Module-5 Quantum Computing

Moore’s law - limitation of VLSI, Classical vs Quantum Computation, bit, Qubit and its
properties, Bloch Sphere, Dirac notation, Brief discussion on types of qubit, Superconducting
qubits, Harmonic oscillator (qualitative) – Need for anharmonicity, Charge qubit, Operators
and Operations (matrix form), Quantum Gates – Pauli Gates, Phase gate (S, T), Hadamard
Gate, Two qubit gates – CNOT gate, Entanglement, Bell States, Predicting the outputs of
various combinations of single and two-qubit gates, Numerical Problems.

Introduction to Quantum Computing

Quantum computing is an emergent field of computer science and engineering that harnesses
the unique qualities of quantum mechanics to solve problems beyond the ability of even the
most powerful classical [Link] field of quantum computing includes a range of
disciplines, including quantum hardware and quantum algorithms. While still in
development, quantum technology will soon be able to solve complex problems that
classical supercomputers can’t solve (or can’t solve fast enough).By taking advantage of
quantum physics, large-scale quantum computers would be able to tackle certain complex
problems many times faster than modern classical machines. With a quantum computer, some
problems that might take a classical computer thousands of years to solve might be solved in
a matter of minutes or hours. Quantum mechanics, the study of physics at very small scales,
reveals surprising fundamental natural principles. Quantum computers specifically harness
these phenomena to access mathematical methods of solving problems not available with
classical computing alone.

In practice, quantum computers are expected to be broadly useful for two types of tasks:
modeling the behavior of physical systems and identifying patterns and structures in
information. Quantum mechanics is a bit like the operating system of the universe. A
computer that uses quantum mechanical principles to process information has certain
advantages in modeling physical systems. Therefore, quantum computing is of particular
interest for chemistry and material science applications. For example, quantum computers
might help researchers seeking useful molecules for pharmaceutical or engineering
applications identify candidates more quickly and efficiently. Quantum computers can also
process data by using mathematical techniques not accessible to classical computers. That
means they can give structure to data and help discover patterns that classical algorithms
alone might miss. In practice, this might be useful for applications ranging from biology (for
example, protein folding) to finance

Moore’s law
Moore's law is the observation that the number of transistors on an integrated circuit (IC)
doubles approximately every two years (Fig. 1), leading to a corresponding increase in
computing power, smaller devices, and lower costs. Originally proposed by Intel co-
founder Gordon Moore in 1965, who predicted a doubling every year, he later revised it to
every two years in 1975. It is an empirical observation, not a scientific law, and has served as
a guiding principle for the semiconductor industry for decades.
 The prediction: The law forecasts the exponential growth of transistor density on a
microchip.
 The outcome: This growth drives increased processing speed, decreased size, and lower
manufacturing costs for electronics.
 Initial prediction: Gordon Moore's 1965 paper predicted the number of components would
double every year.
 Revised prediction: In 1975, Moore updated his prediction to a doubling roughly every two
years.
 Industry impact: The observation has acted as a self-fulfilling prophecy, motivating
companies to innovate and achieve these targets.
 Nature of the "law": It is an empirical observation based on historical trends, not a physical
law of nature.

Fig. 1. Transistor counts in a microprocessor have continued to double every 2

years, regardless of the underlying microarchitecture, chip designer or silicon manufacturer

Very-Large-Scale Integration (VLSI) is the foundational technology that made

modern classical computers possible by enabling the integration of millions or billions of
transistors onto a single chip. All present-day personal computers, smartphones, and
supercomputers are classical computers built on VLSI microprocessors.
Moore's law faces limitations in VLSI due to the physical and economic constraints of
shrinking transistors, including quantum tunneling, heat dissipation, and the escalating cost of
manufacturing equipment. These limitations mean that the constant, predictable doubling of
transistor density every two years is slowing down, leading to the industry exploring new
strategies like 3D stacking, new materials, and different chip architectures to continue
advancing computing performance.

Physical and economic limitations of miniaturization

 Quantum effects: As transistors become incredibly small, quantum mechanical effects like
electron tunneling become significant. This can lead to unpredictable and unreliable transistor
behavior, making it difficult to scale down further.
 Heat dissipation: Packing more and more transistors into a chip increases power density,
which generates excessive heat. This heat is difficult to dissipate, and its management is a
major challenge in high-performance VLSI designs.
 Manufacturing costs: The equipment needed to manufacture advanced, smaller transistors is
becoming exponentially more expensive. This trend has been nicknamed "Moore's Second
Law," where the cost of manufacturing facilities for smaller chips increases significantly with
each new node.
 Electromigration: Increased current density in smaller devices and interconnects can lead to
electromigration failures, where the flow of electrons physically moves the metal atoms,
causing the circuit to fail over time.

The physical limits of miniaturization in classical computers are a key motivation for the
development of quantum computation. As transistors approach atomic scales, their behavior
becomes governed by quantum mechanics, which classical computing struggles to manage,
thus necessitating a new computational paradigm.

Motivation for Quantum Computation

The challenges of classical miniaturization provide a strong impetus for the development of
quantum computing, which seeks to use the principles of quantum mechanics rather than
fight against them:
 Leveraging Quantum Phenomena: Instead of being a limitation, quantum mechanics is the
very foundation of quantum computing. Phenomena like superposition (qubits existing in
multiple states simultaneously) and entanglement (interconnectedness of particles regardless
of distance) are used to perform fundamentally different types of computation than classical
computers.
 Solving Intractable Problems: The original motivation for quantum computers was the
efficient simulation of quantum systems (e.g., in chemistry and materials science), which is
practically impossible for classical computers. Breakthroughs have shown they can also
drastically speed up specific tasks like factoring large numbers (relevant for cryptography)
and searching databases.
 Overcoming the Limits of Moore's Law: Moore's Law, the empirical observation that the
number of transistors on a chip doubles roughly every two years, is approaching its final
physical limits. Quantum computing offers a path to continued exponential growth in
computational power by changing the underlying model of computation entirely, rather than
just shrinking components further.
In essence, quantum computation is a new paradigm designed to bypass the physical barriers
that are beginning to constrain classical computing technology

Bits versus qubits

Bits and qubits are both units of information, but a bit can only be a 0 or a 1, while a qubit
can be a 0, a 1, or a combination of both at the same time through a quantum phenomenon
called superposition. This fundamental difference means bits operate deterministically in
classical computing, whereas qubits operate probabilistically in quantum computing,
allowing them to process information in fundamentally different and potentially more
powerful ways.

 Deterministic vs. Probabilistic: Bits are predictable, while qubits are not until they are
measured.
 Classical vs. Quantum: Bits are the basis of classical computing, while qubits are the
foundation of quantum computing.
 Computational Power: The ability of qubits to exist in a superposition of states allows
quantum computers to explore many possibilities simultaneously, giving them the potential to
solve certain complex problems much faster than classical computers.
Classical versus Quantum Computation

1 Basic Principle
Classical Computing: Uses bits, which can only be in one of two states—0 or 1.
Quantum Computing: Uses qubits, which can represent 0, 1, or both simultaneously due to
superposition.
2 Information Representation
Classical Computing: Uses classical bits to represent and process data sequentially.
Quantum Computing: Utilizes qubits that enable superposition (multiple states) and
entanglement (linked qubits), allowing parallel processing.
3 Computational Power
Classical Computing: Efficient for general-purpose tasks and linear processing. Performance
is limited by sequential bit-by-bit calculations. Classical computers solve problems
sequentially, processing one task at a time.
Quantum Computing: Can perform complex computations exponentially faster by exploring
multiple possibilities simultaneously (e.g., factorizing large numbers or simulating
molecules).
4 Problem-Solving Capability
Classical Computing: Best suited for general-purpose computing tasks with straightforward
algorithms and low computational complexity, including running software, performing
arithmetic, and handling data management tasks.
Quantum Computing: Best suited for tasks that involve large-scale optimization,
cryptography, and quantum simulations, such as simulating molecular interactions or
breaking modern encryption codes.
5 Error Handling
Classical Computing: Relatively stable and less prone to errors due to mature hardware and
software.
Quantum Computing: Prone to errors due to decoherence and noise. Requires sophisticated
error correction techniques to maintain quantum states.
 6 Speed and Efficiency
Classical Computing: Slower for large, complex problems like simulating molecular
interactions or optimizing massive datasets.
Quantum Computing: Potentially faster for specific tasks due to parallelism (e.g., solving
problems in minutes that would take classical computers years).
7 Hardware
Classical Computing: Uses silicon-based chips with well-established manufacturing
techniques.
Quantum Computing: Relies on advanced quantum computer hardware like superconducting
circuits, trapped ions, or photonic systems, often requiring extreme environments (e.g.,
cryogenic temperatures).
8 Applications
Classical Computing: Ideal for everyday tasks such as word processing, browsing, gaming,
and general-purpose applications.
Quantum Computing: Targets specialized tasks like quantum simulations, optimization
problems, drug discovery, cryptography, AI, and machine learning enhancements.
Summary: Classical computing excels at general-purpose tasks and is well-suited for most
applications today, while quantum computing is poised to tackle highly complex problems
beyond the reach of classical [Link] the long run, quantum computing has the potential to
revolutionize fields like cryptography, AI, and drug discovery, opening up new possibilities
and reshaping industries globally. As quantum research and development continue,
significant breakthroughs are expected, bringing us closer to the era of practical, large-scale
quantum systems.
Feature Classical Computing Quantum Computing
Unit of Information Bit (0 or 1) Qubit (0, 1, or both)
Speed Sequential Parallel (specific tasks)
Core Principle Binary Logic Quantum Mechanics
Error Tolerance Low error rates Requires error correction
Applications Everyday tasks Specialized problems
Maturity Fully developed Emerging technology

Advantages of quantum computing

Quantum computing's main advantages include its exponential speed, ability to solve
complex optimization and simulation problems that are intractable for classical computers,
and the potential to revolutionize fields like machine learning, drug discovery, and
cryptography. By leveraging principles like superposition and entanglement, quantum
computers can perform calculations in minutes that would take conventional systems years.
Key advantages
 Unprecedented speed and power: Quantum computers can solve certain problems
exponentially faster than classical computers, as they can perform multiple calculations
simultaneously.
 Solving complex problems: They are well-suited for problems that involve huge amounts of
data and complex interactions, such as simulating molecular and chemical processes.
 Optimization: Quantum algorithms can find the best possible solution for complex
optimization challenges in areas like logistics, financial modeling, and supply chain
management.
 Machine learning: Quantum computing can enhance AI and machine learning by processing
large datasets and identifying patterns that are not visible to classical algorithms.
 Scientific discovery: It allows for more accurate and detailed simulation of quantum
systems, which can accelerate scientific research in fields like materials science, climate
modeling, and drug development.
 Enhanced security: While quantum computers pose a threat to current encryption, they also
enable new forms of unbreakable quantum cryptography for private communication.
 Energy efficiency: By solving problems in a fraction of the time, quantum computers can
reduce overall energy consumption compared to classical supercomputers for certain tasks.

The concept of qubit

Classical computers are based on “bits” – imagine them as little switches pointing to either a
1 or a 0. Quantum computing relies on quantum bits, or “qubits”, which can also represent a 0
or a 1. Qubits can also achieve a mixed state, called a “superposition” where they are both 1
and 0 at the same time. This ambiguity – the ability to both “be” and “not be” – is key to the
power of quantum computing. Two bits in classical computer can be in four possible states
(00, 01, 10, or 11), but only one of them at any time. This limits the computer to processing
one input at a time. In a quantum computer, two qubits can also represent the exact same four
states (00, 01, 10, or 11). The difference is, because of superposition, the qubits can represent
all four at the same time. If one adds more bits to a regular computer, it can still only deal
with one state at a time. But as one add qubits, the power of the quantum computer grows
exponentially. If we have “n” qubits, we can simultaneously represent 2n [Link] to get that
exponential speed-up, the fate of all the qubits has to be linked together in a process called
quantum entanglement. To make a qubit, we need an object that can attain a state of quantum
superposition between two states. An atomic nucleus is one kind of qubit. The direction of its
magnetic moment (it’s “spin”) can point in different directions, say up or down with respect
to a magnetic field.

Properties of a qubit:
1. Superposition states
A qubit's superposition state is a quantum mechanical principle allowing a qubit to exist as a
combination of both |0⟩and |1⟩states simultaneously, unlike a classical bit which can only be a
single 0 or 1. This is represented mathematically as a linear combination:
|𝜓⟩=𝛼|0⟩+𝛽|1⟩, where
𝛼and𝛽are complex probability amplitudes that determine the probability of measuring the
qubit in either the |0⟩or |1⟩state. When a measurement is performed, the superposition
collapses into a single classical state.
Key aspects of qubit superposition

 Simultaneous states: A qubit in superposition is not simply switching between 0 and

1, but is a weighted combination of both at the same time.
  Probability: The coefficients 𝛼and 𝛽are probability amplitudes, and their squared
magnitudes (|𝛼|2and |𝛽|2) represent the probability of measuring the qubit as |0⟩or |1⟩,
respectively.
 Measurement collapse: The act of measuring a qubit in superposition forces it to
"choose" one of its possible classical states, |0⟩or |1⟩and the superposition is lost.
 Increased information: Due to superposition, a system of 𝑛qubits can represent
2𝑛states simultaneously, a capability that enables quantum computers to process
exponentially more information than classical computers with the same number of
bits.
 Mathematical representation: The state of a qubit in superposition is described by a
wave function, |𝜓⟩, which is a linear combination of the computational basis states
|0⟩and |1⟩: |𝜓⟩=𝛼|0⟩+𝛽|1⟩

2. Entanglement

The properties of qubit entanglement include the instantaneous correlation of states, regardless of
distance, so that measuring one entangled qubit instantly determines the state of the others. This
correlation is a unique feature of quantum systems with no classical counterpart, and it means the state
of one qubit cannot be described independently of the others. Entanglement is a fundamental property
that is essential for many quantum algorithms and technologies, such as quantum teleportation and
key distribution.

Key properties of qubit entanglement

 Instantaneous correlation: When qubits are entangled, their states are linked. Measuring the state of
one qubit instantaneously influences the state of the other(s), no matter how far apart they are. For
example, if two qubits are entangled to always have opposite spins, measuring one as spin "up"
guarantees the other is spin "down".

 Non-independent states: The entangled qubits are not independent entities. The state of the entire
system of entangled qubits can only be described as a whole; the state of any single qubit is
meaningless on its own before measurement.

 No faster-than-light communication: While the correlation is instantaneous, entanglement cannot be

used to transmit information faster than light. The outcome of the first measurement is random; it is
only after the measurement and subsequent communication of the result that the correlation can be
used to deduce the state of the second qubit.

 Basis for quantum information processing: This property is not just a curiosity; it is a fundamental
resource that powers quantum computation and communication. It allows for powerful quantum
algorithms that are impossible with classical computers.
 3. Measurement (collapse of states)

The key properties of qubit measurement are that it is probabilistic, it collapses the qubit's
superposition into a single classical state (0or 1), and it is an irreversible and non-clonable
operation. When a qubit in the state 𝛼|0⟩+𝛽|1⟩is measured, it collapses into |0⟩with probability |𝛼|2or
into |1⟩with probability |𝛽|2. This measurement is destructive, meaning the original quantum state is
lost.

Properties of qubit measurement

 Probabilistic outcome: A measurement of a qubit does not yield a definite value until it is
performed. The outcome is probabilistic, determined by the qubit's superposition state
before measurement.
 Collapse of superposition: Before measurement, a qubit can exist in a superposition of both
the |0⟩and |1⟩states simultaneously. The act of measurement forces the qubit to "choose"
one of these states, collapsing its wave function to a single definite outcome (0or 1).
 Probability calculation: The probability of measuring a qubit in a particular state is
determined by the square of the absolute value of its probability amplitudes. For a state
|𝜓⟩=𝛼|0⟩+𝛽|1⟩, the probability of measuring |0⟩is |𝛼|2, and the probability of measuring
|1⟩is |𝛽|2, with the condition that |𝛼|2+|𝛽|2=1.
 Irreversible and destructive: The measurement process irrevocably disturbs the qubit,
causing the loss of its original superposition and coherence. Once measured, the qubit is left
in a single classical state, and the quantum information is lost.
 No-cloning theorem: It is impossible to create an identical copy of an arbitrary, unknown
qubit state. Any attempt to measure and copy an unknown qubit will inevitably alter its
original state.

4. Quantum interference

Quantum interference allows the probability amplitudes of different qubit states to combine, either
constructively or destructively. Constructive interference enhances the probability of desired
outcomes, while destructive interference cancels out undesired outcomes. This property is crucial for
quantum algorithms, enabling them to amplify correct answers and eliminate wrong ones.
Key properties of qubit quantum interference
 Constructive interference: Occurs when the probability amplitudes of two or more qubit states align
and reinforce each other. This increases the probability of finding the qubit in a particular state upon
measurement.
 Destructive interference: Occurs when the probability amplitudes of qubit states cancel each other
out. This reduces or eliminates the probability of measuring the qubit in certain states.
 Based on superposition: Interference is a direct consequence of the principle of superposition, where
a qubit can exist in multiple states at once, each with a complex probability amplitude.
 Wave-like behavior: Interference demonstrates the wave-like nature of quantum particles. Just like
waves, qubit states can interfere with each other and even with themselves.
 Used in algorithms: Quantum algorithms manipulate these interference effects to guide the
computation towards the correct solution. For example, a quantum algorithm can use destructive
interference to cancel out the probability of wrong answers while using constructive interference to
boost the probability of the correct answer.
 Controlled by quantum gates: Quantum gates are the operations used to control the state of qubits,
including manipulating their probability amplitudes to produce desired interference patterns.
 Essential for quantum advantage: Interference, combined with entanglement, is what provides
quantum computers with their potential for speedup over classical computers, as it allows for the
processing of many possibilities simultaneously and the amplification of correct outcomes.
 5. Reversibility

The properties of qubit reversibility include that all quantum operations must be able to be perfectly
undone, which is a core principle of quantum computing and is guaranteed by the use ofunitary
transformations. This means that any initial qubit state can be perfectly recovered from a final state
by applying the inverse operation. Key implications are the preservation of information and the fact
that it allows quantum circuits to perform operations that are not possible in classical computing,
while avoiding information loss before measurement.

Properties of qubit reversibility

 Perfectly undoable: A reversible operation can be perfectly reversed, allowing the original
input state to be recovered from the output state. If a quantum operation 𝑈transforms state
𝑠0to 𝑠1, applying the inverse operation 𝑈−1to 𝑠1will perfectly restore 𝑠0.
 Guaranteed by unitary transformations: In quantum mechanics, the evolution of a quantum
system is described by unitary operators, which are inherently reversible. These
mathematical operations preserve the total probability of all possible states.
 Information preservation: Reversibility ensures that no information is lost during the
computation process, unlike irreversible classical operations that can lose information by
mapping multiple inputs to a single output.
 Essential for quantum computation: Reversibility is a fundamental requirement for
quantum circuits to avoid the loss of superposition and entanglement before the final
measurement.
 Application to superpositions: This property extends to any superposition state of a qubit,
not just the basis states.
 Mathematical representation: Mathematically, a quantum gate is reversible if it is
represented by a unitary matrix, and its inverse can be applied to return to the original state.
 Exception: Measurement: Quantum measurement is the primary exception, as it is an
irreversible operation that collapses the quantum state and loses information about the
original superposition.

6. Coherence

Qubit coherence refers to the ability of a qubit to maintain its quantum state, such as being in a
superposition of both 0and 1. Its key properties are that it allows for parallel computation
through superposition and entanglement, it is a measure of the qubit's stability over time, and it
is lost due to environmental interactions, a process called decoherence. Maintaining coherence
is critical for performing quantum computations, as decoherence collapses the qubit's state,
making it behave like a classical bit.

Representation of qubit by Bloch sphere

Bloch sphere is a physical representation of all possible qubit [Link] qubit is in its
essence a vector on Bloch’s sphere. Each vector on the sphere can be represented in two
basis: θ and 𝜑. The first is θ which is the angle between the vector and the z-axis. The second
is 𝜑 which is the angle between the vector and the positive x-axis measuring counter-
clockwise. We can achieve all possible vectors in the Bloch sphere using these two angles,
even with limits on them. θ is between 0 and π, inclusive.𝜑is between 0 and 2π, inclusive.
 “Equation” for a single qubit:
qubit: Qubits are in the notation |> in order to distinguish them
from normal bits.
|ψ⟩=cos(θ/2)|0⟩+sin(θ/2)𝑒 |1⟩
The z-axis represents |0⟩and |1⟩ —these
—these are analogous to the North and South pole of Earth
where the North is |0⟩and and South is |1⟩ — and thus, any vector that is not
directly |0⟩ or |1⟩ would account for some superposition of both. In terms of the equation, |0⟩
would be θ=0 and 𝜑 doesnot matter. Similarly, |1⟩ would be θ=π and 𝜑 would also be
irrelevant. While on the z-axis,
axis, the z-axis
z axis is 0 and 1 and these represent actual values as a
classical bit does, the other axes do not.

Dirac Notation
Dirac notation is a mathematical system in quantum computing that uses "ket" vectors, like
|0⟩,, for quantum states and "bra" vectors, like ⟨0|,
0|, for their complex conjugate transposes. It
provides a concise way to represent quantum states, operations, and inner products,
simplifying complex calculations.
tions. This notation is essential for representing states of multiple
qubits using tensor products, such as |00
|00⟩for
for two qubits in the zero state, and for computing
probabilities
Core components of Dirac notation

 Ket (|𝜓⟩):
): Represents a quantum state as a column vector. For example, a single qubit
can be in the state |0⟩or
or |1
|1⟩.
 Bra (⟨𝜓|):
|): Represents the complex conjugate transpose of a ket vector, written as a
row vector. It is used in inner products.
 Bracket (⟨𝜙|𝜓⟩): The inner product of a bra and a ket. It represents the probability
amplitude of a quantum system transitioning from state ||𝜓⟩to state |𝜙⟩.

How it's used in quantum computing

 Representing quantum states:
Instead of using large matrices, Dirac notation offers a more compact way to describe quantum states,
especially for multi-qubit systems.
 Simulating quantum operations:
Quantum gates are represented as operators that act on these quantum states, written in Dirac
notation.
 Calculating probabilities:
The probability of measuring a specific outcome can be found by taking the squared magnitude of the
relevant inner product (bracket).