INTRODUCTION TO MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
Module 1
DEFINITION & CLASSIFICATION
An instrument is a device in which we can determine the
magnitude or value of the quantity to be measured. The
measuring quantity can be voltage, current, power and
energy etc.
Generally instruments are classified in to two categories.
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ABSOLUTE INSTRUMENT
An absolute instrument determines the magnitude of the
quantity to be measured in terms of the instrument
parameter. Each time the value of the measuring quantities
varies, we have to calculate the magnitude of the
measuring quantity, analytically which is time consuming.
These types of instruments are suitable for laboratory
use.
Example: Tangent galvanometer, absolute electrometer,
Rayleigh current balance.
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SECONDARY INSTRUMENT
These are the instruments whose output is measured to
give the value of the quantity directly. The quantity to be
measured is determined by the deflection value of these
instruments.
They are calibrated against an absolute instrument.
Examples: Ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter, etc.
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SECONDARY INSTRUMENT..CONTD.
INDICATING: This instrument uses a dial and pointer to
determine the value of measuring quantity. The pointer
indication gives the magnitude of measuring quantity.
examples: ammeter, voltmeter, etc.
RECORDING: This type of instruments records the
magnitude of the quantity to be measured continuously over a
specified period of time.
examples: seismograph, etc.
INTEGRATING: This type of instrument gives the total
amount of the quantity to be measured over a specified period
of time.
examples: energy-meter, etc.
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MEASURING INSTRUMENT
In case of measuring instrument, the effect of unknown
quantity is converted into a mechanical force, which is
transmitted to the pointer moving over a calibrated scale.
For satisfactory operation, the following systems must be
present in an instrument:
1. Deflecting system producing deflecting torque.
2. Controlling system producing controlling torque.
3. Damping system producing damping torque.
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DEFLECTING SYSTEM:
When there is no input signal to the instrument, the pointer will be
at its zero position. To deflect the pointer from its zero position, a
force is necessary which is known as deflecting force. A system
which produces the deflecting force is known as a deflecting system.
Generally a deflecting system converts an electrical signal to a
mechanical force.
The deflecting system uses on of the following effects produced by
current or voltage to produce the deflecting torque:
1. Magnetic effect.
2. Thermal effect.
3. Electrostatic effect.
4. Induction effect.
5. Hall effect.
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CONTROLLING SYSTEM:
This system should provide a force so that the current or
other quantity will produce deflection of the pointer
proportional to its magnitude. It has the following important
functions:
1. To produce a force equal and opposite to the deflecting force in
order to make the pointer deflection at a definite magnitude.
Otherwise, the pointer will swing beyond its final steady state
position and deflection will become indefinite.
2. To bring the moving system back to zero position, when the force
causing the pointer movement is removed.
It can be provided by:
1. Gravity control.
2. Spring control.
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GRAVITY CONTROL:
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GRAVITY CONTROL…CONTD.:
It consists of a small weight attached to the moving system whose
position is adjustable. This weight produces a controlling torque due
to gravity. This weight is called control weight.
Tc = WsinƟ x L =WL sinƟ
Thus, Tc α sinƟ
As, Td α I
Tc α sinƟ
At steady state position deflection torque=controlling torque
Thus, Iα sinƟ
Thus the scale of the gravity control type instrument is
non-uniform.
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SPRING CONTROL:
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SPRING CONTROL…CONTD.:
It utilizes two spiral hairsprings of non magnetic alloy such as
phosphorous-bronze or beryllium-copper.
The springs are oppositely wound so when the moving system
deflects, one spring winds up while the outer unwind thus the
controlling torque is produced by the combined torsion of
spring, since the torsional torque is proportional to the angle
of twist, the controlling torque is directly proportional to the
angular deflection of pointer.
Td α I,
Also, Tc α Ɵ
At final deflection or steady state position:
Tc = Td
Therefore Ɵ α I
Scale of spring control type instruments is uniform.
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DAMPING SYSTEM:
It is that part of the instrument which provides
damping force to damp the oscillations of the pointer
before come to a rest.
Because of the inertia, the pointer of the instrument
oscillates about its final deflected position for some
time before coming to rest. This causes waste of time
in taking readings, thus damping force acts as a brake
to prevent the oscillations of the moving system and
brings the pointer to it’s final deflected position
quickly.
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Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments
Construction
It consists of permanent magnet which is stationary.
Moving system consists of a spindle attached to a rectangular aluminum frame. A
coil made up of thin copper wire is wound over the frame. The current to be
measured is passed through this coil.
A soft iron core is placed in the in the space within the alluminium frame.
Two spiral springs are mounted on the spindle to produce control torque.
Control spring also serves an additional purpose & acts as control lead.
Pointer is mounted on spindle. Mirror is provided below the scale to avoid
parallax error. The spindle is supported by jeweled bearings.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments
Construction
1. It consists of permanent magnet which is stationary.
2. Moving system consists of a spindle attached to a rectangular aluminum frame. A
coil made up of thin copper wire is wound over the frame. The current to be
measured is passed through this coil.
3. A soft iron core is placed in the in the space within the alluminium frame. This
core is stationary and is provided to reduce the reluctance of the magnetic path
between two poles of the permanent magnet.
4. Two spiral springs are mounted on the spindle to produce control torque. The
control spring also serves an additional purpose and acts as control lead. Pointer
is mounted on spindle. Mirror is provided below the scale to avoid parallax error.
The spindle is supported by jeweled bearings.
Working
1. The current to be measured is passed through moving coil via control springs.
2. A current carrying moving coil is now in a magnetic field. According to Flemings
left hand rule, torque is produced on the coil and coil moves, pointer deflects.
3. Damping torque is provided by eddy current damping method.
Torque equation- Deflection is proportional to current
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Link for working of PMMC type Instrument
[Link]
[Link]
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Torque Equation for PMMC type
The equation for the delevoped torque of the PMMC can be
obtained from the basic law of electromagnetic torque. The
deflecting torque is given by, Td = NBAI
Where,
Td = deflecting torque in N-m
B = flux density in air gap, Wb/m2
N = Number of turns of the coils
A = effective area of coil m2
I = current in the moving coil, amperes
Therefore, Td = GI
Where, G = NBA = constant
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Contd..
The controlling torque is provided by the springs and is proportional
to the angular deflection of the pointer.
Tc = KØ
Where, Tc = Controlling Torque
K = Spring Constant Nm/rad or Nm/deg
Ø = angular deflection
For the final steady state position,
Td = Tc
Therefore GI = KØ
So, Ø = (G/K)I or I = (K/G) Ø
Thus the deflection is directly proportional to the current passing
through the coil. The pointer deflection can therefore be used to
measure
19 current.
Numericals based on this
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Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments
Errors in PMMC Instruments
Weakening of permanent magnet due to ageing and temperature effects
Weakening of springs due to ageing and temperature effects
Change of resistance of moving coil with temperature.
Merits
Uniform scale for the instrument
Power consumption is very low
A single instrument can be used for different current and voltage ranges
The toque-weight ratio is high gives higher accuracy.
Demerits
This instrument can be used only on DC supply
The cost of the instrument is more than M.I. Instruments
MOVING IRON INSTRUMENT:
Moving-iron instruments are generally used to measure
alternating voltages and currents. In moving-iron
instruments the movable system consists of one or more
pieces of specially-shaped soft iron, which are so pivoted
as to be acted upon by the magnetic field produced by
the current in coil.
There are two general types of moving-iron instruments
namely:
1. Repulsion (or double iron) type
2. Attraction (or single-iron) type
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REPULSION TYPE:
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REPULSION TYPE…CONTD:
Construction: The repulsion type instrument has a hollow
fixed iron attached to it. The moving iron is connected to the
spindle. The pointer is also attached to the spindle in
supported with jeweled bearing.
Principle of operation: When the current flows through the
coil, a magnetic field is produced by it. So both fixed iron and
moving iron are magnetized with the same polarity, since they
are kept in the same magnetic field. Similar poles of fixed and
moving iron get repelled. Thus the deflecting torque is
produced due to magnetic repulsion. Since moving iron is
attached to spindle, the spindle will move. So that pointer
moves over the calibrated scale.
Damping: Air friction damping is used to reduce the oscillation.
Control: Spring control is used.
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ATTRACTION TYPE:
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ATTRACTION TYPE…CONTD.:
Construction: The moving iron fixed to the spindle is kept
near the hollow fixed coil. The pointer and balance weight are
attached to the spindle, which is supported with jeweled
bearing. Here air friction damping is used.
Principle of operation: The current to be measured is
passed through the fixed coil. As the current is flow through
the fixed coil, a magnetic field is produced. By magnetic
induction the moving iron gets magnetized. The north pole of
moving coil is attracted by the south pole of fixed coil. Thus
the deflecting force is produced due to force of attraction.
Since the moving iron is attached with the spindle, the spindle
rotates and the pointer moves over the calibrated scale. But
the force of attraction depends on the current flowing through
the coil.
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Link for working of MI type Instrument
Attraction Type:
[Link]
Repulsion Type:
[Link]
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Torque equation for MI type instrument
Deflecting torque in Moving iron Instruments is given as
Td = (1/2)I2(dL/dƟ)
From the above torque equation, we observe that the deflecting torque is dependent on
the rate of change of inductance with the angular position of iron van and square of rms
current flowing through the coil.
In moving iron instruments, the controlling torque is provided by spring. Controlling
torque due to spring is given as
Tc = KƟ; Where K = Spring constant, Ɵ = Deflection in the needle
In equilibrium state, deflecting and controlling torque shall be equal as below.
Deflecting Torque = Controlling Torque
⇒ Td = Tc
⇒ (1/2)I2(dL/dƟ) = KƟ
⇒ Ɵ = (1/2)(I2/K)(dL/dƟ)
From the above torque equation, we observe that the angular deflection of needle of
moving iron instruments is square of rms current flowing through the coil. Therefore,
the deflection of moving iron instruments is independent of direction of current.
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Numericals based on this
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