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Week 3 & 4 – Module : 2

Biological Basis of Behavior

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Contents

A. Structure and function of

Neuron
B. Function of Neurotransmitters
Contents C. Central nervous system
D. Peripheral nervous system
E. Endocrine system
F. Activity

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 The neuron is the basic building

block of the nervous system, which is
the body’s primary communication
network.
 The neuron’s basic task is to
communicate with in and with other
neurons.
A. Neuron  Neurons vary greatly in size and
shape, depending on their
specialized function: Human brain 
100 billion neurons

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 A. Structure of Neuron 4

1. Dendrites: 2. Soma or Cell Body:

1. Dendrites receive information from 1. The soma, or more commonly referred
other neurons to as the cell body, sums and subtracts
2. In Greek, dendrites mean branches, the information it receives from the
hence, they are like extensive tree dendrites.
branches. 2. It also contains the nucleus, which
3. The more branches, the more provides energy for neurons to carry out
information a neuron can receive. their function.

3. Nucleus: 4. The Axon:

1. Contains Genetic Material 1. The Axon sends messages to other
(chromosomes) including information neurons and parts of body (ie. glands,
for cell development and synthesis of muscles).
proteins, necessary for cell maintenance 2. Unlike the dendrites, there is only one
and survival. axon, which varies in length (few
thousandths of inch to base of spine to
big toe).
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 A. Structure of Neuron 5

5. Myelin Sheath: 6. Terminal Branches :

1. To help transmit the message or action 1. Form Junctions with other cells
potential down the axon, “myelin
sheath” insulates the axon.
2. Myelinated axons speed neuronal
transmission by about 15 times.
3. Most neurons are myelinated, 7. Terminal Buttons :
however, not all. 1. Are located at the end of terminal
4. Myelinated axons are responsible for branches.
making our bodily movements 2. Responsible for sending the signals to
smooth. other neurons.
5. If myelinated axons start to 3. At the end of the terminal button is a
degenerate, then degenerative gap called
diseases, such as multiple sclerosis or
Parkinson’s disease occurs, where
movement is much more jagged
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 Functional classification: –
1. Sensory neurons: conduct impulses
from sensory receptors to the CNS –
2. Motor neurons: conduct impulses
a. Classification from the CNS to target organs
(muscles or glands)
of Neurons 3. Association/interneurons: located
completely within the CNS and
integrate functions of the nervous
system

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a. Synapses

 If one neuron is signaling  Synapses can be:

another neuron, the first is 1. Chemical (involve in the
called the presynaptic release of a chemical called
neuron, and the second is a neurotransmitter from the
called the postsynaptic axon’s terminal boutons)
neuron. 2. Electrical (smooth muscle
and cardiac muscle, –
 A presynaptic neuron can
between some neurons of
signal the dendrite, cell
the brain, and – between
body, or axon of a second glial cells )
neuron.

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 In order for a neuron to fire it’s message, it

must reach “stimulus threshold.”
 Stimulus threshold is the minimum amount
of information needed for the neuron to
fire.

a. Stimulus  For example, your friend is talking in a low

voice, so low that you don’t even hear it.
threshold Stimulus threshold is the lowest your
friend can talk to you so that you actually
pick up the sound, which is why the
definition states that it is the minimum
amount of information.

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1. The firing of the message down the

axon is called “action potential.”
2. It occurs in an “all-or-none” process,
which means either the message is
sent or not sent.
3. Let’s go back to the example of your
friend whispering.
a. Action 4. The louder your friend talks to you,
Potential the faster the action potential (or
message) will be sent to the
appropriate brain region so that it
can process this auditory
information.

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Please Watch a Video

of Action Potential- V1

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 Neurotransmitters are the

chemicals which allow the
transmission of signals from one
neuron to the next across
synapses.
 They are found at the axon
endings of neurons, where they
B. Neurotransmitters stimulate the muscle fibers.
 All of the major
neurotransmitters are made from
amino acids except acetylcholine.
 Some 60 neurotransmitters have
been identified.

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• They are chemicals that communicate information

throughout our brain and body.
• The brain uses neurotransmitters to tell your heart to
beat, your lungs to breathe, and your stomach to digest.
• They can also affect mood, sleep, concentration, weight,
and can cause adverse symptoms when they are out of
balance.
Neurotransmitter levels can be depleted by many ways.
 Stress, poor diet, neurotoxins, genetic predisposition,
drug (prescription and recreational), alcohol and caffeine
usage can cause these levels to be out of optimal range
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• The neurotransmitters are stored in tiny sac-like

structures called vesicles at the end of axons. When
an impulse, or nerve signal, reaches the end of the
axon, the vesicles release a neurotransmitter into the
small space between the adjoining cells (synaptic
gap).
• Enzymes concerned with the synthesis of
neurotransmitters are present both in the cell body
and in the nerve ending.
• A portion of neurotransmitter is produced in the cell
body and transported to the nerve ending.
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  Two types of receptors present in cell 17
membrane
1. Ionotropic Receptors
2. Metabotropic Receptors
Ionotropic Receptors:
A receptors that contains a binding site for a
neurotransmitters and a ion channel that,
opens when a molecule of the
Types of neurotransmitter attaches to the binding
Receptors site.
Metabotropic Receptors:
A receptors that contains a binding site for a
neurotransmitters; activates an enzymes
that begins a series of events that opens an
ion channel elsewhere in the membrane of
the cell when a molecule of the
neurotransmitter attaches to the binding
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site.
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 The number and kind of neurotransmitter molecules received by

the receptor cell, as well as the kind of receptor, determines
whether the effect will be to stimulate or to inhibit.

 Neurotransmitters function by changing the permeability of the

cell membrane to various ions such as sodium and potassium.
If an excess of sodium ions flow into the nerve cell, an impulse is
generated. If an excess of potassium ions flow out, the impulse is
inhibited.

 If neurotransmitters were allowed to operate over a long period

of time, the results would be disastrous for the organism since
there would be a constant overload of messages being sent. One
way in which the problem is solved is through enzymes which
break down the neurotransmitter very rapidly.

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There are two kinds of

neurotransmitters – Agonists and
Antagonists.
 Agonists- “excites”
mimics the effects of a
neurotransmitter example:
morphine
Types of
Neurotransmitters  Antagonists- “inhibit”
- inhibits release of
neurotransmitter or binds to
receptor and blocks its function
example: curare

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 Neurotransmitter Molecules 20

 Neurotransmitters can be broadly split into two groups – the

‘classical’ small molecule neurotransmitters and the relatively larger
molecule neurotransmitters.
 Within the category of small molecule neurotransmitters, the mono
amines (dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin and histamine) are
often referred to as a ‘discrete group’ because of their similarity in
terms of their chemical properties.
 [Link] Click to watch a
video

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 Small molecule neurotransmitters
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Type Neurotransmitter Postsynaptic effect

Acetylcholine Excitatory

Amino acids Gamma aminobutyric acid

Inhibitory
GABA

Glycine Inhibitory

Glutamate Excitatory

Aspartate Excitatory
Monoamines Dopamine Inhibitory

Norepinephrine Excitatory

Serotonin Inhibitory
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Histamine Excitatory
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CHARACTERISTICS OF

DIFFERENT

NEUROTRANSMITTERS

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 Location Function Malfunction Drugs Int
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ine • Hippocampus • Memory • Alzheimer’s • Some A

• Cerebral • Learning disease recepto
• Cortex • Sleep • Blocking of Ach stimula
• Thalamus • Control muscle receptors cause Nicotin
• Basal ganglia moment paralysis
• Cerebellum • In PSN: digestion,
• Used by spinal cord secretion of
neurons saliva and
bladder function

• Interneurons • Balanced • Seizures • Tranqu

throughout brain and emotions • Insomnia • Sedativ
spinal cord • Secretion of • Low level- anxiety, • Alcoho
growth anesthesia,
hormones memory
• epilepsy
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 Location Function Malfunction Drugs
ers Interaction
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cine • Used by spinal • Make proteins • Hyperglycemia • Clozapine

cord neurons of the body - neonatal
• Forebrain disease
• Builds the characterized
• brainstem tissues that by seizures and
• spinal cord forms organs, mental
joints and retardation
muscles

mate • Cerebral cortex • Memory and • Over supply- • Alcohol

• Brain stem learning migraines or • Ketamine
seizures

rtate • Ventral spinal • Depolarization • Temporal lobe

cord in the epilepsy
• Hippocampus postsynaptic • Spinal
membrane cerebellar
• Memory26.03.021 - AMC
degeneration
• learning
itters Location Function Malfunction Drugs In
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e • Midbrain • Emotions • Excess level- • Cocain

• Cerebral cortex • Feeling of pleasure schizophrenia • Amphe
• hypothalamus • Movement and mania • Virtual
• Attention • Low level- of abus
• Memory Parkinson's indirec
disease

rine • Cerebral cortex • Fight or flight • Low level- • Cocain

• Hypothalamus • Attention and Depress mood • Metham
• Brain stem consciousness
• Cerebellum • Body temperature • OCD
• Spinal cord • Pituitary glad
• Peripheral nervous secretion
system • aggression

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 Location Function Malfunction Drugs
tters 26 Intera
otonin • Hypothalamus • Affects mood • Depression • Coc
• Limbic system • Hunger • Anxiety • Caf
• Cerebellum • Sexual desires dep
• Spinal chord • Sleep sero

amine • Venom • Pain and • Allergies • Anti

• Stinging secretion inflammatory • Depression
• Stored in mast cells- response
nose, mouth, and • Increase the
feet permeability of the
• Blood vessels capillaries to white
• hypothalamus blood cells and
other proteins
• Tissue injury and
burns can cause its
release

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Nervous System

B C
Central Peripheral
Nervous Nervous
System System
(CNS) (PNS)

The sensory and

The brain and motor neurons that
spinal cord. connect the central
nervous system
(CNS) to the rest of
the body.
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Please Watch a Video of Action
Potential- V2 ,V3 & V4 (V4 is a
song to memories brain anatomy
)

The Nervous
System

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 B. Cerebrum 29

Taking up 7/8ths of the brain’s weight, the cerebrum

governs all sensory and motor activity. This includes
sensory perception, emotions, consciousness,
memory, and voluntary movements.

It is divided into the left and right hemispheres. The

surface or cortex is arranged in bulging folds, each
one called a gyrus , and furrows, each one called a
sulcus

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 B. Cerebrum- Cerebral Cortex 30

The cortex is also divided’

into 4 lobes. Frontal lobe judgement/reasoning, speaking and muscle moments. Parietal
lobe Senses. Occipital lobe Vision.
1. Temporal lobe Hearing

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B. Cerebellum

The Cerebellum is called

the “little brain” and is
attached to the rear of the
brainstem. It’s the
second largest part of
brain. It contains nerve
fibers that connect it to
every part of the central
nervous system. It
coordinates voluntary and
involuntary patterns of
movements. It also adjusts
muscles to automatically
maintain posture.
Brainstem

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 B. Parts of Diencephalon 32

1. The Thalamus is the brain’s

sensory switchboard, located on
top of the brainstem. The
thalamus is the relay center for all
sensory impulses except olfactory
(sense of smell) and motor areas
of the cortex
2. The Hypothalamus lies below
(hypo) the thalamus. It directs
several behavior and emotional
expression, body temperature,
and many metabolic activities.
Attached to the pituitary gland, it
also controls hormonal secretions
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 B. The Limbic System 33

The Limbic System is a doughnut-

shaped system of neural structures
at the border of the brainstem and
cerebrum, associated with emotions
such as fear, aggression and drives
for food and sex.

It includes the
hippocampus (processes
memories.),
amygdala (emotions of fear and
anger) and
hypothalamus (emotions, regulate
hormonal secretion ).
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B. Parts of the Brain Stem

The brainstem consists of 3 parts:
1. The gray matter of the midbrain control
visual reflexes and sense of hearing.
2. The white matter of the pons plays a role in
regulating visceral (internal organ) control.
3. The medulla oblongata connects the rest of
the brain to the spinal cord. It regulates Pons

breathing, swallowing, coughing, sneezing,

vomiting, heartbeat, and blood pressure.
Reticular Formation is a nerve network in the
brainstem that plays an important role in
controlling arousal.
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 B. Our Divided Brain 35

 Our brain is divided into two hemispheres.

 The Left Hemisphere
 Processes logical tasks (reading, writing, speaking,
mathematics, and comprehension skills)
 Controls the right side of our body
 In the 1960s, it was termed as the dominant brain.
 The Right Hemisphere
 Processes non-verbal tasks/perceptual (spatial
relationships, musical/artistic ability and mental imagery)
 Controls the left side of our body
 May also be related to some negative emotions

 The Corpus Callosum is a wide band of

axon fibers that connect the two hemispheres
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C. Peripheral Nervous System
1. Somatic Nervous System (voluntary): The division
of the peripheral nervous system that controls the
body’s skeletal muscles. Nerves which communicate
with the skin and muscles

2. Autonomic Nervous System (involuntary): Part of

the PNS that controls the glands and other muscles.
Consists of only motor Nerves which control the
involuntary muscles, internal organs (heart, lungs,
stomach, etc.) and glands
Autonomic nervous system is further divided into 2
categories , that are : sympathetic and parasympathetic
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Sympathetic Nervous System:
Division of the ANS that arouses
the body, mobilizing its energy
in stressful situations. (Fight or
flight).
 Response to unusual
stimulus
2. Autonomic  Takes over to increase
Nervous System activities
(ANS)  Remember as the “E”
division = exercise,
excitement, emergency,
and embarrassment

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Parasympathetic Nervous
System: Division of the ANS that
calms the body, conserving its
energy. (Rest and Digest).
 housekeeping activites

 Conserves energy
Autonomic  Maintains daily
Nervous System necessary body
(ANS) functions
 Remember as the “D”
division - digestion,
defecation, and diuresis

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D. The Endocrine System 40

The Endocrine
System is the body’s
“slow” chemical
communication
system.
Hormones are
chemicals
synthesized by the
endocrine glands
that are secreted in
the bloodstream.
Please Watch a Video of 26.03.021 - AMC

Action Potential- V5 & V6

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1. Pituitary Gland
Is called the “master gland.”
The anterior pituitary lobe releases hormones
that regulate other glands.
The posterior lobe regulates water and salt
balance and releases other hormones

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Gigantism versus Dwarfism 43

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2. Hypothalamus Controls
Pituitary

Links endocrine and nervous system

3. THYROID & PARATHYROID

GLANDS
Regulate metabolic and calcium rate.

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Goiter’s Disease 45

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4. Adrenal Glands
Adrenal glands consist of the adrenal medulla
and the adrenal cortex.
The medulla secretes adrenal hormones
The adrenal cortex regulates salt and
carbohydrate metabolism.
Pancreas: sugar levels

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5. Gonads

Sex glands:
1) regulate development
2) maintain reproductive organs in adults.
Ovaries- secrete estrogen. Testes- secrete
testosterone

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Activity : Imagine you are an endocrinologist

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1) The patient suffers

from too little calcium
in the blood
Four patients come to
you with the following
2) The patient is an adult
male and is only 3 feet
conditions. Diagnose
which gland in the and 6 inches tall
endocrine system may 3) The patient has goiters
be affected: 4) The patient is a 24 year
old female without
female secondary
sexual characteristics

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Check List- Contents

 Structure and function of Neuron

 Function of Neurotransmitters
 Central nervous system
Content  Peripheral nervous system
Completed  Endocrine system
 Activity

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Thank God !
We have
completed
Module 5

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