German University in Cairo – Winter 2022

CIT 901 : Civil Aviation and Airport Planning

Basic Concepts in Airport Engineering

(Tutorial 3)

Eng. Ola Ahmed

Eng. Omar Sameh
Civil Engineering Program

1
 Outlines
• Aircraft Speed and Sound speed
• Declared Distance
• Payload and Range

2
 General
Knowledge
only

Aircraft Speed
• How does the pilot know his speed?
– True airspeed (TAS) and indicated airspeed (IAS).
Dynamic Static
Pressure 1 2
Pressure
𝑞 = 𝑀 𝛾𝑝
2

𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 Air Density (𝛾)

𝑀𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟(𝑀) =
𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

3
Aircraft Speed
• Speed of sounds decrease with temperature not atmospheric
pressure.

4
Aircraft Speed
• Va : Design Maneuvering Speed, the recommended speed for an
aircraft performing maneuvers (such as turns).
• Vlo : Liftoff Speed, the recommended speed at which the aircraft can
safely liftoff.
• Vne : Do-Not-Exceed Speed, the fastest an aircraft may cruise in
smooth air to maintain safe structural integrity.
• Vr : Rotate Speed, the recommended speed at which the nose wheel
may be lifted off the runway during takeoff.

5
Aircraft Speed
• V1 : Decision Speed, the speed at which, during a takeoff run, the
pilot decides to continue with the takeoff, even if there might be an
engine failure from this point.
• Vso : Stall Speed, the minimum possible speed for an aircraft in
landing configuration to maintain lift.
• Vref : Reference Landing Approach Speed, the speed at which an
aircraft travels when on approach to landing. Vref is typically
calculated as 1.3 × Vso.

6
Declared Distances
• Declared distances are some
identified distances along the
runway.

7
Declared Distance
Cases Where declared distances should satisfy:
1. Landing, where sufficient runway is required to allow for
normal variation in landing technique, overshoots, poor
approaches.
2. A normal takeoff where all engines are available and sufficient
runway is required to accommodate variations in liftoff
techniques and the distinctive performance characteristics of
these aircraft.
3. Takeoff involving an engine failure, where sufficient runway
is required to allow aircraft to continue the takeoff despite the
loss of power, or else brake to a stop.

8
Declared Distance
• The field length is generally made up of three components, namely, the
full-strength pavement (FS) whish is also called runway, the partial
strength pavement or stop way (SW), and the clearway (CL)

• A clearway (CL) is defined as a rectangular area beyond the runway

not less than 500 ft wide and not longer than 1000 ft in length,
centrally located about the extended centerline of the runway

9
Declared Distance
1. Landing Case
VREF VS V=0

TD: Touchdown point

10
Declared Distance
1. Landing Case
• The landing distance (LD) required for an aircraft landing on a

given runway must be sufficient to permit the aircraft to come to a

full stop, stop distance (SD), within 60 percent of this distance,

assuming that the pilot makes an approach at the proper speed and

crosses the threshold of the runway at a height of 50 ft.

11
Declared Distance
2. Normal Takeoff Case
• The takeoff distance (TOD), must be 115 percent of the actual

distance the aircraft uses to reach a height of 35 ft (D35)

12
 Declared Distance
3. Takeoff involving engine failure case

If speed
exceeded V1

If speed did
not exceeded
V1

13
Declared Distance
3. Takeoff involving engine failure case
• The critical engine-failure speed or decision speed, V1.
– If the engine fails at a speed greater than this speed, the
pilot has no choice but to continue the takeoff. If an engine
actually fails at or prior to this selected speed, the pilot
brakes to a stop. This distance required, from beginning of
the takeoff roll to the emergency stop is referred to as the
accelerate-stop distance (DAS)

14
Declared Distance
3. Takeoff involving engine failure case
• The stop way (SW) is defined as an area beyond the runway,
not less in width than the width of the runway, centrally
located about the extended centerline of the runway for use in
decelerating the aircraft during an aborted takeoff.

15
Declared Distance
Clearway distance
• Up to one-half the difference between 115 percent of the distance to
reach the point of liftoff, liftoff distance (LOD), and the takeoff
distance may be clearway. The remainder of the takeoff distance
must be full-strength pavement and is identified as the
takeoff run (TOR).
Clearway cannot be more than half of
1.15*Liftoff distance this distance

Liftoff distance

Takeoff distance (Distance to reach 35ft height) 16

 Declared Distance
• FS: full strength pavement
• LD: landing distance
• SD: stop distance
• TOD: takeoff distance
• LOD: liftoff distance
• D35: distance to reach a height of 35 ft
• TOR: takeoff run
• DAS: accelerate stop distance
• SW: stop-way

17
Declared Distance
Three cases

18
Declared Distance
Mathematical Calculations

19
Declared Distance
1. Landing Case

LD: landing distance

SD: stop distance
FL4: Field length 4

20
Declared Distance
2. Normal Takeoff Case

CL: Clear distance

TOD: takeoff distance
LOD: liftoff distance
D35: distance to reach a height of 35 ft
TOR: takeoff run (Runway)
21
Declared Distance
3. Engine-Failure Case
• Engine-failure takeoff case:

CL: Clear distance

TOD: takeoff distance
LOD: liftoff distance
D35: distance to reach a height of 35 ft
DAS: accelerate stop distance
TOR: takeoff run (Runway)
SW: stop-way 22
Declared Distance
3. Engine-Failure Case
• Engine-failure aborted takeoff:

CL: Clear distance

TOD: takeoff distance
LOD: liftoff distance
D35: distance to reach a height of 35 ft
DAS: accelerate stop distance
TOR: takeoff run (Runway)
SW: stop-way

23
 Declared Distance
• Main declared distance

CL: Clear distance

FL: Field length
FS: full strength pavement
SW: stop-way
24
Declared Distance

Landing: Engine failure but took off:

Takeoff:

Engine failure and aborted:

25
 Declared Distance
Solution:
• Landing Case: • Engine Failure takeoff:

• Takeoff Case:

• For an engine-failure aborted takeoff:

DAS = 9500 ft

26
 Declared Distance
Solution:
• FL = max [(TOD1),(TOD2), (DAS), (LD)]
= max [ (9200),(9100),(9500),(8333) ] = 9500 ft
• FS = max [(TOR1), (TOR2), (LD)]
= max [ (8625),(8650),(8333)] = 8650 ft
• SW = [(DAS) – max[(TOR1), (TOR2), (LD)]
= [ (9500)- max [(8625),(8650),(8333)] = 850 ft
• CL = min [(FL – DAS), (CL1), (CL2)]
= min [(9500 – 9500), (575), (450)] = 0

27
Payload and Range Relationship

28
 Refresh my
memory

Aircraft Weight (Tutorial 1)

‒ The payload is a term which refers to the total revenue-producing load. This
includes the weight of passengers and their baggage, mail, express, and cargo.

‒ The “lightest” measure of an aircraft’s weight is known as the operating empty

weight (OEW), the basic weight of the aircraft including crew and all the necessary
gear required for flight but not including payload and fuel.

‒ The zero fuel weight (ZFW) is the OEW of an aircraft plus the weight of its
payload.

‒ The maximum ramp weight is the maximum weight authorized for

ground maneuver including taxi and run-up fuel.

‒ The maximum gross takeoff weight is the maximum weight authorized at brake
release for takeoff.

29
 Refresh my
memory

Aircraft Weight (Tutorial 1)

‒ The maximum structural takeoff weight (MSTOW), is typically designed as the

maximum gross takeoff weight for an aircraft operating at sea level elevation at a
temperature of 59°F (15°C).
• The MSTOW is the standard design weight measurement used in airport
planning and design.

‒ The maximum structural landing weight (MLW) is the structural capability of the
aircraft in landing.

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 Payload and Range
Case Fuel Payload
Payload
A
Take-Off B

Pa C
D A Landing D
E
E

Pb
B

Rd Ra Re Rb C
Range
Rc

31
 Payload and Range
 Point A:
• Max. Structural payload.
• Max. takeoff weight.
• Fuel not complete.
 Point B:
• Max. fuel weight.
• Max. takeoff weight.
• Not max. payload.
 Point C:
• Max. fuel weight.
• No payload.
• Takeoff weight is not max.
 Point D:
• Max. landing Weight.
• Max. structural payload.
 Point E:
• Max. landing Weight

32
Payload and Range

33
 Payload – Range Example
• Given: Data in table, 1.25 hour fuel reserve, Vave= 540 mph, fuel
consumption rate =22.8 lbs/mi
• Find: Plot payload-range diagram

34
 Example solution • 1.25 hour fuel
reserve,
• Vave= 540 mph, fuel
• consumption rate
• Payload: =22.8 lbs/mi
– 𝑃𝑎 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑡𝑟 𝑃𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 57,000 𝑙𝑏
– 𝑃𝑏 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑡𝑟 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑜𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑦𝑡 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 220,000 − 75,400 − 125,513 = 19,087 𝑙𝑏

• Range:
– 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙𝑐 = 75,400 𝑙𝑏
𝑐𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 75,400
– 𝑅𝑐 = 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 3,307 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 22.8
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
– 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙𝑏 = 75,400 𝑙𝑏
𝑏𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 75,400
– 𝑅𝑏 = 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 ∗ 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = − 1.25 ∗ 540 = 3,307 − 675 = 2632 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 22.8

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
– 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙𝑎 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑡𝑟 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑡𝑟 𝑃𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 220,000 − 125,513 − 57,000 = 37,487 𝑙𝑏
𝑎𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 37,487
– 𝑅𝑎 = 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 ∗ 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = − 1.25 ∗ 540 = 1644 − 675 = 969 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 22.8
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
– 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑡𝑟 𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑡𝑟 𝑃𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 198,000 − 125,513 − 57,000 = 15,487 𝑙𝑏
𝑑𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 15,487
– 𝑅𝑑 = 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 ∗ 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = − 1.25 ∗ 540 = 679 − 675 ≈ 0 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 22.8

35
Example solution
𝐷 = 57,000 𝐴 = 57,000
E = Any Point between A
and B

𝐵
= 220,000 − 75,400
− 125,513 = 19,087

75,400
𝑅= = 3,307
22.8

𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑅
= 198,000 − 125,513 − 57,000 75,400
= − 1.25 ∗ 540
= 15,487 22.8
= 3,307 − 675 = 2632
15,487 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 220,000 − 125,513 − 57,000
𝑅= − 1.25 ∗ 540
22.8 = 37,487
= 679 − 675 ≈ 0
Range corresponding to
37,487
𝑅= − 1.25 ∗ 540 Payload E
22.8 36
= 1644 − 675 = 969
Example solution

37
Thank you!

38