in task environments as it provides information of real-time
 Robotically-assisted surgery helps to overcome the limitations of pre- knowledge.
existing minimally-invasive surgical procedures and to enhance the Robot locomotion:
capabilities of surgeons performing open surgery.  Provides the types of movements to a robot.
(8) Smart inhalers :  The different types are
 Inhalers are the main treatment option for asthma. Smart inhalers are (a) Legged
designed with health systems and patients in mind so that they can offer (b) Wheeled
maximum benefit. (c) Combination of Legged and Wheeled Locomotion
 Smart inhalers use Bluetooth technology to detect inhaler use, remind (d) Tracked slip/skid
patients when to take their medication and gather data to help guide care.