ALAGAPPA UNIVERSITY

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and Graded as Category–I University by MHRD-UGC]
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Directorate of Distance Education

M.A. (Education)
II - Semester
348 23

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY AND STATISTICS
IN EDUCATION
Authors
Dr Suman Lata, Lecturer, Ginni Devi Modi Girls (PG) College, Modinagar, Ghaziabad
Units (1.2, 2.3, 3.4-3.4.3, 6.2.2-6.2.3, 6.5, 10)
Dr Harish Kumar, Associate Professor, Amity Institute of Education, Amity University, Noida
Units (2.2, 3.2-3.3, 3.5-3.6, 4.2-4.3, 4.6, 5, 7, 8.3, 11.2.4, 11.2.6)
Dr Deepak Chawla, Distinguished Professor, Dean Research and Fellow Programme, International Management Institute
(IMI), New Delhi
Dr Neena Sondhi, Professor, International Management Institute (IMI), New Delhi
Units (2.4, 8.2, 9.2, 11.2.7, 12, 14.7-14.8)
JS Chandan, Professor, Medgar Evers College, City University of New York
Units (3.7-3.7.1, 6.3-6.4, 11.2.3)
Vikas® Publishing House: Units (1.0-1.1, 1.3, 1.4-1.10, 2.0-2.1, 2.5-2.9, 3.0-3.1, 3.4.4-3.4.5, 3.7.2, 3.8-3.12, 4.0-4.1, 4.4-4.5,
4.7-4.12, 6.0-6.2.1, 6.6-6.10, 8.0-8.1, 8.4-8.8, 9.0-9.1, 9.3-9.8, 11.0-11.2.2, 11.2.5, 11.3-11.7, 13, 14.0-14.2, 14.3-14.6, 14.9-14.13)

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 SYLLABI-BOOK MAPPING TABLE
Educational Research Methodology and Statistics in Education

BLOCK I: EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH, VARIABLES,

HYPOTHESES AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES Unit 1: Introduction to
UNIT I Introduction to Educational Research Educational Research
Areas of Educational Research - Problems related to Teaching and (Pages 1-33)
Learning Process, Research Problem: Selection of Problem, Defining Unit 2: Variables
(Pages 34-48)
the Problem, Statement of the Problem, Review of related literature:
Unit 3: Hypothesis
Purpose of the Review, Identification of the Related Literature- (Pages 49-67)
Organizing the Related Literature, Validity and Reliability and Norms. Unit 4: Sampling Techniques
UNIT II Variables (Pages 68-95)
Meaning of Variables, Types of Variables (Independent, Dependent,
Extraneous, Intervening and Moderator) Delineating and operationa-
lizing variables
UNIT III Hypotheses
Concept of Hypothesis, Sources of Hypothesis, Types of Hypothesis
(Research, Directional, Non-directional, Null, Statistical and Question-
form) Formulating Hypothesis, Characteristics of a good hypothesis,
Hypothesis Testing and Theory, Errors in Testing of Hypothesis
UNIT IV Sampling Techniques
Concepts of Universe and Sample, Need for Sampling, Characteristics
of a good sample, Techniques of Sampling (Probability and Non-
probability sampling techniques), Sampling errors and how to reduce
them

BLOCK II: RESEARCH TOOLS AND DIFFERENT TYPES OF

RESEARCH Unit 5: Research Tools
UNIT V Research Tools (Pages 96-129)
Tools and Techniques of Data Collection: Observation, Interview, Unit 6: Descriptive Research
(Pages 130-142)
Questionnaire, Schedules, Rating Scales, Attitude Scale, Writing of
Unit 7: Historical Research
Research Proposal (Pages 143-157)
UNIT VI Descriptive Research Unit 8: Experimental Research
Causal – Comparative, Correlation, Case Study, Ethnography, (Pages 158-178)
Document Analysis, Analytical Method
UNIT VII Historical Research
Meaning, Scope of historical research, Uses of history, Steps of doing
historical research (Defining the research problem and types of
historical inquiry, searching for historical sources, Summarizing and
evaluating historical sources.) Types of historical sources, External
and internal criticism of historical sources.
UNIT VIII Experimental Research
Pre-Experi mental Design, Quasi–Experimental Design and
True–Experimental Designs, Factorial Design/Independent Groups
and repeated measures. Nesting Design Single–subject Design
Internal and External Experimental Validity Controlling extraneous and
intervening variables.
BLOCK III: QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
UNIT IX Data Analysis Unit 9: Data Analysis
Types of Measurement Scale, Quantitative Data Analysis, Parametric (Pages 179-194)
Techniques, Non-Parametric Techniques, Conditions to be satisfied Unit 10: Qualitative Data Analysis
for using parametric techniques, Descriptive data analysis, Inferential (Pages 195-204)
Unit 11: Analysis and Interpretation
data analysis
of Data
UNIT X Qualitative Data Analysis (Pages 205-233)
Data Reduction and Classification Analytical - Induction - Constant
Comparison
UNIT XI Analysis and Interpretation of Data
Concept of Parameter and Statistics, Levels of Confidence, Degrees of
freedom, Standard Error of Mean, one-tailed and two tailed tests, t-test
(independent and correlated samples), ANOVA: Assumptions,
Correlations.

BLOCK IV: STATISTICAL ANALYSIS, RESEARCH REPORT AND

Unit 12: Statistical Analysis
COMPUTER IN EDUCATIONALRESEARCH
(Pages 234-264)
UNIT-XII Statistical Analysis Unit 13: Research Reporting
Parametric statistics, Non-parametric statistics, Simple statistical (Pages 265-280)
applications Unit 14: Applications of Computer in
UNIT XIII Research Reporting Educational Research
Steps involved in writing a research report and characteristics of a (Pages 281-334)
good research report. Formal, Style and Mechanics of Report Writing.
UNIT XIV Applications of Computer in Educational Research
Uses of computer in data analysis, Preparation of Tables. Application
of MS-Office: Basics of MS-Word, MS-Excel and MS-PowerPoint;
Application of for and making reports,
Use of SPSS and other statistical software.
 CONTENTS
BLOCK 1: EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH, VARIABLES, HYPOTHESES AND SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 1-33
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Areas of Educational Research and Problems Related to Teaching and Learning Process
1.3 Research Problem: Selection of Problem, Defining the Problem, Statement of the Problem
1.3.1 Defining the Research Problem
1.3.2 Problem Formulation
1.3.3 Statement of Research Problem
1.4 Review of Related Literature: Purpose of the Review, Identification of the Related Literature,
Organizing the Related Literature
1.5 Validity, Reliability and Norms
1.5.1 Validity: Meaning and Method
1.5.2 Reliability: Meaning and Methods
1.5.3 Norms
1.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
1.7 Summary
1.8 Key Words
1.9 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
1.10 Further Readings

UNIT 2 VARIABLES 34-48

2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Meaning and Types of Variables
2.3 Moderator and Delineating Variables
2.4 Operationalizing Variables
2.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
2.6 Summary
2.7 Key Words
2.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
2.9 Further Readings

UNIT 3 HYPOTHESIS 49-67

3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Concept of Hypothesis
3.3 Sources of Hypothesis
3.4 Types of Hypothesis
3.4.1 Directional Research Hypothesis
3.4.2 Non-Directional Research Hypothesis
3.4.3 Question From Hypothesis
3.4.4 Null Hypothesis
3.4.5 Alternative Hypothesis
 3.5 Formulating Hypothesis
3.6 Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis
3.7 Hypothesis Testing and Theory and Errors in Testing of Hypothesis
3.7.1 Procedure for Hypothesis Testing
3.7.2 Committing Errors: Type I and Type II
3.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
3.9 Summary
3.10 Key Words
3.11 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
3.12 Further Readings

UNIT 4 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES 68-95

4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Concepts of Universe and Sample
4.3 Concept of Population and Sample
4.4 Need for Sampling
4.5 Characteristics of a Good Sample
4.6 Techniques of Sampling (Probability and Non-probability Sampling Techniques)
4.6.1 Probability Sampling
4.6.2 Non-Probability Sampling
4.7 Sampling Errors and How to Reduce Them
4.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
4.9 Summary
4.10 Key Words
4.11 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
4.12 Further Readings
BLOCK 2: RESEARCH TOOLS AND DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH
UNIT 5 RESEARCH TOOLS 96-129
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Tools and Techniques of Data Collection
5.2.1 Observation
5.2.2 Interview
5.2.3 Questionnaire
5.2.4 Schedules
5.2.5 Rating Scales and Attitude Scale
5.2.6 Writing of Research Proposal
5.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
5.4 Summary
5.5 Key Words
5.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
5.7 Further Readings

UNIT 6 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH 130-142

6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Causal, Comparative and Correlation Studies
6.2.1 Causal Research Design
 6.2.2 Casual Comparative Studies
6.2.3 Correlation and Prediction Studies
6.3 Case Study
6.4 Ethnography
6.5 Document Analysis and Analytical Method
6.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
6.7 Summary
6.8 Key Words
6.9 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
6.10 Further Readings

UNIT 7 HISTORICAL RESEARCH 143-157

7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Meaning and Scope of Historical Research
7.2.1 Nature and Value of Historical Research
7.2.2 Types of Historical Research
7.2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Historical Research
7.2.4 Process of Historical Research
7.2.5 Sources of Data in Historical Research
7.2.6 Evaluation of Data
7.2.7 Purpose of Historical Research
7.2.8 Problems in Historical Research
7.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
7.4 Summary
7.5 Key Words
7.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
7.7 Further Readings

UNIT 8 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 158-178

8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Design: Pre-Experimental, Quasi-Experimental and True-Experimental
8.3 Internal and External Experimental Validity
8.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
8.5 Summary
8.6 Key Words
8.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
8.8 Further Readings
BLOCK 3: QUALITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
UNIT 9 DATA ANALYSIS 179-194
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Types of Measurement Scales
9.3 Descriptive and Inferential Data Analysis
9.3.1 Tools of Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
9.3.2 Quantitative, Qualitative, Parametric and Non-Parametric Analysis
9.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
 9.5 Summary
9.6 Key Words
9.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
9.8 Further Readings

UNIT 10 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 195-204

10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Data Reduction and Classification
10.2.1 Analytical Induction and Constant Comparison
10.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
10.4 Summary
10.5 Key Words
10.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
10.7 Further Readings

UNIT 11 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA 205-233

11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Concept of Parameter and Statistics
11.2.1 Levels of Confidence
11.2.2 Degrees of Freedom
11.2.3 Standard Error of Mean
11.2.4 Two-Tailed and One-Tailed Tests of Significance
11.2.5 t-Test (Independent and Correlated Samples)
11.2.6 ANOVA: Assumptions
11.2.7 Correlations
11.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
11.4 Summary
11.5 Key Words
11.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
11.7 Further Readings
BLOCK 4: STATISTICAL ANALYSIS, RESEARCH REPORT AND COMPUTER IN
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
UNIT 12 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS 234-264
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Non-parametric Statistics amd Simple Applications
12.2.1 Chi-square Tests
12.2.2 Run Test for Randomness
12.2.3 One and Two Sample Sign Tests
12.2.4 Mann-Whitney U Test for Independent Samples
12.2.5 Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test for Paired Samples
12.2.6 The Kruskal-Wallis Test
12.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
12.4 Summary
12.5 Key Words
12.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
12.7 Further Readings
UNIT 13 RESEARCH REPORTING 265-280
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Steps Involved in Writing a Research Report and Characteristics of a Good Research Report
13.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
13.4 Summary
13.5 Key Words
13.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
13.7 Further Readings

UNIT 14 APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 281-334

14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Uses of Computer in Data Analysis
14.3 Application of MS-Office
14.4 Basics of MS-Word
14.5 MS-Excel
14.6 MS-PowerPoint
14.7 Application of these Softwares for Documentation and Making Reports
14.8 Use of SPSS and Other Statistical Softwares
14.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
14.10 Summary
14.11 Key Words
14.12 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
14.13 Further Readings
 INTRODUCTION

Educational research refers to the systematic collection and analysis of data related
NOTES to the field of education. Research may involve a variety of methods. Research
may involve various aspects of education including student learning, teaching
methods, teacher training, and classroom dynamics.
Educational researchers generally agree that research should be rigorous
and systematic. However, there is less agreement about specific standards, criteria
and research procedures. Educational researchers may draw upon a variety
of disciplines. These disciplines include psychology, sociology, anthropology,
philosophy and statistics. Methods may be drawn from a range of disciplines.
Conclusions drawn from an individual research study may be limited by the
characteristics of the participants who were studied and the conditions under which
the study was conducted.
The book Educational Research Methodology and Statistics in Education
enables the students to develop an understanding about the measurement and
evaluation techniques used in education and in analysing the principles of test
construction, both educational and psychological. This will in turn prepare the
students, and future professionals, to become independent users of test information,
who can describe the problems in measurement, explain how to approach these
problems and solve them. The book also provides guidance on how to evaluate
and use information about specific tests and focuses on the basic issues of
measurement in education.
This book is written with the distance learning student in mind. It is presented
in a user-friendly format using a clear, lucid language. Each unit contains an
Introduction and a list of Objectives to prepare the student for what to expect in
the text. At the end of each unit are a Summary and a list of Key Words, to aid in
recollection of concepts learnt. All units contain Self-Assessment Questions and
Exercises, and strategically placed Check Your Progress questions so the student
can keep track of what has been discussed.

Self-Instructional
Material
 Introduction to
BLOCK - I Educational Research

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH, VARIABLES,

HYPOTHESES AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
NOTES

UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Areas of Educational Research and Problems Related to Teaching and
Learning Process
1.3 Research Problem: Selection of Problem, Defining the Problem,
Statement of the Problem
1.3.1 Defining the Research Problem
1.3.2 Problem Formulation
1.3.3 Statement of Research Problem
1.4 Review of Related Literature: Purpose of the Review, Identification of
the Related Literature, Organizing the Related Literature
1.5 Validity, Reliability and Norms
1.5.1 Validity: Meaning and Method
1.5.2 Reliability: Meaning and Methods
1.5.3 Norms
1.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
1.7 Summary
1.8 Key Words
1.9 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
1.10 Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Research takes advantage of the knowledge which has accumulated in the past as
a result of constant human endeavour. It can never be undertaken in isolation of
the work that has already been done on the problems which are directly or indirectly
related to a study proposed by a researcher. A careful review of the research
journal, books, dissertations, theses and other sources of information on the problem
to be investigated is one of the important steps in the planning of any research
study. A review of the related literature must precede any well planned research
study.
The unit describes the specific purposes which are served by the review of
related literature. The unit provides a study guide to the researcher in identifying
related literature, and in locating, selecting and utilizing the primary and secondary
Self-Instructional
Material 1
Introduction to sources of information available in the library. The unit deals with procedure which
Educational Research
the researcher should adopt for organizing the related literature in a systematic
manner.
The unit also explains the significance of the reliability and validity in qualifying
NOTES
a test as good. It also examines the methods of computing reliability, factors affecting
reliability and validity, types of validity and factors affecting validity.

1.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the concept and related areas of educational research
 Define, identify and formulate a research problem
 Describe the importance of research problems
 Discuss the specific purposes served by the review of related literature
 Analyse the procedure of organizing the related literature in a systematic
manner
 Explain the concepts of validity and reliability

1.2 AREAS OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND

PROBLEMS RELATED TO TEACHING AND
LEARNING PROCESS

Following are the areas of educational research that provide information about
problems related to teaching and learning process norms.
1. Educational psychology: It helps the teacher to understand the child in the
classroom in order to improve teaching learning process. These researches provide
the following information:
 Identification of factors that encourage learning.
 Understand the personality of children in the class.
 Effects of parental and teacher’s attitude towards children on learning.
 Understand the problems of physically and socially handicapped children
in school system.
 Role of teachers and text books in removing delinquency in adults and so
on.
 Role of physical/intellectual efficiencies and defects in learning.
 Usefulness of learning theories in various educational setting.
 Relative effectiveness of various learning theories by field experiment.
 Relative effectiveness of socio-cultural forces on the development of children.
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2. Philosophy of education: It provides the following information: Introduction to
Educational Research
 Role of logic in various areas of education from concept formation to theory
development.
 Reorganisation of social structure and educational system. NOTES
 Role of knowledge, beliefs and values in developing educational theories.
 Finding new implication of ancient Indian philosophies in the present scenario.
 Role of ideologies and religion for improving educational practice.
3. Sociology of education: this provide the following information:
 Effects of changes in the demographic structure on education.
 Effects of new education policy on the expansion of education and
employment
 Role of educational institutions
 Role of social and cultural factors in bringing about social and educational
equity.
 Minority and their problems.
 Reservation policy and its impact on social system.
4. Curriculum development:
 Structure of curriculum in India from primary to higher level.
 Analysis and organisation of curriculum in various subject.
 Analysis of text books at different level of learning.
 Curriculum in relation to needs of the learner and the society.
 Modernisation of curriculum in relation to changing needs.
5. Comparative education:
 Administrative and educational policies of different countries and their impact
on the society as a whole
 Impact of economic progress on education
 Comparison of educational progress in various countries of the world
 Impact of various systems of education in the world on each other
6. Educational management and administration: This area can help us in the
following aspects:
 Impact of educational planning and legislations on performance
 Problems of educational system and its impact on performance
 Role of teachers and principals in enhancing performance of students
 Impact of recruitment policies on output
 Supervision and performance
 Liberalisation and privatisation of higher education. Self-Instructional
Material 3
Introduction to 7. Guidance and counselling: We can understand the following aspects in this
Educational Research
area of education research:
 Identification of factors contributes in the success in the life of students.
NOTES  Role of family and neighbourhood in making children adjust in the society.
 Construction of tools for diagnosing adjustment problems of students.
8. Educational technology:
 Development of new teaching strategies.
 Role of technology in teaching learning process.
 Application of psychology to solving teaching problems.
 Application of technological equipments and law in education.
 Development of new audio-visual aids.
9. Problems of Indian education:
 Pre-primary education
 Primary education
 Secondary education
 Higher education
 Vocational and technical education
 Non-formal education
 Distance education
 Recommendation of commissions and committees on education

1.3 RESEARCH PROBLEM: SELECTION OF

PROBLEM, DEFINING THE PROBLEM,
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The process of research can be implemented as a series of actions or steps that

are essential to be performed in a specific order. These actions or activities usually
overlap each other rather than pursue a specific sequence. A brief description of
the steps is given as follows:
(i) Select the topic: The first step for a researcher is to select a topic of
research. While doing so, he should restrict it to the most potential topic
that is open for extensive research out of several alternatives. The factors to
be considered for topic selection are:
o Relevance
o Scope for research, i.e., the required data should be available and
accessible

Self-Instructional
4 Material
 o Contribution to knowledge in the specific field Introduction to
Educational Research
o Required cooperation from the research guide
(ii) Define the research problem: Research problems can be related to either
the state of nature or to the relationship of variables. In defining the research NOTES
problem, the researcher should study the existing literature including books
and journals available in the field with an interdisciplinary perspective to
base his research topic on some reliable background. He should also
concentrate on the relevance of the present research with the past works.
(iii) Setting objectives: After selecting the topic and defining the research
problem, the researcher should mention the objective of research. This means
that he should explain what he aims to achieve through the research. His
objective should also include an explanation of the extent to which the
research work is related to the specific field.
(iv) Survey existing literature: To understand the basis of research, it is
important for the researcher to review existing literature. This involves:
o Surveying existing books available in the field
o Reviewing other published materials like articles, journals, reports and
conference proceedings
The researcher should then prepare his own index for a period, in
chronological order, in addition to his consultation of various indices.
(v) Determine the sample design: Often, we select only a few items for
universal study purposes, for example, blood testing on sample basis to
perform census inquiry. The item selected is technically known as a sample.
The researcher must decide the manner of selecting a sample or decide
about the sample design. A sample design is a definite plan determined for
data collection to obtain a sample from a given population. The various
types of sample designs are:
o Deliberate sampling
o Simple random sampling
o Systematic sampling
o Stratified sampling
o Quota sampling
o Cluster sampling
o Multi-stage sampling
o Sequential sampling
The researcher should decide the sample design after considering the nature
of inquiry and other related factors. Sometimes, several of these methods
of sampling are used in the same study, which in turn is called mixed sampling.

Self-Instructional
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Introduction to (vi) Collect the data: There are a variety of ways to collect data. Primary data
Educational Research
can be collected through experiments or through surveys. If the researcher
performs an experiment, he/she observes some quantitative measurements.
This helps him/her to examine the truth in his hypothesis. In the case of
NOTES survey, however, the researcher can adopt one or more of the following
ways to collect data:
o By observation
o Through personal interviews
o Through telephone interviews
o By mailing of questionnaires
o Through schedules
(vii) Execute the project: This is the most important step in the research
process. The researcher should ensure that the project is performed in a
logical way and on time. If a survey is to be carried out, steps need to be
taken to ensure that it is under statistical control so that the collected data is
in accordance with the predetermined standard of accuracy.
(viii) Analyse the data: After data collection, the researcher’s next task is to
analyse them. The bulk data should be compressed into a few manageable
groups and tables for further analysis. The researcher can analyse the
collected data by using various statistical methods.
(ix) Test the hypothesis: After the analysis of data, the researcher should test
the hypothesis, if any. He should check if the facts support the hypothesis
or are contrary to the hypothesis. Statisticians have developed tests like
Chi square test, T-test and F-test, for hypothesis testing. This testing further
results in either acceptance or rejection of the hypothesis.
(x) Generalize and interpret: The real value of research lies in its ability to
arrive at certain generalizations. If the researcher cannot find a hypothesis
to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some
theory. This is called interpretation. This may give rise to new questions and
further lead to more research.
(xi) Prepare report or thesis: This is the concluding step of research, where
the researcher prepares the report of what has been done by him. Generally,
the report should be designed in accordance with the following layout:
o Preliminary pages: Here, the title, date, acknowledgements and
foreword with the table of contents should be mentioned.
o Main text: This should be divided into introduction, summary, main
report and conclusion.
o End matter: This should contain appendices, bibliography and index.

Self-Instructional
6 Material
 A report needs to be written in simple language with a precise and objective Introduction to
Educational Research
style. Charts and illustrations should be included to lay emphasis on the
study of research.
1.3.1 Defining the Research Problem NOTES
Problem discovery puts the research process into action and identification of the
problem is the first step towards its solution. Properly and completely defining a
business problem is easier said than done. Actually, the research task may be to
define or evaluate an opportunity or to clarify a problem. The definition and
discovery of the research problem is viewed under this broader context. In research,
often, only symptoms are apparent to begin with. The adage ‘a problem well
defined is a problem half solved’ is worth remembering. The investigation gets a
sense of direction with an orderly definition of the research problem. A careful
attention to the problem definition allows a researcher to set the proper research
objectives. When the purpose of research is clear, the chances of collecting the
relevant and necessary information are greater.
1.3.2 Problem Formulation
Just because a problem has been discovered or an opportunity has been recognized
does not mean that the problem has been defined. A problem definition indicates a
specific managerial decision area to be clarified or a particular problem to be
solved. It specifies research questions to be answered and the objectives of the
research. The research problem formulation involves the following interrelated
steps:
 Ascertaining the objectives of the decision-maker
 Understanding the problem’s background
 Identifying and isolating the problem, rather than its symptoms
 Determining the unit of analysis
 Determining the relevant variables
 Stating the research objectives and research questions (hypotheses)
The above-mentioned process ensures that the real research objectives/
questions are identified for the proposed research.
1.3.3 Statement of Research Problem
Both the decision-makers and researchers expect that the problem definition efforts
should result in a statement of the research problem or research objectives. On
completion of the exercise of formulating the research problem, the researcher
must prepare a written statement(s) that clarifies any ambiguity about what s/he
hopes the research will accomplish. Writing a series of research questions and
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Introduction to hypotheses can add clarity to the statement of the business problem. These research
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questions are the researcher’s translation of the business problem into a specific
need for inquiry; and hypothesis is an unproven proposition that tentatively explains
certain facts or phenomena, a proposition that is empirically testable. In other
NOTES
words, research objectives/hypotheses explain the purpose of research in
measurable terms and define standards of what the research should accomplish.

Check Your Progress

1. What do you mean by sample design?
2. List the steps involved in research problem formulation.

1.4 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE:

PURPOSE OF THE REVIEW,
IDENTIFICATION OF THE RELATED
LITERATURE, ORGANIZING THE RELATED
LITERATURE

Review of the related literature; besides, allowing the researcher to acquaint himself/
herself with current knowledge in the field or area in which he/she is going to
conduct his/her research, serves the following specific purposes:
1. The review of related literature enables the researcher to define the limits of
his/her field. It helps the researcher to delimit and define his/her problem.
To use an analogy given by D Ary et al., (1972, p. 56) a researcher might
say:
The work of A, B and C has discovered this much about my question; the
investigations of D have added this much to our knowledge. I propose to
go beyond D’s work in the following manner.
The knowledge of related literature, brings the researcher up-to-date on
the work which others have done, and thus to state the objective clearly
and concisely.
2. By reviewing the related literature, the researcher can avoid unfruitful and
useless problem areas. He/She can select those areas in which positive
findings are very likely to result and his/her endeavours would be likely to
add to the knowledge in a meaningful way.
3. Through the review of related literature, the researcher can avoid unintentional
duplication of well established findings. It is no use to replicate a study
when the stability and validity of its results have been clearly established.
4. The review of related literature gives the researcher an understanding of the
research methodology which refers to the way the study is to be conducted.
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It helps the researcher to know about the tools and instruments which proved
8 Material
 to be useful and promising in the previous studies. The advantage of the Introduction to
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related literature is also to provide insight into the statistical methods through
which validity of results is to be established.
5. The final and important specific reason for reviewing the related literature is
NOTES
to know about the recommendations of previous researchers listed in their
studies for further research.
Identifying the Related Literature
The first step in reviewing the related literature is identifying the material that is to
be read and evaluated. The identification can be made through the use of primary
and secondary sources available in the library.
In the primary sources of information, the author reports his/her own work
directly in the form of research articles, books, monographs, dissertations or theses.
Such sources provide more information about a study than can be found elsewhere.
Primary sources give the researcher a basis on which to make his/her own judgment
of the study. Though consulting such sources is a time consuming process for a
researcher, yet they provide a good source of information on the research methods
used.
In secondary sources of information, the author compiles and summarizes
the findings of the work done by others and gives interpretation of these findings.
In them, the author usually attempts to cover all of the important studies in an area
reported in encyclopedia of education, education indexes, abstracts, bibliographies,
bibliographical references and quotation sources. Working with secondary sources
is not time-consuming because of the amount of reading required. The disadvantage
of the secondary sources, however, is that the reader is depending upon someone
else’s judgments on the importance of the study.
The decision concerning the use of primary or secondary sources depends
largely on the nature of the research study proposed by the researcher. If it is a
study in an area in which much research has been reported, a review of the primary
sources would be a logical first step. On the other hand, if the study is in an area in
which little or no research has been conducted, a check of the secondary sources
is more logical. Sources of information, whether primary or secondary, are found
in a library. The researcher must, therefore, develop the expertise to use resources
without much loss of time and energy. To aid the researcher in locating, selecting
and utilizing the resources, a study guide is provided in relation to their use in
educational research.
A researcher should be familiar with the library, its facilities and services.
He/She should also be acquainted with the regulations governing the use and
circulation of materials. Many libraries use a printed guide that contains helpful
information. The guide uses a diagram to indicate the location of the stacks, the
periodicals section, reference section, reading rooms, and special collections of
books, microfilm or microcard equipment, manuscripts, or pamphlets. The guide
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Introduction to lists the periodicals to which the library subscribes and the names of special indexes,
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abstracts, and other reference materials.
The regulations concerning the use of stacks, the use of reserve books, the
procedures for securing reference materials held by the library or those that may
NOTES
be borrowed from another library are also included in the guide.
Research scholars and other readers are usually issued a library card giving
them access to the stacks. They may take the help of library staff or may carry on
the independent searching for the books and other reference materials. After using
the books, it is desirable for the readers to leave them on the tables so that the
library staff will return them to their proper position on the shelves.
Sometimes a reference is not available in the library. In such a situation, the reader
must consult the ‘union’ catalog, which lists references found in other libraries.
Such references may be obtained in the following ways:
(i) By inter-library loan system: The reader requests the librarian to borrow
the desired reference from other library where it is available.
(ii) By requesting a pholostatic copy: The reader may request the librarian
to obtain the photostat of a page or a number of pages of a desired reference
from the source.
(iii) By requesting an abstract or translation of the portion of a desired
reference: Some large libraries have abstracting and translating service
that provides abstracts, or copied or translated portions of needed materials
at an established fee.
(iv) By requesting microfilm or microfiche: The reader may purchase a
microfilm that can be projected on library microfilm equipment. A microfiche
is a sheet of film that contains microimages of a printed manuscript or book.
Its development has been one of the most significant contributions to library
and information services by providing economy and convenience of storing
and distribution of long runs of scholarly materials.
An even more significant development is the ultra-fiche. It has the capacity
of 3,200 pages per fiche (Mittal, 1979, p. 10).
Various types of cameras are used to record microimage on roll film. Some
of which are described as follows:
Planetary Camera is either 35 mm or 16 mm still camera which is mounted
on a vertical column that can be moved up and down as per the requirement. At a
time, it can be loaded with 100 feet of roll film. It does not cost much.
Step-and-repeat camera is a costly camera which is specifically used to
automatically record microimages on microfiche one-by-one.
Rotary camera, like the planetary camera, records microimages on roll
film and has the capacity to change the reduction ratio as desired.

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 Flow camera costs less than half of a planetary camera. Its reduction ratio Introduction to
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is fixed unlike previously mentioned types of camera.
All these cameras make use of silver, diazo or vesicular film for recording
microimages.
NOTES
Generally, six types of Readers are used for reading microfilms or microfiche
(Mittal, 1979, p. 13).
(i) Cuddly Microfiche Reader is a portable reader and can be used by
keeping it in one’s lap. It is very cheap and can be lent to library
members for home use.
(ii) Microfilm and Microfiche Readers is a reader/printer machine that
can make copies from both microfilm and microfiche.
(iii) Universal Machines essentially archieve by reading the description,
storing it and printing it. The example is Universal Tuning Machine
(UTM) or computer.
(iv) Reader/Printer is a push-button machine which not only helps in
reading a microfilm/microfiche but is capable of producing a full-sized
paper copy of the frame on the screen.
(v) Production Printer/Enlarge Printer is an automatic machine and
can print the requisite number of copies of a microfilm or selected
portions of a microfilm. It is used for mass production of full-sized
copies of microfilms.
(vi) Xerox Copyflow Machine is a costly machine, and therefore, is
beyond the reach of ordinary libraries. In can print out a microfilm into
a readable size, and as such, a single copy of any requisite document
can be had at low cost and in less time.
The card catalog is the index to the entire library collection. It lists the details
of publications found in the library with the exception of serially published
periodicals.
Generally, the card catalog contains author, title, and subject cards arranged
alphabetically. A great deal of information about a book can be found on the
cards. Besides the title of the book and the name of the author, the reader will find
the date of birth of the author, the edition, the publication date, the number of
pages, and the name and location of the publisher. Other items listed on the cards
are bibliographies, maps, portraits, illustrations, tables, series (if any) in which a
book appears, a brief description of the book—whether the book is a translation
and who did the translation.
Library classification systems provide ingenious ways of systematizing the
placement and location of books. Every system is based upon a methodology that
is logical and orderly to the smallest detail. The two principal systems of library
classification in the US are the ‘Dewey Decimal’ system and the ‘Library of
Congress’ system.
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Introduction to The ‘Dewey Decimal’ system is a decimal plan with the numbers running
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from 001 to 999.99. The ‘Library of Congress’ system is particularly used in large
libraries. It provides for 20 main classes instead of the 10 of the ‘Dewey Decimal’
system. The system uses letters of alphabet for the principal headings and numerals
NOTES for further sub-grouping.
In a library, all books have a call number or letter that appears in the upper
left-hand corner of the author, subject or title card and on the back of the book.
These call numbers or letters are used to arrange the books serially on the library
shelves and within each classification, the books are arranged alphabetically by
author’s last name.
Identifying the best available sources pertaining to a problem and extracting the
essential information from them is of much importance to a researcher. For this,
he/she must develop some library searching techniques so as to save his/her time
and effort. Van Dalen (1973, p. 88) has suggested the following valuable guidelines
for a researcher:
1. Before using a library, familiarize yourself with its layout, facilities, services,
and regulations.
2. Learn how to use the microform (microfilm and microfitche) readers,
photocopies, and other mechanical aids.
3. Look in the stacks and in the periodical, reference, reserved book, and
rare book rooms, the materials that you will use frequently are placed.
4. Schedule your work session in a library when you will encounter the least
competition for resources and services.
5. Make out call slips for all or most of the books needed in one session.
6. Copy all information that the librarian needs to obtain each reference for
you, and before closing the periodical index or card catalog, recheck and
rectify any errors or omissions.
7. Arrange to spend a block of time in the library that is sufficient to accomplish
a specific task.
8. When little time is available, clear up questions that can be answered quickly
through the help of reference books that are readily available.
9. Before initiating search for materials in a library, write down questions that
cover precisely the information you wish to locate and group the questions
in accordance with the areas in the library where the answers may be found.
10. Compile a list of the present and any previous names of periodicals,
organizations, government agencies, research agencies, collectors of
statistics, libraries and museums with special collections, and outstanding
authorities in your field.
11. Keep a list of the best reference books, indexes, handbooks, historical
studies, and legal references in your area of specialization.
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 12. Obtain copies of the best bibliographies and reprints of significant research Introduction to
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studies for your files.
13. Note which periodicals regularly or occasionally print bibliographies, reviews
of literature or such other reference material and the issues in which they NOTES
appear.
There are a number of references that may be useful to a researcher in the
field of education. To facilitate the search for such material, a researcher may
consult the following carefully compiled volumes:
Constance M. Winchell, ed., A Guide to Reference Books, 8th edn.
(Chicago: American Library Association, 1967). This comprehensive work has
biennial supplements to bring the up-to-date information in a number of languages.
It describes and evaluates about 7,500 references and a section is devoted to
education.
Albert J. Walford, Guide to Reference Material. This is a two-volume
work which covers (1) Science and Technology (1966) and (2) Philosophy and
Psychology, Religion, Social Sciences, Geography, and History (1968).
Mary N. Barton and Marion V. Bell (1962), Reference Books: A Brief
Guide for Students and Other Users of the Library. This guide is helpful but
considerably shorter.
International Guide to Educational Documentation (1955-1960),
(UNESCO, 1963). This is a one-volume international guide to educational books,
pamphlets, periodicals, occasional papers, films and sound recordings.
Arvid Burke and Mary Burke, Documentation in Education. This guide
provides an excellent introduction to literature in the field of education.
The Standard Periodicals Directory, (New York: Oxbridge Publishing
Co., 1964-date). This is a directory of over 30,000 entries and covers every type
of periodical, with the exception of local newspapers. It is published every year
and covers about 200 classifications which are arranged by subject. An alphabetical
index is provided.
Christine L. Wyner, Guide to Reference Books for School Media Centres,
(Littleton, Colo: Libraries Unlimited, 1973). This guide includes 2575 entries with
evaluative comments on reference books and selection tools for use in educational
institutions. It is indexed by author, subject and title.
Encylopedias. These serve as a store house of information and usually
contain well-rounded discussion and selected bibliographies that are prepared by
specialists. Encyclopedias are arranged alphabetically by subject and for each
field of research, they present a critical evaluation and summary of the work that
has been done. In addition, these suggest the research needed in the field and also
provide a selective bibliography.

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Introduction to The following list provides a sample of encyclopedias that researchers in
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the field of education might use:
A Cyclopedia of Education, Paul Monroe, ed., 5 vol., (New York:
Macmillan, 1911-13). It is edited by Paul Monroe with the assistance of
NOTES
departmental editors and more than 1,000 individual contributors. It provides
excellent bibliographies and is extremely useful for historical and biographical
purposes.
The Encyclopedia of Education, ed., Lee C. Deighton, (New York : The
Macmillan Company and The Free Press, 1971). The encyclopedia includes more
than 1,000 articles. It offers a view of the institutions and people, of the processes
and products, found in educational practice. The articles deal with history, theory,
research, philosophy, as well as with the structure and fabric of education.
Encyclopedia of Modern Education, Henry D. Rivlin and H. Schueller,
ed., (New York: Philosphical Library, 1943). This comprehensive work of about
200 authorities has been edited by Henry D. Rivlin and H. Schueller. It stresses
present day problems, trends, theories, and practices. The articles are accompanied
by brief bibliographies and there is a system of cross references.
Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Walter Scott Monroe, ed., rev.
edn., (New York: Macmillan, 1950). Monroe’s Encyclopedia of Educational
Research was prepared under the auspices of the American Educational Research
Association. It aims to present a critical evaluation, synthesis and interpretation of
research studies in the field of education. All the articles, arranged alphabetically,
are provided with bibliographies.
Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Chester Harris, ed., 3rd edn.,
(New York: Macmillan, 1960). Harri’s Encyclopedia of Educational Research is
also prepared under the auspices of the American Educational Research
Association. It is not merely a revision of earlier editions, but it is completely a
rewritten volume that has attempted to put into a new perspective.
Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Robert L. Ebel, ed., 4th edn.,
(New York: Macmillan, 1969). Ebel’s Encyclopedia of Educational Research
provides concise summaries of research and many references for further research.
The articles deal with persistent educational problems and continual educational
concerns.
Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Harold E. Mitzel, ed., 5th edn.,
(New York: The Free Press: A Division of Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1982).
The contents of encyclopedia have been classified under 18 broad headings
alphabetically ranging from ‘Agencies and Institutions Related to Education,
Counselling, Medical, and Psychological Services; Curriculum Areas, etc., to
Teachers and Teaching’. The new concepts and topics, viz., ‘Computer-Based
Education’, ‘Drug Abuse Education’, ‘Equity Issues in Education’, ‘Ethnography’
and ‘Neurosciences’ are also included in this volume. These additions reflect recent
events and developments in the world to which education must attend.
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 The International Encyclopedia of Education, Torsten Husen and Introduction to
Educational Research
T. Neville Postlethwaite, ed., (New York: Pergamon Press, 1985). This publication
is the first major attempt to present an up-to-date overview on educational
problems, practices and institutions all over the world. The information available in
this volume provides answers to three basic questions: What is the state of the art NOTES
in the various fields of education?, What scientifically sound and valid information
is available? and What further research is needed in various aspects of education?
The Encyclopedia of Comparative Education and National Systems of
Education, T. Neville Postlethwaite, ed., (New York: Oxford Press, 1988). This
encyclopedia is in two parts: the first part presents a series of articles about
comparative education; the second part provides description of 159 different
systems of education in various countries.
International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, (New York: Macmillan
Co., 1968). It was prepared under the direction of 10 learned societies. This
reference work covers topics in all of the social sciences.
Encyclopedia of Child Care and Guidance, (Garden City, New York:
Doubleday and Co., 1968). It is a comprehensive treatment of the nature of the
problems of childhood. It also suggests the methods of dealing with such problems.
Encyclopedia of Social Work, (New York: National Association of Social
Workers, 1965). This reference work presents extensive articles on all aspects of
social work.
Encyclopedia of Philosophy, (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. 1971).
This encyclopedia contains more than 7,000 articles written by more than 2,000
contributors in all areas of science and engineering.
Encyclopedia of Philosophy, (New York: Macmillan, Free Press 1967).
It is an authoritative and comprehensive reference work covering both Western
and Eastern thought—ancient, medieval and modern.
Encyclopedia of Indian Education, (New Delhi: NCERT, 2004). It
provides a comprehensive description of various concepts, themes and systems
pertaining to Indian education in ancient, medieval, pre-independence and post-
independence periods.
Dictionaries. They serve as constant guides to the researcher. A few known
dictionaries are detailed below:
Dictionary of Education, (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1973).
This dictionary covers 33,000 technical and professional terms. It also includes
educational terms used in various countries.
Comprehensive Dictionary of Psychological and Psycho-Analytical
Terms, (New York: David McKay Company). It contains more than 13,000 terms.
All these are defined in non-technical terms.
Dictionary of Sociology, Totowa, N.J., (Littlefield, Adams and Co.). In
this dictionary, sociological terms are defined in non-technical language. Self-Instructional
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Introduction to Roget’s International Thesaurus of Words and Phrases, (New York:
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Crowell, Collier and Macmillan). A Thesaurus is the opposite of a dictionary. One
turns to the Thesaurus when one has an idea, but does not yet have appropriate
word to convey it. Thesaurus lists together the synonyms and antonyms of words.
NOTES A researcher should use this reference in conjunction with a good dictionary to
ensure precision of expression.
Yearbooks, Almanacs and Handbooks, A large amount of current
information on educational problems, thought and practices may be found in
yearbooks, almanacs and handbooks. Some yearbooks cover a new topic of
current interest each year and some others give more general reviews of events. A
list of some yearbooks, almanacs and handbooks is given as under:
The Handbook of Research on Teaching, N. L. Gage (ed.), (Chicago:
Rand McNally & Co., 1963). This handbook presents a comprehensive research
information on teaching with extensive bibliographies.
The Rand McNally Handbook of Education, Arthur W. Foshay (ed.),
(Chicago: Rand McNally & Co, 1963). It is a convenient source compilation of
the most important facts about education in the United States. This handbook
provides a quick-reference comparison of education in England, France and Russia.
Education Yearbook, (New York: Macmillan Co., 1972-date). This is an
annual publication. It includes statistical data on major educational issues and
movements with a comprehensive bibliography and reference guide.
Mental Measurement Yearbook, (Highland Park, New Jersey: Grayphon
Press, 1938-date). It is compiled by Oscar K. Buros and provides a comprehensive
summary on psychological measurement and standardized tests and inventories.
It is published every four years and includes reviews on all significant books on
measurement and excerpts from book reviews appearing in professional journals.
Indian Mental Measurement Hand Book: Intelligence and Aptitude
Tests, (New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training
(NCERT), 1991). The Handbook is one of major efforts of National Library of
Educational and Psychological Tests (NLEPTs) published by NCERT to present
before the researchers, a review of the standardized tests, particularly in the areas
of ‘Intelligence’ and ‘Aptitude’. It makes available the organized information on
tests developed in India and the Indian adaptations or standardizations of foreign
tests. The information covers not only tests which are commercially available to
test users, and those available for restricted use, but also tests for which only
specimen sets are available. Test reviews have been included in this Handbook in
order to help the readers to evaluate the tests more critically.
The Student Psychologist’s Handbook: A Guide to Sources, (Cambridge,
Mass: Schenkman Publishing Co., 1969). This handbook describes the major
content areas of psychology with sources of information, methods of data collection,
and the use of reference materials.
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 Data Processing Yearbook, (Detroit: Frank H. Gille, 1952-date). This Introduction to
Educational Research
yearbook is published irregularly and includes articles on equipment, techniques,
and developments in data processing. It also provides information about institutions
offering data processing and computer courses.
NOTES
United Nations Statistical Yearbook, (New York: United Nations, 1949-
date). This is an annual publication. It presents statistical data on population, trade,
finance, communication, health and education.
World Almanac-Book of Facts, (New York: Newspaper Enterprise
Association, 1968-date). This reference guide is published annually. It provides
up-to-date statistics and data concerning events, progress and conditions in social,
educational, political, religious, geographical, commercial, financial and economic
fields.
The Standard Education Almanac. It provides a record of facts and
statistics on virtually every aspect of education.
Directories and Bibliographies. Directories are used by a researcher to
locate the names and addresses of persons, periodicals, publishers or organizations
when he/she wants to obtain information, about financial assistance or research
material and equipments. Directories may help a researcher to find people or
organizations who have similar professional interests or who can answer his/her
queries or help to solve his/her problems.
A few important directories in the US and the UK are as follows:
 Guide to American Educational Directories. It lists in one volume over
12,000 educational and allied directories. The directories are listed
alphabetically and are arranged under subject headings.
 The Education Directory, (Washington: US Office of Education,
Superintendent of Documents, 1912-date). This directory is published
annually in five parts. It deals with names, educational agencies, officials,
institutions and other relevant data.
 NEA Handbook for Local, State and National Associations, (Washington,
DC: National Education Association, 1945-date). This is an annual
publication and contains listings and comprehensive reports of state and
national officers of affiliated associations and departments.
 Educator’s World, (Englewood, Colo.: Fisher Publishing Co., 1972-date).
This is an annual guide to more than 1,600 education associations,
publications, research and foundations.
 National Faculty Directory, (Detroit: Gale Research Co., 1964-date).
This annual publication lists alphabetically the names and addresses of more
than 300,000 full-time and part-time faculty members and administrative
officials of colleges and universities in the US.
 Encyclopedia of Associations, (Detroit: Gale Research Co., 1964-date).
This directory lists alphabetically more than 14,000 national associations of Self-Instructional
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Introduction to the US. It includes information on membership, addresses, names of
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executive secretaries and statement of purpose of these associations.
 Directory of Exceptional Children, (Boston: Porter Sargent Publishing
Co., 1962-date). This directory provides a description of schools, camps,
NOTES
homes, clinics, hospitals and services for the socially mal-adjusted, mentally
retarded or physically handicapped in the US.
 Mental Health Directory, (Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Mental
Health, Government Printing Office, 1964-date). This annual publication
lists national, state and local mental health agencies in the US.
 American Library Directory, (New York: R.R. Bowker Co., 1923-date).
This directory provides a binnaual guide to private, state, municipal,
institutional and collegiate libraries in the US and Canada. It includes
information on special collections, number of holdings, staff salaries, budgets
and affiliations.
Kelley, Thomas (ed.) Select Bibliographies of Adult Education in Great
Britain, (London: National Institute of Education, 1952). Blackwell, A.M. A List
of Researches in Educational Psychology Presented for Higher Degrees in
the Universities of the United Kingdom and the Irish Republic from 1918.
(London: Newnes Educational Publishing Co., 1950).
In India, a very few bibliographical guides to educational research on a
national basis have appeared. Bibliography of Doctorate Theses in Science
and Arts accepted by the Indian Universities for 1946–48 and 1948–50 was
published by the Inter-University Board of India. These are listed under the
respective universities with subject sub-headings including education.
The Index. A periodical index serves the same purpose as the index of a
book or the card file of a library. It identifies the source of the article or of the
book cited by listing the titles alphabetically, under author and the readers should
read all such directions before trying to locate the references.
A list of some important educational indexes is given below:
Education Index, (New York: H.W. Wilson Co., 1929-date). One valuable
and work saving guide created for educators is Education Index. It is published
monthly (September through June), cumulated annually and again every three years.
It indexes more than 250 educational periodicals, and many yearbooks, bulletins,
and monographs published in the US, Canada, and Great Britain. The material on
adult education, business education, curriculum, educational administration,
educational psychology, educational research, exceptional children, higher
education, guidance, health and physical education, international education, religious
education, secondary education and teacher education are included in this index.
Canadian Education Index, (Ottawa, Ontario: Canadian Council for
Educational Research, 1965-date). This index is issued quarterly and indexes
periodicals, books, pamphlets, and reports published in Canada.
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 Current Index to Journals in Education, (New York: Macmillan Introduction to
Educational Research
Information, 1969-date). This index is published monthly and cumulated six monthly
and annually. It indexes about 20,000 articles each year from more than 700
education and education-related journals under author and subject headings.
NOTES
ERIC Educational Documents Index, (Washington, D.C.: National
Institute of Education, Government Printing Office, 1966-date). This index is
published annually. It is a guide to all research documents in the ‘Educational
Resources Information Centre’ or ERIC collection.
Index of Doctoral Dissertations International, (Ann Arbor, Mich.: Xerox
University Microfilms, 1956-date). Published as the issue 13 of Dissertation
Abstracts International each year, it consolidates into one list all dissertations
accepted by American, Canadian, and some European universities during the
academic year, as well as those available in microfilm.
International Guide to Educational Documentation, (Paris: UNESCO).
This guide is published every five years. It indexes annotated bibliographies covering
major publications, bibliographies and national directories written in English, French
and Spanish.
British Education Index. This index is compiled by the Librarians of
Institutes of Education, and it includes references to articles of educational interest
published during the period of four years. The index covers more than 50
periodicals.
Index to Selected British Educational Periodicals, (Leeds: Librarians of
Institutes of Education, 1945-date). This index is issued thrice per year and it
covers 41 educational periodicals excluding those on fundamental and adult
education.
Information about new ideas and developments often appear in periodicals
long before it appears in books. There are many periodicals in education and in
other closely-related areas that are the best sources for reports on recent research
studies. Such periodicals give much more up-to-date treatment to current questions
in education than books possibly can. They also publish articles of temporary,
local or limited interest that never appear in book form. The periodicals of proper
dates are the best sources for determining contemporary opinion and status, present
or past.
It has been estimated that there are about 2,100 journals that are specifically
related to the field of education. In all such journals, one may also find articles of
interest devoted to psychology, philosophy, sociology, and other subjects.
All those engaged in educational research should become acquainted with
certain educational periodicals, and they should also learn to use the indexes to
them. Knowledge about the editor of a periodical, the names of its contributors,
and the associations or institutions publishing it may serve as clues in judging the
merit of the periodicals.
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Introduction to Ulrich’s Periodicals Directory; A Classified Guide to a Selected List of
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Current Periodicals, Foreign and Domestic, (New York: Bowker), provides a
comprehensive list of periodicals relating to education. In this directory, periodicals
are grouped in a subject classification and are alphabetically arranged. Each entry
NOTES includes title, sub-title, date of origin, frequency of publication, annual index,
cumulative indexes, and item characteristics of each periodical.
In India, many periodicals are published by some associations or institutions.
They provide a medium for dissemination of educational research and exchange
of experience among research workers, teachers, scholars and others interested
in educational research and related fields and professions.
Abstracts include brief summaries of the contents of the research study or
article. They serve as one of the most useful reference guides to the researcher
and keep him/her abreast of the work being done in his own field and also in the
related fields.
In America, the most useful of these references are the following:
The review of educational research: It gives an excellent overview of
the work that has been done in the field and about the recent developments. This
publication, between 1931 and 1969, reviewed about every three years each of
the given 11 major areas of education: (i) Administration; (ii) Curriculum;
(iii) Educational Measurement; (iv) Educational Psychology; (v) Educational
Sociology; (vi) Guidance and Counselling; (vii) Language Arts, Fine Arts, Natural
Sciences, and Mathematics; (viii) Research Methods; (ix) Special Programmes;
(x) Mental and Physical Development; and (xi) Teaching Personnel.
Since June 1970, the Review of Educational Research has pursued a
policy of publishing unsolicited reviews of research topics of the contributor’s
choice. The role played by this publication in the past has been assumed by the
Annual Review of Educational Research.
Research in Education (RIE): This represents the most comprehensive
publication of research materials in education today. RIE is published monthly
since 1966 by the Educational Resources Information Centre (ERIC) and indexed
annually. Each monthly issue of RIE is divided into three sections: (1) Document
Section; (2) Project Section; and (3) Accession Numbers Section.
Psychological abstracts: This useful reference is published by the American
Psychological Association since 1927. It is published bimonthly and contains
abstracts of articles appearing in over 530 journals, mostly educational periodicals.
The biannual issues (January–June, July–December) contain both author and
subject index.
Education abstracts: This is a publication of UNESCO, which began in
1949 and has been published monthly except in July and August. Each introductory
essay devoted to a particular aspect of education is followed by abstract of books
and documents selected from various countries dealing with the topic under
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20 Material
 In addition to the above periodicals, a researcher may also consult the Introduction to
Educational Research
following publications:
(i) Annual Review of Psychology (1950-date)
(ii) Child Development Abstracts and Bibliography (1927-date) NOTES
(iii) Psychological Bulletin (1904-date)
(iv) Sociological Abstracts (1952-date)
(v) Educational Administration Abstracts (1966-date)
(vi) Sociology of Education Abstracts (1965-date)
(vii) Mental Retardation Abstracts (1964-date)
(viii) Dissertation Abstracts International (1952-date)
In India, National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
has been publishing Indian Educational Abstracts to serve the cause of educational
research through disseminating information about educational researches available
in public domain. The information contains abstracts of the researches carried out
in India and abroad relevant to Indian educational scene with bibliographic
information. This biannual periodical also includes abstracts of doctoral theses,
research projects, published researches in the form of books and articles in the
reputed journals.
Many professional periodicals and year books, in India and abroad, include
some reviews of research and technical discussions of educational problems in
one or all the issues of their series. A list of some of the publications are as follows:
USA: Journal of Educational Research, NEA Research Bulletin,
Educational and Psychological Measurement, Journal of Experimental
Education, Research Quarterly, Journal of Research in Music Education,
American Educational Research Journal, Reading Research Quarterly, Journal
of Educational Psychology, Journal of Psychology, Journal of Social
Psychology, Journal of Applied Psychology, Sociology of Education,
American Journal of Sociology, American Sociological Review, Sociology
and Social Research, Harvard Educational Review, Journal of Teacher
Education, Elementary School Journal, History of Education Quarterly, and
Educational Forum.
UK: British Journal of Educational Psychology.
India: Indian Educational Review, Journal of Psychological Researches,
Indian Journal of Applied Psychology, Indian Journal of Experimental
Psychology, Journal of Education and Psychology, The Education Quarterly,
Perspectives in Education, Journal of Educational Planning and
Administration, University News, Journal of Higher Education, Indian
Journal of Education.
Theses and dissertations are usually preserved by the universities that award
the authors their doctoral and masters degrees. Sometimes these studies are
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Introduction to published in whole or in part in various educational periodicals or journals. Because
Educational Research
the reports of many research studies are never published, a check of the annual list
of theses and dissertations issued by various agencies is necessary for a thorough
coverage of the research literature.
NOTES
In the US, references of doctoral dissertations in all fields, including
education, can be found in sources compiled by various agencies. For the period
1912–1938, the Library of Congress issued the annual List of American Doctoral
Dissertations for published studies. The Association of Research Libraries
published the list of Doctoral Dissertations Accepted by American Universities
from 1933–1934 to 1954–1955. This service was continued by the Index to
American Doctoral Dissertations 1956–1963, which became the American
Doctoral Dissertations, 1963–64 to date. It lists all doctoral dissertations accepted
by the American and Canadian universities and other educational institutions.
Dissertation Abstracts International, May 1970, abstracts dissertations
in the humanities, social sciences, physical sciences and engineering. It is published
monthly. For each dissertation, there is a 600 word abstract that provides the
researcher enough information to satisfy his/her needs. If a researcher wants to
read a complete copy of a dissertation that is presented in Dissertation Abstracts
International, he/she can purchase a microfilm or xerox copy from the University
Microfilms. The reference number for placing an order and price are provided in
the abstract.
In India, only a few universities publish abstracts of dissertations and theses
that have been completed at the institution.
Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra (Haryana) published Abstracts of
[Link]. Dissertations, Vol. I, 1966; Abstracts of [Link]. Dissertations, Vol. II,
1967; Abstracts of [Link]. Dissertations, Vol. III, 1968; Abstracts of [Link]
Dissertations, Vol. IV, 1969; Abstracts of [Link]. Dissertations, Vol. V, 1970;
Abstracts of [Link]. Dissertations and Ph.D. Theses, Vol. VI, 1973.
M.B. Buch (ed.) A Survey of Research in Education, (Centre of Advanced
Study in Education, Baroda: M.S. University, 1973). This publication contains all
the research studies in education completed in Indian universities up to 1972. The
break up of the studies in the said volume is 462 Ph.D. studies and 269 project
research. The abstracts of all the studies have been classified into 17 meaningful
areas of education. They are (i) Philosophy of Education, (ii) History of Education,
(iii) Sociology of Education, (iv) Economics of Education (v) Comparative
Education, (vi) Personality, Learning and Motivation, (vii) Guidance and
Counselling, (viii) Tests and Measurement, (ix) Curriculum, Methods, and
Textbooks, (x) Educational Technology, (xi) Correlates of Achievement,
(xii) Educational Evaluation and Examination, (xiii) Teaching and Teaching
Behaviour, (xiv) Teacher Education, (xv) Educational Administration, (xvi) Higher
Education, and (xvii) Non-Formal Education.

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 M.B. Buch, ed., Second Survey of Research in Education (1972–1978) Introduction to
Educational Research
(Baroda: Society for Educational Research and Development, 1979). This
publication incorporates 839 research studies completed during the period 1972–
1978 and follows the same pattern of organization of 17 research areas as A
Survey of Research in Education (1973). The first chapter gives a broad NOTES
perspective of the place and function of research for educational development
including historical account of the development of educational research in India.
Each subsequent chapter includes a report based on the abstracts of research
studies giving the trend of research in the area, including the gaps and high-lighting
the research priorities as perceived by the author. The abstracts are arranged
alphabetically for each area and continuously numbered throughout the volume.
Each abstract contains the title of the study, the objective and/or hypotheses
examined, methodology including the sample, tools of research, the statistical
techniques used, and the findings. A special feature of this publication is the
incorporation of a large number of studies on educational problems completed in
the university departments of social sciences and humanities other than the
departments of education. The trend reports are based not on the research
completed during the period 1972–1978, but on the total research activities during
the period 1940–1978.
M.B. Buch, ed., Third Survey of Research in Education (1978–1983),
New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training, 1987. The
publication comprises 20 chapters beginning with a comprehensive review for the
general trend of research in education in India based on a quantitative and qualitative
analysis of the studies. The trend reports in different areas of education have been
developed by eminent educationists on the basis of studies conducted during the
period of four decades, from 1943 to 1983. In all, 1481 research abstracts have
been presented after being classified under the 17 areas. Each research abstract
reports in brief the problem, objectives of the study, research techniques adopted,
and the findings and conclusions of the study. A special feature of the volume is the
chapter on ‘Research on Indian Education Abroad’, which presents a review of
192 doctoral dissertations submitted to American and British universities, covering
a period of around two decades. Another significant inclusion in the volume is the
chapter on ‘Priorities in Educational Research’. The volume also makes available
at one place a complete list of all researches in education conducted in India till
1983.
M.B. Buch, ed., Fourth Survey of Research in Education (1983–1988),
New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training, 1991.
This publication, available in two volumes, covers researches in education
till 1988. It comprises 31 chapters beginning with a comprehensive review of the
general trend of research followed by trend reports in different areas of education
developed by eminent educationists on the basis of studies conducted during the
period of about four-and-a-half decades—1943 to 1988. In all, 1,652 research
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Introduction to abstracts have been presented after classification in 29 areas. The volume makes
Educational Research
available a complete list of all the 4,703 educational researches conducted in
India since 1943. The Fourth Survey has a new dimension. There is a chapter on
review of researches at the [Link] level in Indian Universities.
NOTES
Fifth Survey of Educational Research (1988–1992), New Delhi: National
Council of Educational Research and Training, 1997. This publication is also
available in two volumes and covers researches in education conducted during
1989–1992. It has dealt with all the areas of research which were covered in the
Fourth Survey with the addition of a chapter on researches in “Distance Education
and Open Learning”.
Sixth Survey of Educational Research (1993–2000), New Delhi: National
Council of Educational Research and Training, 2006. The first volume of this
publication was released in 2006 and the second volume is still awaited. The
researches in the areas of philosophy of education, teacher education, vocational
education, science education, distance education and open learning, women
education, guidance and counselling, physical education, health education and
sports, language teaching, inclusive education, educational technology and
population education conducted in India during the period 1993–2000 have been
reported in the first volume.
Many articles of particular interest to a researcher may be located through
pamphlets and newspapers. Current newspapers provide up-to-date information
on speeches, seminars, conferences, new trends, and a number of other topics.
Old newspapers, which preserve a record of past events, movements and ideas
are particularly useful in historical inquiries. Some libraries catalog pamphlets and
newspapers in their reference sections.
Government documents are a rich source of information. They include
statistical data, research studies, official reports, laws and other material that are
not always available elsewhere. These are available in national, regional, state as
well as local level government offices.
Monographs are also major sources of information on ongoing research. In
the US, universities and teachers’ colleges publish many research studies in education
in the form of monographs. A few examples of these are Supplementary
Educational Monographs, Educational Research Monographs, and Lincoln
School Monographs. In England too, various institutes of education publish
monographs from time to time. In India, only a limited number of monographs are
published by some universities and research organizations.
School Research Information Service (SRIS), Direct Access to Reference
Information (DATRIX), and Psychological Abstract Search and Retrieval Service
(PASAR) in the United States provide a number of computer-generated reference
sources that may save a great deal of time and effort of the researcher. SRIS
operated by Phi Delta Kappa (Bloomington, Indiana) provides a computer printout
of abstracts for a moderate fee. DATRIX, a development of the University
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Microfilms (Ann Arbor, Michigan) provides computerized retrieval for Dissertation Introduction to
Educational Research
Abstracts, from 1928 to date. The researcher can procure information on
Microfiche or Xerographic copy of the complete dissertation which he needs,
from University Microfilms, on payment. The PASAR furnishes printouts of
abstracts of psychological journal articles, monographs, reports, and parts of books NOTES
for a moderate fee.
Organizing the Related Literature
After making the comprehensive survey of the related literature, the next step for
the researcher is to organize the pertinent information in a systematic manner. It
should be done in such a way as to justify carrying out the study by showing what
is known and what remains to be investigated in the topic of concern. According
to Ary et al. (1972, p. 67):
The hypotheses provide a framework for organizing the related
literature. Like an explorer proposing an expedition, one maps out the known
territory and points the way to the unknown territory he proposes to explore.
If the study has several aspects, or is investigating more than a single
hypothesis, this is done separately for each facet of the study.
One should avoid the temptation to present the literature as a series of
abstracts. Rather, it should be presented in such a way as to lay a systematic
foundation for the study.
The organization of the related literature involves recording the essential
reference material and arranging it according to the proposed outline of the study.
Once pertinent information has been identified, the researcher should record
certain essential information for locating the material on 3 × 5 inch index card to
serve as a bibliography card. To make writing of the final report simpler, it is
desirable that the information recorded in the bibliography card should appear, in
content and style, exactly as it will appear in the final report.
The basic information in the bibliography card should include name of the
author with last name first; title of the book or article; name of the publication (for
articles); name of the publisher; date of publication; volume number, page numbers
and library call number (for books). If some of this information is not available, the
specified space should be left blank so that the missing information can be included
immediately upon locating the references.
After recording the essential information on the bibliography cards, it is
necessary to arrange the cards according to the location of the material in the
library. For example, the researcher may list together all cards pertaining to the
material located in the periodical section. Similarly, all the material located in the
reserve section may constitute another list, and so on. Then the researcher should
make a systematic review of the material located in a specific section of the library
and after reviewing each reference on the list, he/she should proceed to another
list.
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Introduction to All the information likely to be used in the final report should be recorded
Educational Research
on 4 × 6 inch card to serve as content card. The information to be recorded on
the content cards will depend on the source from which it is taken. If it is from a
primary source, it may include brief bibliographic information comprising author’s
NOTES last name, brief title of the report, specific page numbers on which information is
located; sentence statement of the problem; brief description of the study; statements
of findings or conclusions, or both; a card code as to the aspect of the research to
which the material most closely relates.
The information to be recorded from the secondary source is somewhat
different from the primary source. Turney and Robb (1971, p. 55) have given the
following suggestions for recording information from a secondary source:
1. Provide brief bibliographic information (as with a primary source).
2. Record on a single card only those statements that are related to the same
topic (if all the information cannot be placed on one card, continue statements
on another card and staple to the first card).
3. Paraphrase, in complete statements, the most relevant ideas. Record direct
quotations only if they are stated concisely and effectively, and if paraphrasing
might change the meaning.
4. Place a page number and a paragraph number after each separate statement
indicating its location in the reference in case you need to review it again.
5. Code the cards (probably in the upper-right hand corner) according to
topic(s) to which it most closely relates.
For the preparation of the report of the related literature, the researcher
should arrange the bibliographic and content cards according to the proposed
outline of the problem. This can be done with the help of card code.
The report of the related literature should begin with an introductory
paragraph describing the organization of the report. After the introduction, the
researcher should present the studies most relevant to each aspect of the proposed
problem outline. Studies with similar and contradictory results should be reported
side-by-side without using excessive space.
Test
1. What is the importance of survey of related literature in educational research?
Illustrate by taking a specific research problem as to how the survey of the
related literature can be helpful at various stages.
2. Describe the procedure which the researcher should adopt in identifying
related literature, and in locating, selecting and utilizing the primary and
secondary sources of information available in the library.
3. What library skills are required for a thorough survey of literature related to
a research topic in education?
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 4. Name some important reference books with author’s names and some Introduction to
Educational Research
important educational journals you would like to consult in connection with
the problem you have selected for research.
5. Describe the procedure which the researcher should adopt in organizing
NOTES
the related literature in a systematic manner.

1.5 VALIDITY, RELIABILITY AND NORMS

Let us understand the basics of validity, reliability and norms.

1.5.1 Validity: Meaning and Method
The validity of a test is determined by measuring the extent to which it matches
with a given criterion. It refers to the very important purpose of a test, and it is the
most important characteristic of a good test. A test may have other merits, but if it
lacks validity, it is valueless.
Characteristics of Validity
The characteristics of validity are as follows:
 Validity is a unitary concept.
 It refers to the truthfulness of the test result.
 In the field of education and psychology, no test is perfectly valid because
mental measurement is not absolute but relative.
 If a test is valid, it is reliable; but if a test is reliable, it may or may not be
valid.
 It is an evaluative judgment on a test. It measures the degree to which a test
measures what it intends to measure.
 It refers to the appropriateness of the interpretation of the result, and not to
the procedure itself.
 It refers to degree means high validity, moderate validity and low validity.
 No assessment is valid for all the purpose. A test is valid for a particular
purpose only.
1.5.2 Reliability: Meaning and Methods
Reliability paves way for consistency that makes validity possible and identifies
the degree to which various kinds of generalizations are justifiable. It refers to the
consistency of measurement, which is how stable test scores or other assessment
results are from one measurement to another. Reliability refers to the extent to
which a measuring device yields consistent results upon testing and retesting. If a
measuring device measures consistently, it is reliable. The reliability of a test refers
to the degree to which the test results obtained are free from error of measurement
or chance errors. Self-Instructional
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Introduction to Characteristics
Educational Research
The characteristics of reliability are as follows:
 It refers to the degree to which a measuring tool yields consistent results
NOTES upon testing and retesting.
 It indicates the level to which a test is internally consistent, i.e., how accurately
the test is measuring.
 It refers to the results obtained with measuring instrument and not to the
instrument itself.
 An estimate of reliability refers to a particular type of stability with the test
result.
 Reliability is necessary but not a sufficient condition for validity.
 Reliability is a statistical concept.
 It refers to the preciseness of a measuring instrument.
 It is the coefficient of internal consistency and stability.
 It is the function of the length of a test.
Methods of computing reliability
When examining the reliability coefficient of standardized tests, it is important to
consider the methods used to obtain the reliability estimates. American Psychological
Association (APA) introduced several methods of estimating reliability. The methods
are similar in that all of them involve correlating two sets of scores, obtained either
from the same assessment procedure or from equivalent forms of the same
procedure. The chief methods of estimating reliability are shown here. The reliability
coefficient resulting from each method must be interpreted according to the type
of consistency being investigated.
We will consider each of these methods of estimating reliability in detail in
Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Methods of Estimating Reliability

Method Types of reliability Procedure of administration

measure
Test-Retest method Measures of stability Use the same test twice to the
and precision same group with anytime
interval between tests, from
several minutes to several years.
Equivalent forms Measure of equivalence Apply two equal forms of the
method test to the same group in close
time gap.

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 Introduction to
Method Types of reliability Procedure of administration Educational Research
measure
Split-Half method Measure of internal Apply the test once. Score two
consistency equivalent halves of test (e.g.,
odd items and even items), NOTES
correct correlation between
halves to fit whole test by
Spearman-Brown formula to
measure reliability of the test.
Kuder-Richardson Measure of Internal Give test once, score total and
method consistency apply Kuder- Richardson
formula to know the degree of
reliability.
Inter-rater method Measure of consistency Use a set of student response
requiring judgmental scoring to
two or more raters and have
them in dependently score the
responses.

1.5.3 Norms
A level of performance for a particular group is represented by a norm. Getting a
raw score on any psychological test is meaningless unless having an additional
interpretive data. Hence, the score on psychological test are generally interpreted
by reference to norms that represent the test performance of the standardised
sample. Norms are formed by determining what parsons in a representative group
actually do on a test. In order to ascertain more precisely the individual’s exact
position with reference to the standardised sample, the raw score is converted
into some relative measure.

Check Your Progress

3. What is the first step in reviewing the related literature?
4. What is a microfiche? What are its significant contributions to library and
information services?
5. What is a card catalog and why is it used?
6. What information does a bibliography card include?
7. List any two characteristics of reliability.
8. How is validity of a test determined?

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Introduction to
Educational Research 1.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS

NOTES 1. A sample design is a definite plan determined for data collection to obtain a
sample from a given population.
2. The interrelated steps involved in formulating a research problem are as
follows:
 Ascertain the objectives of the decision-maker
 Understand the background of the problem
 Identify and isolate the problem, rather than its symptoms
 Determine the unit of analysis
 Determine the relevant variables
3. The first step in reviewing the related literature is identifying the material that
is to be read and evaluated. The identification can be made through the use
of primary and secondary sources available in the library. In the primary
sources of information, the author reports his/her own work directly in the
form of research articles, books, monographs, dissertations or theses. In
secondary sources of information, the author compiles and summarizes the
findings of the work done by others and gives interpretation of these findings.
4. A microfiche is a sheet of film that contains microimages of a printed
manuscript or book. Its development has been one of the most significant
contributions to library and information services by providing economy and
convenience of storing and distribution of long runs of scholarly materials.
5. A card catalog is the index to the entire library library collection. It lists the
details of publications found in the library, with the exception of serially
published [Link], the card catalog contains author, title and
subject cards arranged alphabetically.
6. A bibliography card should include the basic information like the name of
the author with last name first; title of the book or article; name of the
publication (for articles); name of the publisher; date of publication; volume
number, page numbers and library call number (for books). If some of this
information is not available, the specified space should be left blank so that
the missing information can be included immediately upon locating the
references.
7. The characteristics of reliability are as follows:
 It refers to the preciseness of a measuring instrument.
 It is the coefficient of internal consistency and stability

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 8. The validity of a test is determined by measuring the extent to which it Introduction to
Educational Research
matches with a given criterion.

1.7 SUMMARY NOTES

 The process of research can be implemented as a series of actions or steps
that are essential to be performed in a specific order.
 The first step for a researcher is to select a topic of research, then comes
the defining of research problem. After The selecting the topic and defining
the research problem, the researcher should mention the objective of
research. Similar to these, there are various steps which are involved in the
process of research.
 A careful attention to the problem definition allows a researcher to set the
proper research objectives.
 Both the decision-makers and researchers expect that the problem definition
efforts should result in a statement of the research problem or research
objectives.
 Review of the related literature; besides, allowing the researcher to acquaint
himself/herself with current knowledge in the field or area in which he/she is
going to conduct his/her research also serves the specific purposes. The
review of related literature enables the researcher to define the limits of his/
her field. It also helps the researcher to delimit and define his/her problem.
 The first step in reviewing the related literature is identifying the material that
is to be read and evaluated. The identification can be made through the use
of primary and secondary sources available in the library. In the primary
sources of information, the author reports his/her own work directly in the
form of research articles, books, monographs, dissertations or theses. In
secondary sources of information, the author compiles and summarizes the
findings of the work done by others and gives interpretation of these findings.
 A microfiche is a sheet of film that contains micro images of a printed
manuscript or book. Its development has been one of the most significant
contributions to library and information services by providing economy and
convenience of storing and distribution of long runs of scholarly materials.
 The card catalog is the index to the entire library collection. It lists the
details of publications found in the library, with the exception of serially
published periodicals. Generally, the card catalog contains author, title and
subject cards arranged alphabetically.
 Library classification systems provide ingenious ways of systematizing the
placement and location of books. Every system is based upon a methodology
that is logical and orderly to the smallest detail. The two principal systems

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Introduction to of library classification in the US are the ‘Dewey Decimal’ system and the
Educational Research
‘Library of Congress’ system.
 Encyclopedias serve as a store house of information, and usually contain
well-rounded discussion and selected bibliographies that are prepared by
NOTES
specialists. Encyclopedias are arranged alphabetically by subject, and for
each field of research, they present a critical evaluation and summary of the
work that has been done.
 Abstracts include brief summaries of the contents of the research study or
article. They serve as one of the most useful reference guides to the researcher
and keep him/her abreast of the work being done in his own field and also
in the related fields.
 The hypotheses provide a framework for organizing the related literature. If
the study has several aspects or is investigating more than a single hypothesis,
this is done separately for each facet of the study.
 The organization of the related literature involves recording the essential
reference material and arranging it according to the proposed outline of the
study.
 The basic information in the bibliography card should include name of the
author with last name first; title of the book or article; name of the publication
(for articles); name of the publisher; date of publication; volume number,
page numbers; and library call number (for books). If some of this information
is not available, the specified space should be left blank so that the missing
information can be included immediately upon locating the references.
 Reliability refers to consistency of scores obtained by some individuals when
re-tested with the test on different sets of equivalent items or under other
variable examining conditions.
 Validity of a test refers to its truthfulness; it refers to the extent to which a
test measures what it intends to measure. Standardization of a test requires
the important characteristic viz., validity.

1.8 KEY WORDS

 Review of related literature: It enables the researcher to define the limits

of his/her field and also helps the researcher to delimit and define his/her
problem.
 Card Catalog: It is the index to the entire library collection and lists the
details of publications found in the library, with the exception of serially
published periodicals; generally it contains author, title and subject cards
arranged alphabetically.

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 Introduction to
1.9 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND Educational Research

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions NOTES

1. Name the various types of sample designs.

2. Define ‘research’ in your own words.
3. What is the importance of reviewing the related literature?
4. What are the six types of readers that are used for reading microfilms or
microfiche?
5. What does library classification system provide?
6. Which periodicals should researcher consult?
7. What do you understand by the validity of a test?
Long Answer Questions
1. Discuss the significance of the ‘statement of research problem’.
2. Discuss the significance of review of related literature in research specifying
the purposes it serves.
3. Describe the Van Dalen’s valuable guidelines for a researcher.
4. Examine the important directories of US and UK that are used by the
researchers.
5. Explain the ways in which the related literatures are organized.
6. Give a detailed account on the characteristics of reliability and validity.

1.10 FURTHER READINGS

Best, J.W. and J.V. Kahn. 1989. Research in Education. New Delhi: Prentice
Hall.
Buch, M. B. 1974. A Survey of Research in Education. Baroda: CASE, M. S.
University.
Fox, D. J. 1969. The Research Process in Education. New York: Rhinehart and
Winston, Inc.
Garrett. H. E. 1988. Statistics in Psychology and Education. Bombay: Vikils,
Feiffer & Semen’s Ltd.
Guilford, J. P. and B. Fruchter. 1974. Fundamental Statistics in Psychology &
Education. New York: McGraw Hill.

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Variables

UNIT 2 VARIABLES
NOTES Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Meaning and Types of Variables
2.3 Moderator and Delineating Variables
2.4 Operationalizing Variables
2.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
2.6 Summary
2.7 Key Words
2.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
2.9 Further Readings

2.0 INTRODUCTION

The research problem requires identification of the key variables under the particular
study. To carry out an investigation, it becomes imperative to convert the concepts
into empirically testable and observable variables. A variable is generally a symbol
to which we assign numerals or values. The important types of variables and their
significance have been discussed in this unit. Along with this, operationalization of
variables has also been discussed in the unit.

2.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the meaning of variables
 Analyse the types of variables and their significance
 Determine the impact of internal and external variables
 Interpret the meaning of moderator and delineating variables
 Discuss the operationalization of variables

2.2 MEANING AND TYPES OF VARIABLES

A variable is any feature or aspect of an event, function or process that, with its
presence and nature, affects some other event or process which is being studied.
According to Kerlinger, ‘variable is a property that takes on different value’.
Types of variables
 Independent variables: These are conditions or characteristics that are
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 observed phenomena. In the field of educational research, for instance, a Variables

specific teaching method or a variety, of teaching material are types of

independent variables.
The two kinds of independent variables are: NOTES
(i) Treatment variables: These are variables which can be manipulated
by the researcher and to which he assigns subjects.
(ii) Organism or attribute variables: These are factors such as age,
sex, race, religion etc., which cannot be manipulated.
 Dependent variables: Dependent variables represent characteristics that
alter, appear or vanish as a consequence of introduction, change or removal
of independent variables. The dependent variable may be a test score or
achievement of a student in a test, the number of errors or measured speed
in performing a task.
 Confounding variables: A confounding variable is one which is not the
subject of the study but is statistically related with the independent variable.
Hence, changes in the confounding variable track the changes in the
independent variable. This creates a situation wherein subjects in a particular
condition differ unintentionally from subjects in another condition. This is
not a good result for the experiment which is attempting to create a situation
wherein there is no difference between conditions other than the difference
in the independent variable. This phenomenon enables us to conclude that
the manipulation undertaken directly causes differences in the dependent
variable. However, if there is another variable besides the independent
variable that is also changing, then the confounding variable is the likely
cause of the difference. An example of a common confounding variable is
that when the researcher has not randomly assigned participants to groups,
and some individual difference such as ability, confidence, shyness, height,
looks, etc., acts as a confounding variable. For instance, any experiment
that involves both men and women is naturally afflicted with confounding
variables, one of the most apparent being that males and females operate
under diverse social environments. This should not be confused to mean
that gender comparison studies have no value, or that other studies in which
random assignment is not employed have no value; it only means that the
researcher must apply more caution in interpreting the results and drawing
conclusions.
Let us consider an instance wherein an educational psychologist is keen to
measure how effective is a new learning strategy that he has developed. He assigns
students randomly to two groups and each of the students study materials on a
specific topic for a defined time period. One group deploys the new strategy that
the psychologist has developed, while the other uses any strategy that they prefer.
Subsequently, each participant takes a test on the materials. One of the obvious
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Variables confounding variables in this study would be advance knowledge of the topic of
the study. This variable will affect the test results, no matter which strategy is
used. Because of an extraneous variable of this nature, there will be a level of
inconsistency within and between the groups. It would obviously be the preferred
NOTES situation if all students had the exact same level of pre-knowledge. In any event,
the experimenter, by randomly assigning the groups, has already taken an important
step to ensure the likelihood that the extraneous variable will equivalently affect
the two groups.
Let us imagine an experiment being undertaken to measure the effect that
noise has on concentration. Assume that there are 50 subjects each in quiet and
noisy environments. Table 2.1 below illustrates the ideal or perfect version of this
experiment. ‘IV’ and ‘EV’ represent the independent variable and external variables
respectively. Note that (as shown in the table), the only difference between the
two conditions is the IV, which indicates that the noise level varies from low to
high in the two conditions. All the other variables are controlled and are exactly
the same for the two conditions. Therefore, any difference in the concentration
levels of subjects between the two conditions must have been caused by the
independent variable.
Table 2.1 Determining the Impact of Internal and External Variables

Variables Quiet Condition N = 50 Noisy Condition N = 50

Noise Level (IV) Low High
IQ (EV) Average Average
Room temperature (EV) 68 degrees 68 degrees
Sex of subjects (EV) 60 per cent F 60 per cent F
Task difficulty (EV) Moderate Moderate
Time of day (EV) All different times between 9–5 All different times between 9–5
Etc. (EV) Same as noisy environ. Same as quiet environ.
Etc. (EV) Same as noisy environ. Same as quiet environ.

An Ideal Experiment
Now consider another version of this experiment wherein some of the other variables
differ across conditions. These are confounding variables (highlighted below) and
the experiment being conducted is not ideal. In this experiment, if the concentration
levels of subjects vary between the two conditions this may have been caused by
the independent variable, but it could also have been caused by one or more of
the confounding variables. For instance, if the subjects in the noisy environment
have lower concentration levels, is it because it was louder, too hot or because
they were tested in the afternoon? It is not possible to tell and therefore, this is
less than ideal.

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 Variables
Variables Quiet Condition Noisy Condition
Noise Level (IV) Low High
IQ (EV) Average Average
Room temperature (EV) 68 degrees 82 degrees
NOTES
Sex of subjects (EV) 60 per cent F 60 per cent F
Task difficulty (EV) Moderate Moderate
Time of day (EV) Morning Afternoon
Etc. (EV) Same as noisy environment Same as quiet environ.
Etc. (EV) Same as noisy environment Same as quiet environ.

A Non-Ideal Experiment
Controlling the Confounding Variables
There are ways by which the extraneous variables may be controlled to ensure
that they do not become confounding variables. All people-related variables can
be controlled through the process of random assignment which will most likely
ensure that the subjects will be equally intelligent, outgoing, committed, etc. Random
assignment does not necessarily ensure that this is the case for every extraneous
variable in every experiment. However, when a sample is large, it works very well
and the researcher’s motives for using this method will never be questioned.
One of the way in which situation variables or task variables can be controlled
is basically by keeping them constant. For instance, in the noise-concentration
experiment above, we could adjust the thermostat and thereby keep the room
temperature constant and test all the subjects in the same room. We would, of
course, hold the difficulty of the tasks constant by giving all subjects in both
environments the same task. It is common practice for instructions to be written
or recorded and presented to each subject in exactly the same way.
At time, the researcher cannot hold a situation or task variable constant. In
these situations too, random assignment can be of great help. Consider a situation
where the same room is not available for testing the two groups and, in fact, one
group is tested on a Monday in Room 1 and the other group on a Tuesday in
Room 2. In this situation, we can use random assignment which can result in half
the Monday subjects in Condition A and the rest in Condition B, and the same for
the Tuesday subjects. Hence both conditions will have roughly the same percentage
of subjects tested in Room 1 and 2. On the other hand, consider what would
happen if we did not use random assignment and instead tested the Monday
subjects in Condition A and the Tuesday subjects in Condition B. In this situation,
we have two confounding variables. Subjects in Condition A were tested on different
days of the week and in different rooms from those in Condition B. Any difference
in the results could have been caused by one or more of the independent variable,
the day of the week, or the room.

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Variables In other words, confounding variables are those aspects of a study or sample
that might influence the dependent variable and whose effect may be confused
with the effects of the independent variable. Confounding variables are of two
types:
NOTES
(a) Intervening variables: These variables are hypothetical variables used to
explain casual links between other variables. In many types of behavioural
research, the relationship between independent and dependent variables is
not a simple one of stimulus to response. Certain variables that cannot be
controlled or measured directly may have an important effect on the outcome.
These modifying variables intervene between the cause and the effect. For
example, in a classroom language experiment, a researcher is interested in
determining the effect of immediate reinforcement on learning the parts of
speech. He suspects that certain factors or variables other than the one
being studied may be influencing the result, even though they cannot be
observed directly. These factors may be anxiety, fatigue or motivation. These
factors cannot be ignored. Rather they must be controlled as much as possible
through the use of appropriate design. For example, a variable (as memory)
whose effect occurs between the treatment in a psychological experiment
(as the presentation of a stimulus) and the outcome (as a response) is difficult
to anticipate or is unanticipated, and may confuse the results.
(b) Extraneous variables: These are variables that are not the subject of an
experiment but may have an impact on the results. Hence, extraneous
variables are uncontrolled and could significantly influence the results of a
study. Often we find that research conclusions need to be questioned further
because of the influence of extraneous variables. For instance, a popular
study was conducted to compare, the effectiveness of three methods of
social science teaching. Ongoing, regular classes were used, and the
researchers were not able to randomize or control the key variables as
teacher quality, enthusiasm or experience. Hence, the influence of these
variables could be mistaken for that of an independent variable.
For instance, in a study which attempts to measure the effect of temperature
in a classroom on students’ concentration levels, noise coming into the class through
doors or windows can influence the results and is therefore an extraneous variable.
This may be controlled by soundproofing the room, which illustrates how the
extraneous variable may be controlled in order to eliminate its influence on the
results of the test.
The following are the types of extraneous variables:
 Subject variables pertain specifically to the people being studied. These
people’s characteristics such as age, gender, health status, mood,
background, etc., are likely to affect their actions.
 Experimental variables pertain to the persons conducting the experiment.
Factors such as gender, racial bias, or language influence how a person
behaves.
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  Situational variables represent the environment factors which were Variables

prevalent at the time when the study or research was conducted. These
include the temperature, humidity, lighting, and the time of day, and could
have a bearing on the outcome of the experiment.
NOTES
 Continuous variable is one wherein, any value is possible within the range
of the limits of the variable. For instance, the variable ‘time taken to run
the marathon’ is continuous since it could take 2 hours 30 minutes or3
hours 15 minutes to run the marathon. On the other hand, the variable
‘number of days in a month that a worker came to office’ is not a
continuous variable since it is not possible to come to office on 14.32
days.
 Discrete variable is one that does not take on all values within the limits
of the variable. For instance, the response to a five-point rating scale
must only have the specific values of 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5. It cannot have a
decimal value such as 3.6. Similarly this variable cannot be in the form
of 1.3 persons.
 Quantitative variable is any variable that can be measured numerically
or on a quantitative scale, at an ordinal, interval or ratio scale. For
example, a person’s wages, the speed of a car, or the person’s waist
size are all quantitative variables.
 Qualitative variables are also known as categorical variables. These
variables vary with no natural sense of ordering. They are therefore
measured on the quality or characteristic. For example, eye colour (black,
brown, or blue) is a qualitative variable, as are a person’s looks (pretty,
handsome, ugly, etc.). Qualitative variables may be converted to appear
numeric, but this conversion is meaningless and of no real value (as in
male = 1, female = 2).

2.3 MODERATOR AND DELINEATING VARIABLES

Moderator is a special type of independent variable. Moderator variable is a third

variable that affects the direction or strength of relationship between the independent
and dependent variable by changing the effect of the main variables. It may be
qualitative or quantitative. The relationship of independent variable with dependent
variables may change under different conditions. That condition is moderator
variable. Moderator variable does not explain the reasons behind the relationship
between dependent variables and independent variable. Like extraneous variable
moderator variables are also measured and taken into consideration.
Example: If the environmental campaign (x) influencing the people to
purchase green products (y) is more visible among higher educated people
compared to lower educated people. Then we can say that education is the variable

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Variables that moderates the relationship between environmental awareness campaign and
intention to purchase green products by the public.
Delineation variables are those variables which will be accounted on without
relating them to anything in particular.
NOTES

Check Your Progress

1. Define variable.
2. What do you mean by dependent variable?
3. Which type of variable is also termed as hypothetical variable?
4. What does the moderator variable mean?

2.4 OPERATIONALIZING VARIABLES

The most important variable to be studied and analysed in research study is the
dependent variable (DV). The entire research process is involved in either describing
this variable or investigating the probable causes of the observed effect. Thus, this
in essence has to be reduced to a measurable and quantifiable variable. For example,
in the organic food study, the consumer’s purchase intentions and the retailers
stocking intentions as well as sales of organic food products in the domestic market,
could all serve as the dependent variable.
A financial researcher might be interested in investigating the Indian
consumers’ investment behaviour, post the recent financial slow down. In another
study, the HR head at Cognizant Technologies would like to study the organizational
commitment and turnover intentions of short and long tenure employees in the
company.
Hence, as can be seen from the above examples, it might be possible that in
the same study there might be more than one dependent variable.
Any variable that can be stated as influencing or impacting the dependent
variable is referred to as an independent variable (IV). More often than not, the
task of the research study is to establish the causality of the relationship between
the independent and the dependent variable(s). The proposed relations are then
tested through various research designs.
In the organic food study, the consumers’ attitude towards healthy lifestyle
could impact their organic purchase intention. Thus, attitude becomes the
independent and intention the dependent variable. Another researcher might want
to assess the impact of job autonomy and role stress on the organizational
commitment of the employees; here job autonomy and role stress are independent
variables.
Moderating variables are the ones that have a strong contingent effect on
the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. These variables
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have to be considered in the expected pattern of relationship as they modify the Variables

direction as well as the magnitude of the independent–dependent association. In

the organic food study, the strength of the relation between attitude and intention
might be modified by the education and the income level of the buyer. Here,
education and income are the moderating variables (MVs). NOTES
In a consulting firm, the management is looking at the option of introducing
flexi-time work schedule. Thus, a study might need to be taken to see whether
there will be an increase in productivity of each individual worker (DV) subsequent
to the introduction of a flexi-time (IV) work schedule.
In real time situations and actual work settings, this proposition might need
to be revised to take into account other impacting variables. This second
independent variable might need to be introduced because it has a significant
contribution on the stated relationship. Thus, we might like to modify the above
statement as follows:
There will be an increase in productivity of each individual worker (DV)
subsequent to the introduction of a flexi-time (IV) work schedule, especially
amongst women employees (MV).
There might be instances when confusion might arise between a moderating
variable and an independent variable.
Consider the following situation:
Turnover intention (DV) is an inverse function of organizational commitment
(IV), especially for workers who have a higher job satisfaction level (MV).
While another study might have the following proposition to test.
Thus, the two propositions are studying the relation between the same three
variables. However the decision to classify one as independent and the other as
moderating depends on the research interest of the decision maker.
An intervening variable (IVV) has a temporal connotation to it. It generally
follows the occurrence of the independent variable and precedes the dependent
variable. Tuckman (1972) defines it as ‘that factor which theoretically affects the
observed phenomena but cannot be seen, measured, or manipulated; its effects
must be inferred from the effects of the independent variable and moderator
variables on the observed phenomenon.’
For example, in the previous case, There is an increase in job satisfaction
(IVV) of each individual worker, subsequent to the introduction of a flexi-time
(IV) work schedule, which eventually affects the Individual’s productivity (DV),
especially amongst women employees (MV). Another example would be, the
introduction of an electronic advertisement for the new diet drink (IV) will result in
increased brand awareness (IVV), which in turn will impact the first quarter sales
(DV).This would be significantly higher amongst the younger female population
(MV).

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Variables Besides the moderating and intervening variables, there might still exist a
number of extraneous variables (EVs) which could affect the defined relationship
but might have been excluded from the study. These would most often account for
the chance variations observed in the research investigation. For example,
NOTES a tyrannical boss; family pressures or nature of the industry could impact the flexi-
time impact, but since these would be applicable to individual cases, they might
not heavily impact the direction of the findings. However, in case the effect is
substantial, the researcher might try to block their effect by using an experimental
and a control group.
At this stage, we can clearly distinguish between the different kinds of
variables discussed above. An independent variable is the prime antecedent
condition which is qualified as explaining the variance in the dependent variable;
the intervening variable follows the occurrence of the independent variable and
may in turn impact the dependent variable; the moderating variable is a contributing
variable which might impact the defined relationship; the extraneous variables are
outside the domain of the study and responsible for chance variations, but in some
instances, their effect might need to be controlled.
Concepts and Operationalization of Concepts
Having identified and defined the variables under study, the next step requires
operationalizing the stated relationship in the form of a theoretical framework. This
is an outcome of the problem audit conducted prior to defining the research problem;
it can be best understood as a schema or network of the probable relationship
between the identified variables. Another advantage of the model is that it clearly
demonstrates the expected direction of the relationships between the concepts.
There is also an indication of whether the relationship would be positive or negative.
This step however is not mandatory as sometimes the objective of the
research is to explore the probable variables that might explain the observed
phenomena (DV) and the outcome of the study helps to theorize and propose a
conceptual model.
The theoretical framework, once formulated, is a powerful driving force
behind the research process and ought to be comprehensively developed. It requires
a thorough understanding of both theory and opinion.
Given below is a predictive model for turnover intentions developed to
explain the high rate of attrition amongst BPO professionals. Once validated, it is
of course possible to test it in different contexts and differing respondent population.
The Turnover Intention Model
The proposed model to predict turnover intention is specified as mentioned below:
TI = f (WE, OC, A, MS, TWE) ...(2.1)
Where, TI = Turnover intention

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 OC = Organizational commitment Variables

A = Age
MS = Marital status
TWE = Total work experience NOTES
The theoretical construct of work exhaustion is influenced by Perceived
Workload (PWL), Fairness of Reward (FOR), Job Autonomy (JA) and Work
Family Conflict (WFC) [Adapted from Ahuja, Chudoba and Kacman, 2007] .
This can be mathematically written as:
WE = f (PWL, FOR, JA, WFC) ...(2.2)
Similarly, Organizational Commitment depends upon Job Autonomy,
Work–Family Conflict, Fairness of Reward and Work Exhaustion (WE)[Adapted
from—Ahuja, Chudoba and Kacman, 2007]. Therefore, this can be stated
mathematically as:
OC = f (JA, WFC, FOR, WE) ...(2.3)
The model is diagrammatically represented in Figure 2.1.

Fig. 2.1 Proposed Model for Turnover Intention

The formulated framework has been explained verbally as a verbal model.

The flowchart of the relationship between independent and intervening variables
has been demonstrated in graphical form as a graphical model and the same have
been also reduced to three mathematical equations specifying the relationship
between the same in the form of a mathematical model. What needs to be understood
is that all three compliment each other and are basically representatives of the
same framework.
Statement of research objectives
Next, the research question(s) that were formulated need to be broken down and
spelt out as tasks or objectives that need to be met in order to answer the research
question.
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Variables Based on the framework of the study, the researcher has to numerically list
the thrust areas of research. This section makes active use of verbs such as ‘to find
out’, ‘to determine’, ‘to establish’, and ‘to measure’ so as to spell out the objectives
of the study. In certain cases, the main objectives of the study might need to be
NOTES broken down into sub-objectives which clearly state the tasks to be accomplished.
In the organic food research, the objectives and sub-objectives of the study
were as follows:
1. To study the existing organic market: This would involve:
 To categorize the organic products available in Delhi into grain, snacks,
herbs, pickles, squashes and fruits and vegetables;
 To estimate the demand pattern of various products for each of the
above categories;
 To understand the marketing strategies adopted by different players for
promoting and propagating organic products.
2. Consumer diagnostic research: This would entail:
 To study the existing consumer profile, i.e., perception and attitudes
towards organic products and purchase and consumption patterns.
 To study the potential customers in terms of consumer segments, level
of awareness, perception and attitude towards health and organic
products.
3. Opinion survey: To assess the awareness and opinions of experts such as
doctors, dieticians and chefs in order to understand organic consumption
and propagation;
4. Retail market: This would involve:
 To find the gap between demand and supply for existing retailers;
 To forecast demand estimates by considering the existing as well as
potential retailers.

Check Your Progress

5. What does independent and dependent variables mean?
6. What role does theoretical framework play in the research process?

2.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. A variable is any feature or aspect of an event, function or process that,

with its presence and nature, affects some other event or process which is

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 being studied. According to Kerlinger, ‘variable is a property that takes on Variables

different value’.
2. Dependent variables represent characteristics that alter, appear or vanish
as a consequence of introduction, change or removal of independent
NOTES
variables. The dependent variable may be a test score or achievement of a
student in a test, the number of errors or measured speed in performing a
task.
3. Intervening variables are termed as hypothetical variables which are used
to explain casual links between other variables. Certain variables that cannot
be controlled or measured directly may have an important effect on the
outcome. These modifying variables intervene between the cause and the
effect.
4. Moderator is a special type of independent variable. It is a third variable
that affects the direction or strength of relationship between the independent
and dependent variable by changing the effect of the main variables. It may
be qualitative or quantitative.
5. Any variable that can be stated as influencing or impacting the dependent
variable is referred to as an independent variable (IV). More often than not,
the task of the research study is to establish the causality of the relationship
between the independent and the dependent variable(s).
6. The theoretical framework is a powerful driving force behind the research
process and ought to be comprehensively developed. It requires a thorough
understanding of both theory and opinion.

2.6 SUMMARY

 A variable is any feature or aspect of an event, function or process that,

with its presence and nature, affects some other event or process which is
being studied. According to Kerlinger, ‘variable is a property that takes on
different value’.
 Treatment variables are the variables which can be manipulated by the
researcher and to which he assigns subjects.
 Organism or attribute variables are factors such as age, sex, race, religion
etc., which cannot be manipulated.
 Dependent variables represent characteristics that alter, appear or vanish
as a consequence of introduction, change or removal of independent
variables. The dependent variable may be a test score or achievement of a
student in a test, the number of errors or measured speed in performing a
task.

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Variables  A confounding variable is one which is not the subject of the study but is
statistically related with the independent variable. Hence, changes in the
confounding variable track the changes in the independent variable.
 There are ways by which the extraneous variables may be controlled to
NOTES
ensure that they do not become confounding variables. All people-related
variables can be controlled through the process of random assignment which
will most likely ensure that the subjects will be equally intelligent, outgoing,
committed, etc.
 Intervening variables are hypothetical variables used to explain casual links
between other variables. In many types of behavioural research, the
relationship between independent and dependent variables is not a simple
one of stimulus to response. Certain variables that cannot be controlled or
measured directly may have an important effect on the outcome.
 Extraneous variables are not the subject of an experiment but may have an
impact on the results. Hence, extraneous variables are uncontrolled and
could significantly influence the results of a study.
 Discrete variable is one that does not take on all values within the limits of
the variable.
 Quantitative variable is any variable that can be measured numerically or on
a quantitative scale, at an ordinal, interval or ratio scale.
 Qualitative variables are also known as categorical variables. These variables
vary with no natural sense of ordering. They are therefore measured on the
quality or characteristic.
 Moderator variable is a third variable that affects the direction or strength
of relationship between the independent and dependent variable by changing
the effect of the main variables.
 The most important variable to be studied and analysed in research study is
the dependent variable (DV). The entire research process is involved in
either describing this variable or investigating the probable causes of the
observed effect.
 Any variable that can be stated as influencing or impacting the dependent
variable is referred to as an independent variable (IV). More often than not,
the task of the research study is to establish the causality of the relationship
between the independent and the dependent variable(s). The proposed
relations are then tested through various research designs.
 Moderating variables are the ones that have a strong contingent effect on
the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. These
variables have to be considered in the expected pattern of relationship as
they modify the direction as well as the magnitude of the independent–
dependent association.

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  In the organic food research, the objectives and sub-objectives of the study Variables

are to study the existing organic market, to conduct consumer diagnostic

research, to assess the awareness and opinions of experts and to find the
gap between demand and supply for existing retailers.
NOTES
2.7 KEY WORDS

 Independent Variable: It refers to a variable that is manipulated to

determine the value of a dependent variable.
 Extraneous Variables: It refers to the variables that you are not intentionally
studying in your experiment or test. The undesirable variables are called
extraneous variables.
 Opinion Survey: It refers to as a poll or a survey which is a human research
survey from a particular sample.
 Turnover Intention: It refers to a measurement of whether a business’ or
organization’s employees plan to leave their positions or whether that
organization plans to remove employees from positions.

2.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. What are the two types of independent variables?
2. How does a confounding variable affect the test result of an experiment?
3. What is an extraneous variable?
4. What does it mean for variables to be operationalized?
Long Answer Questions
1. Discuss the types of variables.
2. How do you control a confounding variable? Explain.
3. What are some types of extraneous variables? Discuss.

2.9 FURTHER READINGS

Best, J.W. and J.V. Kahn. 1989. Research in Education. New Delhi: Prentice
Hall.
Buch, M. B. 1974. A Survey of Research in Education. Baroda: CASE, M. S.
University.

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Variables Fox, D. J. 1969. The Research Process in Education. New York: Rhinehart and
Winston, Inc.
Garrett. H. E. 1988. Statistics in Psychology and Education. Bombay: Vikils,
Feiffer & Semen’s Ltd.
NOTES
Guilford, J. P. and B. Fruchter. 1974. Fundamental Statistics in Psychology &
Education. New York: McGraw Hill.

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 Hypothesis

UNIT 3 HYPOTHESIS
Structure NOTES
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Concept of Hypothesis
3.3 Sources of Hypothesis
3.4 Types of Hypothesis
3.4.1 Directional Research Hypothesis
3.4.2 Non-Directional Research Hypothesis
3.4.3 Question From Hypothesis
3.4.4 Null Hypothesis
3.4.5 Alternative Hypothesis
3.5 Formulating Hypothesis
3.6 Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis
3.7 Hypothesis Testing and Theory and Errors in Testing of Hypothesis
3.7.1 Procedure for Hypothesis Testing
3.7.2 Committing Errors: Type I and Type II
3.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
3.9 Summary
3.10 Key Words
3.11 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
3.12 Further Readings

3.0 INTRODUCTION

Research takes advantage of the knowledge which has accumulated in the past as
a result of constant human endeavour. It can never be undertaken in isolation of
the work that has already been done on the problems which are directly or indirectly
related to a study proposed by a researcher. A careful review of the research
journal, books, dissertations, theses and other sources of informations on the
problem to be investigated is one of the important steps in the planning of any
research study. A review of the related literature must precede any well planned
research study.
Hypothesis is an assumption or proposition whose testability is to be tested
on the basis of the compatibility of its implications with empirical evidence with
previous knowledge (Mouly, 1963). It is also a declarative statement in which the
investigator makes a prediction or a conjecture about the outcome of the
relationship. The conjecture or the prediction is not simply an ‘educated guess’;
rather it is typically based on past researches, which investigators gather as evidence
to advance the hypothesized relationship between variables.
In this unit, you will also learn about the concept of hypothesis testing. For
this, a hypothesis needs to be appropriate. Testing a hypothesis means verification
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Hypothesis of the hypothesis. This unit will describe the application of hypothesis testing in a
variety of cases, such as comparing two related terms and testing equality of
variance of two normal populations. A number of hypothesis tests, such as t-test
and z-test, facilitate the process of hypothesis testing. The unit will also describe
NOTES the statistical techniques dealing with hypothesis testing.

3.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Explain the concept of hypothesis
 Describe the procedure of hypothesis testing
 Describe the various types of hypothesis testing
 Discuss the statistical techniques involved in hypothesis testing
 Analyse the errors in testing of hypothesis

3.2 CONCEPT OF HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis testing means to determine whether or not the hypothesis is appropriate.

This involves either accepting or rejecting a null hypothesis. The researcher has to
pursue certain activities contained in the procedure of hypothesis.
In the formulation of hypothesis, the investigator looks for the statements
where he/she relates one or more variables to make predictions about the
relationships. The hypothesis tells the researcher what to do and why to do it in
the context of the problem.
For example, the researcher is interested to study a problem, ‘Why does a
gifted child become a poor achiever in school’? The researcher then moves towards
finding out the causes and factors that have been responsible for his/her poor
achievement. He/She makes a conjecture that he/she might be suffering from some
disease at the time of the examination. Conjecture is in the form of a hypothesis,
and this now determines what the researcher should do to verify whether it is a
fact or not. He/She shall go to the student’s home, meet his/her parents and enquire
about the student’s health. All that the investigator is doing is guided by the
hypothesis he/she had developed.
Thus, hypothesis refers to a conjecture statement about the solution to a
problem, which the researcher goes on to verify on the basis of the relevant
information collected by him/her. It is said to be a hunch, shrewd guess or
supposition about what the answer to a problem may be. It is a statement which is
tested in terms of the relationship or prediction, etc., which after testing is either
accepted or rejected.

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 A hypothesis relates theory to observation and vice-versa. Hypotheses when Hypothesis

tested are either rejected or accepted, and help to infer the conclusion, which
helps in theory building. Being a specific statement of prediction, a hypothesis
describes in concrete (rather than theoretical) terms what you expect will happen
in your study. Not all studies have hypotheses. Sometimes a study is designed to NOTES
be exploratory. In such researches, no formal hypothesis is established, and it may
be the case that the actual objective of the study is to explore one or more specific
areas more thoroughly in order to develop specific hypotheses or predictions that
could be tested through research in the future. A single study could result in one or
several hypotheses.
Some definitions of hypothesis are:
 According to Townsend, ‘Hypothesis is defined as suggested answer
to a problem’.
 According to McGuigan, ‘A hypothesis is a testable statement of a
potential relationship between two or more variables’.
 According to Uma Sekaran, ‘A hypothesis is defined as a logically
conjectured relationship between two or more variables in the form
of testable statement. These relationships are based on theoretical
framework formulated for the research problem. The hypotheses
are often statements about population parameters like expected
value and variance, for example a hypothesis might be that the
expected value of the height of 10-year-old boys in the Scottish
population is not different from that of 10-year-old girls.’
 According to Kerlinger, ‘A good hypothesis is one which satisfies
the following criteria:
(i) Hypothesis should state the relationship between variables.
(ii) They must carry clear implications for testing the stated
relations.’
This means that (a) statements contain two or more variables which can be
measured, (b) they must state clearly how the two or more variables are related,
and (c) it is important to note that facts and variables are not tested but relations
between variables exist.

3.3 SOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS

Since the mind is fed by innumerable streams and sources, it is difficult to pinpoint
how a particular good idea came to the researcher. The following are some of the
popularly known sources of research hypothesis:
 Scientific theories: A systematic review and analysis of theories developed
in the field of psychology, sociology, economics, political science and

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Hypothesis biological science may provide the researcher with potential clues for
constructing a good and testable hypothesis.
 Expert opinions: Discussion with the experts in the field of research may
further help the researcher obtain necessary insight and skill into the problem
NOTES
and in formulation of a hypothesis.
 Method of related difference: When we find that two phenomena differ
constantly and the other circumstances remaining the same, we suspect a
causal connection. For example, when we find more uncontrolled traffic in
a locality, resulting in a greater number of road accidents, we suspect a
causal connection between uncontrolled traffic and road accidents. This
method also suggested a hypothesis.
 Intellectual equipment of researcher: Intellectual abilities of a researcher
like creative thinking and problem solving techniques are very helpful in the
formulation of a good hypothesis.
 Related literature: Related literature is the most important source of
hypothesis formulation. A review of this literature may reveal to the researcher
the variables that have been considered important in relation to his/her
problem, which aspects have already been studied and which still remain to
be studied, which theories have supported the relationships and which
theories present a contradictory relationship. Familiarity with related literature
may give the researcher a tremendous advantage in the construction of
hypothesis.
 Experience: One’s own experience may be a rich source of hypothesis
generation. Personal experiences of an individual which has been gained
through reading of biographies, autobiographies, newspaper readings or
through informal talks among friends, etc., can be a potential source of
generation of a hypothesis. For example, a researcher who is working on
the effectiveness of guidance in teaching, can think of factors such as the
teacher’s polite behaviour, techniques of counselling, mastery over the
subject, effective use of teaching skills, decision-making capability, perception
of his/her competence, perception of student’s capacity for better interaction,
use of communication skills, etc.
 Analogies: Several hypotheses in a branch of knowledge may be made by
using analogies from other sciences. Models and theories developed in a
discipline may help, through extrapolation, in the formulation of hypothesis
in another discipline. By comparing the two situations, analysing their
similarities and differences, some rationale may emerge in the mind of the
researcher which may take the form of a hypothesis for testing. For example,
in a research problem like the studying the factors of unrest among college
level students, the researcher insightfully thinks: ‘Why was unrest found
among school students? and What has changed them: quality of teaching or
quality of leadership?’
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 Arguing analogically in this way may lead the investigator to some conclusions Hypothesis

which may be used for identifying variables and relationships, which form
the basis of hypothesis construction. If a researcher knows from previous
experience that the old situation is related to other factors Y and Z as well
as to X, he/she may reason out that the new situation may also be related to NOTES
Y and Z.
 Methods of residues: When the greater part of a complex phenomenon
is explained by some causes already known, we try to explain the residual
part of phenomenon according to the known law of operation. It also
provides possible hypothesis.
 Induction by simple enumeration: Sometimes scientists take common
experience as a starting point of their investigation. For example, after
observing a large number of scarlet flowers that are devoid of fragrance,
we frame a hypothesis that all scarlet flowers are devoid of fragrance. Thus
induction by simple enumeration is a source of discovery.
 Formulation of hypothesis: It may also originate from the need and
practice of present times.
 Existing empirical uniformities: In terms of common sense proposition,
the existing empirical uniformities may form the basis for scientific examination.
 A study of general culture: It is also a good source of hypothesis.
 Suggestions: When given by other researchers in their reports, suggestions
are quite helpful in establishment of hypothesis for future studies.

Check Your Progress

1. What does hypothesis testing mean?
2. What according to Kerlinger is a good hypothesis?
3. What is considered as the most important source of hypothesis formulation?

3.4 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

Research hypothesis is a tentative or possible solution to a research problem which

is tested on the basis of research. Once the hypothesis is proved it becomes a fact.
3.4.1 Directional Research Hypothesis
Directional hypothesis statistically known as a one tailed hypothesis. It is an
alternative hypothesis in which the researcher predicted the direction of the
difference. The hypothesis which specifies the direction of the expected differences
is called directional hypothesis.

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Hypothesis Example: “There is a positive relationship between socio-economic status
and scholastic achievement.” This hypothesis stipulates that if socio-economic
status of students is high, scholastic achievement will also be high.

NOTES 3.4.2 Non-Directional Research Hypothesis

Non-directional hypothesis statistically known as two-tailed hypothesis. It is an
alternative hypothesis in which the researcher predicts that the groups being
compared differ but does not predict the direction of the difference. In other words,
the researcher expects to find difference between the groups but he is not sure
what difference will be. This does not specify the direction of relationship between
two variables. Example: “Girls of different IQs differ in anxiety level.”
This hypothesis does not stipulate that high anxiety level is found in intelligent
girls, average girls or dullers. Thus direction of difference is not specified here.
3.4.3 Question From Hypothesis
This type of hypothesis are used in simple research work. The hypothesis is
presented in the form of question therefore this hypothesis is known as hypothesis
of doubt. The hypothesis is written in the form of question example- “do the
parents not sent their children to school due to poorness? Researcher is using
survey method to know the reasons why the children are not going to school.
3.4.4 Null Hypothesis
A statistical hypothesis stated with a view to testing its validity is in fact a null
hypothesis and is known as such. It is always the null hypothesis, denoted as H0,
that is tested on the basis of sample information.
As the sample information may or may not be found consistent with the
stated hypothesis, it is important to note the following:
(a) If the information is found inconsistent with H0, the null hypothesis is
rejected and we conclude that it is false. On the contrary, if the sample
information is found consistent with H0, it is accepted even though we
do not conclude that it is true.
(b) The reason for accepting H0 and yet not concluding that it is true, is
that the sample information that justifies acceptance of H0 is not
sufficient to conclude that it is indeed true. When sample information
supports H0, it can at best be considered adequate to conclude that
H0 is not false.
The interpretation in (b) above has a direct bearing on how the null hypothesis
is to be stated. This requires that the hypothesis is stated with a view to rejecting
it. For, in the event of the sample information being inconsistent with the stated
hypothesis, it is safer to conclude that the hypothesis is false and be rejected. This
precisely is the reason why the hypothesis to be tested is called the null hypothesis.
And, it is in this sense that testing essentially means testing a null hypothesis, which
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54 Material
3.4.5 Alternative Hypothesis Hypothesis

Rejection of H0 implies that it is rejected in favour of some other hypothesis being

accepted. A hypothesis that comes to be accepted at the cost of H0 is called the
alternative hypothesis. Denoted as H1 it may be stated in different ways depending NOTES
on the nature of the problem statement.
If the hypothesis to be tested relates to any parameter  whose value is
predetermined or otherwise specified as, say,   60 units, the null hypothesis is
stated as
H0 :   60 units.
The form in which H1 is to be stated depends on our what the present value
of  is expected to be.
The alternative hypothesis H1 may thus be stated in keeping with either of
the following two situations:
1. In a problem situation where our interest is limited to knowing whether
the value of  is the same as before or has changed, the alternative
hypothesis is stated as
H1:   60 units.
The value of   60 units in H0 known as the hypothesised value. It is
denoted as 0, so that H0 may be stated as
H0 :   0
and the alternative hypothesis as
H1 :   0,
where 0 = 60 units.
2. In the same or a different problem situation, our interest may be to
know if the value of  has increased or decreased compared to the
hypothesised value 0. Where  is expected to have increased, the
null hypothesis
H0 :  = 0
is tested against the alternative hypothesis
H1 :  > 0.
On the contrary, where  is expected to have decreased the null
hypothesis H0 is tested against the alternative hypothesis
H1 :  < 0.
Thus, in effect, there are three different ways of stating H1. In each case,
statistical testing means testing H0 against H1. It essentially involves a two-choice
testing in as much as it results either in the rejection of H0 in favour of H1, or in the
acceptance of H0 against H1.

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Hypothesis The various points that emerge from the above discussion may thus be
summarised and restated as follows:
 A statistical hypothesis, often called a null hypothesis H0, is tested against
an alternative hypothesis H1. The latter can be stated in different ways
NOTES
depending on the problem situation as to what the parameter is expected
to be at a given point of time.
 A statistical hypothesis is stated with reference to a population parameter,
never in relation to the corresponding sample statistic. The appropriate
sample statistic serves merely as a means, by providing a point estimate,
to decide whether a statistical hypothesis is to be rejected or accepted.
 A statistical hypothesis is always stated in the present tense in a manner
that some general state of affairs currently exists. Use of future tense in
stating a hypothesis is not admissible, as in that case the null hypothesis
will involve a future state of affairs about something that may not exist.

3.5 FORMULATING HYPOTHESIS

The reasons for formulating a hypothesis are as follows:

(i) A hypothesis directs, monitors and controls the research efforts. It provides
tentative explanations of facts and phenomena and can be tested and
validated. Such explanations, if held valid, lead to generalizations, which
help significantly inunderstanding a problem. They thereby extend the existing
knowledge in the area to which they pertain and thus help in theory building
and facilitate the extension of knowledge in an area.
(ii) The hypothesis not only indicates what to look for in an investigation but
also how to select a sample, choose the design of research, how to collect
data and how to interpret the results to draw valid conclusions.
(iii) The hypothesis orients the researcher to be more sensitive to certain relevant
aspects of the problem so as to focus on specific issues and pertinent facts.
It helps the researcher to delimit his/her study in scope so that it does not
become broad and unwieldy.
(iv) The hypothesis provides the researcher with rational statements, consisting
of elements expressed in a logical order of relationships, which seek to
describe or to explain conditions or events that have not yet been confirmed
by facts. Some relationships between elements or variables in hypotheses
are known facts, and others transcend the known facts to give reasonable
explanations for known conditions. The hypothesis helps the researcher
relate logically known facts to intelligent guesses about unknown conditions
(Ary, et al., 1972, pp. 73–74).
(v) Hypothesis formulation and its testing add a scientific rigour to all type of
researches. A well thought set of hypothesis places a clear and specific goal
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 before the researcher and equips him/her with understanding. It provides Hypothesis

the basis for reporting the conclusions of the study on the basis of these
conclusions. The researcher can make the research report interesting and
meaningful to the reader. The importance of a hypothesis is generally
recognized more in the studies which aim to make predictions about some NOTES
outcome. In an experimental study, the researcher is interested in making
predictions about the expected outcomes and, hence the hypothesis takes
on a critical role. In the case of historical or descriptive studies, however,
the researcher investigates the history of an event, or life of a man, or seeks
facts in order to determine the status quo of a situation and hence may not
have a basis for making a prediction of the results. In studies of this nature,
where fact finding itself is the objective of the study, a hypothesis may not
be required.
Most historical or descriptive studies involve fact finding as well as the
interpretation of facts in order to draw generalizations. For all such major studies,
a hypothesis is recommended so as to explain observed facts, conditions or
behaviour and to serve as a guide in the research process. If a hypothesis is not
formulated, a researcher may waste time and energy in gathering extensive empirical
data, and then find that he/she cannot state facts clearly and detect relevant
relationships between variables as there is no hypothesis to guide him/her.

Check Your Progress

4. What is a null hypothesis?
5. Why is the formulation and testing of hypothesis important?

3.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD

HYPOTHESIS

A hypothesis is an approximate assumption that a researcher wants to test for its

logical or empirical consequences. It can contain either a suggested explanation
for a phenomenon or a proposal having deductive reasoning to suggest a possible
interrelation between multiple phenomena. A deductive reasoning can be defined
as a type of reasoning that can be derived from previously known facts.
Characteristics of Valid Hypothesis
There are several characteristics of hypothesis, which are as follows:
 Conceptually clear and accurate: The hypothesis must be conceptually
clear. The concepts and variables should be clearly defined operationally.
The definition should use terms which are commonly accepted and
communication is not hindered. Hypothesis should be clear and accurate so
as to draw a consistent conclusion.
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Hypothesis  Statement of relationship between variables: If a hypothesis is relational,
it should state the relationship between the different variables.
 Testability: A hypothesis should have empirical referents which mean that
it should be testable through the empirical data. Hypothesis involving mystical
NOTES
or supernatural things are impossible to test. For example, the hypothesis
‘education brings all-round development’ is difficult to test because it is not
easy to operationally isolate the other factors that might contribute towards
all-round development. Since a hypothesis predicts the outcome of a study,
it must relate variables that are capable of being measured. The hypothesis
such as ‘there is a positive relationship between the learning style and
academic achievement of 8th grade students’ can be tested since the
variables in the hypothesis are operationally defined, and therefore can be
measured.
 Specific with limited scope: A hypothesis, which is specific with limited
scope, is easily testable than a hypothesis with limitless scope. Therefore, a
researcher should pay more time to do research on such a kind of hypothesis.
 Simplicity: A hypothesis should be stated in the most simple and clear
terms to make it understandable.
 Consistency: A hypothesis should be reliable and consistent with established
and known facts.
 Time limit: A hypothesis should be capable of being tested within a
reasonable time. In other words, the excellence of a hypothesis is judged
by the time taken to collect the data needed for the test.
 Empirical reference: A hypothesis should explain or support all the
sufficient facts needed to understand what the problem is all about.
A few more characteristics of a good hypothesis are as follows:
 It ensures that the sample is readily approachable.
 It maintains a very apparent distinction with what is called theory, law, facts,
assumptions and postulates.
 It should have logical simplicity, a large number of consequences and be
expressed in quantified form.
 It should have equal chances of confirmation and rejection.
 It permits the application of deduction reasoning.
 Tools and data should be easily available and effectively used.
 It should be based on study of previous literature and an existing theory,
and should be verifiable.
As soon as a research question is formulated, it makes the hypothesis
formulation imperative since a hypothesis is a tentative solution or an intelligent
guess about a research question under study. It is an assumption or proposition
whose tenability is to be tested on the basis of its implications with empirical
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evidence and previous knowledge. Modem investigators agree that, whenever Hypothesis

possible, research should proceed from a hypothesis. In the words of Van Dalen
(1973), ‘a hypothesis serves as a powerful beacon that lights the way for the
research worker’.
NOTES
3.7 HYPOTHESIS TESTING AND THEORY AND
ERRORS IN TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS
A claim or hypothesis about the values or population parameters is known as the
Null Hypothesis and is written as H0. In the case of the above discussed situation,
our assumption that a butler is innocent would form the null hypothesis and would be
stated as follows:
H0 = The butler is innocent
This hypothesis is then tested with the available evidence and the decision is
made whether to accept this hypothesis or reject it. If this hypothesis is rejected,
then we accept the alternate hypothesis which is that the butler is not innocent.
This alternate hypothesis is denoted as H1 and is stated as:
H1 = The butler is not innocent
The process involves testing of the null hypothesis. If the null hypothesis is
rejected, then the alternate hypothesis is accepted. It should be noted that the
acceptance of the alternate hypothesis does not mean that it is correct. It simply
means that there is not enough evidence to be reasonably sure that the null hypothesis
is acceptable.
As already explained, there are two types of errors that can be used in
making decisions regarding accepting or rejecting the null hypothesis. The first
type of error, known as Type I error is used when the null hypothesis is rejected
even if it is true. The second type of error, known as Type II error is used when a
null hypothesis is accepted even if it was not true and should have been rejected.
In statistical hypothesis testing and decision-making about the values of
population parameters as defined by the sample statistics, the null hypothesis asserts
that there is no true difference between the sample statistics and the corresponding
population parameter under consideration and if indeed there is any visible
difference, it is considered to be due to natural fluctuations in sampling.
To conclude we say that,
 Null Hypothesis H0– An assertion about the population parameter that
is being tested by the sample results.
 Alternate Hypothesis H1 – A claim about the population parameter
that is accepted when the null hypothesis is rejected.
 Type I Error – An error made in rejecting the null hypothesis, when in fact
it is true.

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Hypothesis  Type II Error – An error made in accepting the null hypothesis, when in
fact it is false.
Type I error is denoted by  (Alpha) and is expressed as a probability of
rejecting a true hypothesis. It is also known as the level of significance. 1 – 
NOTES
expresses the level of confidence. For example,  = 0.05 means that the confidence
level is 95% or 0.95.
Type II error is denoted by  (Beta) and is expressed as the probability of
accepting a false hypothesis. It is desirable to have the  value as low as possible
for its value reflects the power of the test being performed and a low  value
indicates that the test of significance is powerful and reliable.
3.7.1 Procedure for Hypothesis Testing
The general procedure for hypothesis testing consists of the following steps:
1. State the Null Hypothesis as well as the Alternate Hypothesis. This
means stating the assumed value of the population parameter which is to
be tested. For example, suppose that we want to test the hypothesis that
the average IQ of our college students is 130. Then this would become our
null hypothesis and the alternate hypothesis would be that this average IQ
is not 130. These statements are expressed as follows:
H0 :  = 130
H1 :   130
2. Establish a Level of Significance Prior to Sampling. The level of
significance signifies the probability of committing Type I error  and is
generally taken as equal to 0.05, which really means that after the hypothesis
has been tested and a decision is made, we will still be making an error
in rejecting the null hypothesis when in fact it is true, 5% of the time.
Sometimes the value  is established as 0.01, but it is at the discretion of
the investigator to select its value, depending upon the sensitivity of the
study.
3. Determine a Suitable Test Statistic. This means the choice of appropriate
probability distribution to use with the particular available information under
consideration. The normal distribution using the Z score table or the
t-distribution is most often used.
4. Define the Rejection (Critical) Regions. The critical region will be
established on the basis of the choice of the value of the level of significance
. For example, if we select the value of  = 0.05, and we use the
standard normal distribution as our test statistic for testing the population
parameter , then as we have discussed before, the difference between the
assumption of null hypothesis, assumed value of this population parameter
and the value obtained by the analysis of sample results is not expected to

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 Hypothesis
be more than ± 1.96  X at  = 0.05. This relationship can be shown in
Figure 3.1.

NOTES

Fig. 3.1 Rejection or Critical Regions

In the above figure, if the sample X statistic falls within 1.96  X of the
assumed value of  under the assumption of null hypothesis H0, then we
accept the null hypothesis as being correct at 95% confidence level (or
0.05 level of significance). The difference between X and  which may be
any value between X1 and  or X2 and  is considered to be accidental
or due to chance element and is not considered significant enough or real
enough to reject null hypothesis, so that for all practical purposes the value
of X is considered equal to  even though X can have any value between
X1 and X2 as shown above. However, if the value of X falls beyond X2
on the upper side or beyond X1 on the lower side, then this difference
between the values of X and  would be considered significant and it will
lead to rejection of null hypothesis. Since 5% of the time, this difference
between the values of X and  would be significant with 2.5% of the time
X being too far above  (beyond X2) and 2.5% of the time being too far
below  (below X1), the area of rejection will be on both sides of the
mean extending into the tail sections of the curve. This area of rejection is
known as the critical region.
5. Data Collection and Sample Analysis. This involves the actual collection
and computation of the sample data. A sample of the pre-established size
n is collected and the estimate of the population parameter is calculated.
This estimate is the value of the test statistic. For example, if we are testing
a hypothesis about the value of population mean , then the test statistic
would be the sample mean X . Then we test this statistic to check whether
it falls in the critical region or in the acceptance region. For example, if we
want to test for the average IQ of the college students to be 130, then in
that case we have to see that our population mean  must be tested. We
take a random sample of a given size n and calculate its mean X and then
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Hypothesis
test it to see if the value of this X falls in the area of acceptance or in the
area of rejection at a given level of significance.
6. Making the Decision. Before the statistical decision is made, a decision
NOTES rule must be established. Such decision rule will form the basis on which
the null hypothesis will be accepted or rejected. This decision rule is really
a formal statement of the obvious purpose of the test. For example, this
rule could be stated as follows,
Accept the null hypothesis if the value of sample statistic X falls
within the area of acceptance, otherwise reject the null hypothesis.
Based upon this established decision rule, a decision can be made whether
to accept or reject the null hypothesis.
3.7.2 Committing Errors: Type I and Type II
 Types of Errors: There are two types of errors in statistical hypothesis,
which are as follows:
o Type I Error: In this type of error, you may reject a null hypothesis
when it is true. It means rejection of a hypothesis, which should have
been accepted. It is denoted by  (alpha), and is also known alpha
error.
o Type II Error: In this type of error, you are supposed to accept a null
hypothesis when it is not true. It means accepting a hypothesis, which
should have been rejected. It is denoted by  (beta), and is also known
as beta error.
Type I error can be controlled by fixing it at a lower level, for example, If
you fix it at 2%, then the maximum probability to commit Type I error is 0.02. But
reducing Type I error, has a disadvantage when the sample size is fixed as it
increases the chances of Type II error. In other words, it can be said that both
types of errors cannot be reduced simultaneously. The only solution of this problem
is to set an appropriate level by considering the costs and penalties attached to
them or to strike a proper balance between both types of errors.
In a hypothesis test, a Type I error occurs when the null hypothesis is rejected
when it is in fact true; that is, H0 is wrongly rejected. For example, in a clinical trial
of a new drug, the null hypothesis might be that the new drug is no better, on
average, than the current drug; that is H0: there is no difference between the two
drugs on average. A Type I error would occur if we concluded that the two drugs
produced different effects when in fact there was no difference between them.
In a hypothesis test, a Type II error occurs when the null hypothesis H0, is
not rejected when it is in fact false. For example, in a clinical trial of a new drug,
the null hypothesis might be that the new drug is no better, on average, than the
current drug; that is H0: there is no difference between the two drugs on average.
A Type II error would occur if it were concluded that the two drugs produced the
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same effect, that is, there is no difference between the two drugs on average, Hypothesis

when in fact, they produced different ones.

In how many ways can we commit errors?
 We reject a hypothesis when it may be true. This is Type I Error. NOTES
 We accept a hypothesis when it may be false. This is Type II Error.
The other true situations are desirable:
We accept a hypothesis when it is true. We reject a hypothesis when it is false.

Accept H0 Reject H0

H0 Accept True H0 Reject True H0

Desirable Type I Error
True

H1 Accept False H0 Reject False H0

Type II Error Desirable
False

The level of significance implies the probability of Type I error. A five per cent level
implies that the probability of committing a Type I error is 0.05. A one per cent level
implies 0.01 probability of committing Type I error.
Lowering the significance level and hence the probability of Type I error is
good but unfortunately it would lead to the undesirable situation of committing
Type II error.
To sum up:
 Type I Error: Rejecting H0 when H0 is true.
 Type II Error: Accepting H0 when H0 is false.
Note: The probability of making a Type I error is the level of significance of a statistical test.
It is denoted by .
The probability of making a Type II error is denoted by .

Check Your Progress

6. What is a deductive reasoning?
7. What is the difference between type I and type II errors?

3.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. Hypothesis testing means to determine whether or not the hypothesis is

appropriate. This involves either accepting or rejecting a null hypothesis.
The researcher has to pursue certain activities contained in the procedure
of hypothesis.
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Hypothesis 2. According to Kerlinger, ‘A good hypothesis is one which satisfies the
following criteria:
(i) Hypothesis should state the relationship between variables.
NOTES (ii) They must carry clear implications for testing the stated relations.’
3. Related literature is considered as the most important source of hypothesis
formulation.
4. A null hypothesis is a statistical hypothesis states that there is no statistical
relationship and significance exists in a set of given observed variable. The
null hypothesis is denoted as H0, that is tested on the basis of sample
information.
5. A hypothesis is used in an experiment to define the relationship between
two variables. However, the formulation and testing of hypothesis add a
scientific rigour to all type of researches. A well-thought set of hypothesis
places a clear and specific goal before the researcher and equips him/her
with understanding.
6. A deductive reasoning can be defined as a type of reasoning that can be
derived from previously known facts.
7. Type I error is an error made in rejecting the null hypothesis, when in fact it
is true. Type II error is made in accepting the null hypothesis, when in fact it
is false. Type I error is denoted by  (alpha) and is expressed as a probability
of rejecting a true hypothesis. However, Type II error is denoted by
 (beta) and is expressed as the probability of accepting a false hypothesis.

3.9 SUMMARY

 Hypothesis testing means to determine whether or not the hypothesis is

appropriate. This involves either accepting or rejecting a null hypothesis.
The researcher has to pursue certain activities contained in the procedure
of hypothesis.
 A hypothesis relates theory to observation and vice-versa. Hypotheses when
tested are either rejected or accepted and help to infer the conclusion, which
helps in theory building. Being a specific statement of prediction, a hypothesis
describes in concrete (rather than theoretical) terms what you expect will
happen in your study. Not all studies have hypotheses.
 There are are some of the popularly known sources of research hypothesis
like scientific theories, expert opinions, method of related difference,
intellectual equipment of researcher, related literature, personal experience,
analogies, methods of residues, induction by simple enumeration, formulation
of hypothesis etc.

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 A statistical hypothesis stated with a view to testing its validity is in fact a null Hypothesis

hypothesis and is known as such. It is always the null hypothesis, denoted

as H0, that is tested on the basis of sample information.
 Rejection of H0 implies that it is rejected in favour of some other hypothesis
NOTES
being accepted. A hypothesis that comes to be accepted at the cost of H0 is
called the alternative hypothesis. Denoted as H1 it may be stated in different
ways depending on the nature of the problem statement.
 A hypothesis directs, monitors and controls the research efforts. It provides
tentative explanations of facts and phenomena and can be tested and
validated.
 The hypothesis provides the researcher with rational statements, consisting
of elements expressed in a logical order of relationships, which seek to
describe or to explain conditions or events that have not yet been confirmed
by facts.
 Hypothesis formulation and its testing add a scientific rigour to all type of
researches. A well thought set of hypothesis places a clear and specific goal
before the researcher and equips him/her with understanding.
 Some of the characteristics of hypothesis include conceptually clear and
accurate, specific with limited scope, empirical reference, reliable and
consistent etc.
 Directional hypothesis statistically known as a one tailed hypothesis. It is an
alternative hypothesis in which the researcher predicted the direction of the
difference. The hypothesis which specifies the direction of the expected
differences is called directional hypothesis.
 Non-directional hypothesis statistically known as two-tailed hypothesis. It
is an alternative hypothesis in which the researcher predicts that the groups
being compared differ but does not predict the direction of the difference.
 Question form hypothesis is presented in the form of question therefore this
hypothesis is known as hypothesis of doubt.
 In statistical hypothesis testing and decision-making about the values of
population parameters as defined by the sample statistics, the null hypothesis
asserts that there is no true difference between the sample statistics and the
corresponding population parameter under consideration and if indeed there
is any visible difference, it is considered to be due to natural fluctuations in
sampling.
 In Type I error, you may reject a null hypothesis when it is true. It means
rejection of a hypothesis, which should have been accepted. It is denoted
by  (alpha), and is also known alpha error.
 In Type II error you are supposed to accept a null hypothesis when it is not
true. It means accepting a hypothesis, which should have been rejected. It
is denoted by  (beta), and is also known as beta error.
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Hypothesis
3.10 KEY WORDS

 Hypothesis: It is an approximate assumption that a researcher wants to

NOTES test for its logical or empirical consequences and the deductive reasoning
can be defined as a type of reasoning that can be derived from previously
known facts.
 Directional hypothesis: It refers to a prediction made by a researcher
regarding a positive or negative change, relationship, or difference between
two variables of a population.
 Null hypothesis: It states that the population parameter is equal to the
claimed value and is denoted by H0 and is used for comparing statistics with
the help of mean.

3.11 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. Define hypothesis testing.
2. Write a short note on statistical hypothesis.
3. What is directional and non-directional research hypothesis?
4. What is the difference between null and alternative hypothesis?
5. Briefly mention the procedure for hypothesis testing.
Long Answer Questions
1. Discuss the sources of research hypothesis in detail.
2. Analyse the different types of hypothesis.
3. Explain the reasons for formulating a hypothesis.
4. Describe the characteristics of a good hypothesis.

3.12 FURTHER READINGS

Best, J.W. and J.V. Kahn. 1989. Research in Education. New Delhi: Prentice
Hall
Buch, M. B. 1974. A Survey of Research in Education. Baroda: CASE, M. S.
University.
Fox, D. J. 1969. The Research Process in Education. New York: Rhinehart and
Winston, Inc.

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Garrett. H. E. 1988. Statistics in Psychology and Education. Bombay: Vikils, Hypothesis

Feiffer & Semen’s Ltd.

Guilford, J.P. and B. Fruchter. 1974. Fundamental Statistics in Psychology &
Education. New York: McGraw Hill.
NOTES

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Sampling Techniques

UNIT 4 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

NOTES Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Concepts of Universe and Sample
4.3 Concept of Population and Sample
4.4 Need for Sampling
4.5 Characteristics of a Good Sample
4.6 Techniques of Sampling (Probability and Non-probability Sampling
Techniques)
4.6.1 Probability Sampling
4.6.2 Non-Probability Sampling
4.7 Sampling Errors and How to Reduce Them
4.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
4.9 Summary
4.10 Key Words
4.11 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
4.12 Further Readings

4.0 INTRODUCTION

The main aim of research is to discover principles that have universal application.
Generally, research in education includes all such assumptions that are based on a
large number of samples/units/objects. It would be impractical if not impossible to
test or observe each unit of population under controlled conditions in order to
arrive at principles having universal validity. A ‘population’ is any group of
individuals/units that have one or more characteristics in common which are of
interest to the researcher, for a particular research. A ‘sample’ is a small percentage
of the larger group who are selected for research. A sample can be statistically
explained as being a subset of a population. The sample will be able to give an
idea of the characteristics of the larger group from where it has been drawn. It is
possible to make deductions about the larger population on the basis of the sample.
For selecting a sample, it is necessary to have a sampling frame. After defining
a population and listing all the units, a researcher selects a sample of units from the
sampling frame. Sampling design refers to a definite plan for obtaining a sample
from the sampling frame. It refers to the technique or procedure, which a researcher
adopts in selecting some sampling units from where inferences about population
are drawn. An error in statistics is the difference between the value of a statistic
and that of the corresponding parameter. These errors arise due to chance differences
between the members of population included in the sample and those not included.
This unit discusses the concept of population and sample, methods of sampling,
sampling design, sampling distribution and sampling errors.
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 Sampling Techniques
4.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the terms ‘population’ and ‘sample’ NOTES
 Validate the need for selecting a sample
 Discuss the probability and non-probability sampling techniques
 Explain the characteristics of a good sample
 Describe the different types of sampling
 Specify the steps involved in sampling
 Assess the concept of sampling error and identify the ways to reduce them

4.2 CONCEPTS OF UNIVERSE AND SAMPLE

There are two important techniques of data collection namely – Census/universe

technique and sample technique. In statistics a universe/census refers to a population
that comprises all units or the informants of the data whether animate or inanimate,
relating to a problem under study. The word universe is used in statistics denotes
the aggregate from which the sample is to be taken. for example if in the year
2017 there are 50000 students in Delhi university and a sample of 5000 students
is taken to study their performance in sports, then 50000 constitutes the universe
and 5000 is sample size. It should be also noted that the universe may not necessarily
comprise persons. It may consist of any object or things.
This method of data collection is also known as complete enumeration
technique or 100 percent enumeration technique. Under the census or complete
enumeration technique each and every item or unit constituting the universe is
selected for data collection. In the other words it is the totality of the phenomenon
under study or aggregate of the objects of a statistical investigation. for example if
we are to study the students attitude towards semester system of a college consisting
3000 students, here the college will be universe and all 3000 students will be the
units or informants. Under this method to collect data investigator will make contact
to all 3000 students. this method is used when the area of research is quite small
and the highly accuracy is required.
Types of Universe: There are the following four types of universe:
 Finite: A finite universe is one in which the number of item /units of information
is definite or determinable, such as number of student in Delhi University or
number of Government school in particular district.
 Infinite: An infinite universe is that in which the number of items/units cannot
be determined. For example stars in the sky, height, weight and age of the
people in a country are the example of infinite universe. If universe is very
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Sampling Techniques large it is also regarded as an infinite universe such as the number of the
leaves on a tree, number of hair on the head of a person.
 Existing Universe: An existing universe is one which already exists with all
its units in the form of concrete objects. The investigator has nothing to do
NOTES
for its creation except its discovery and location. For example a university,
a college, a library.
 Experimental Universe: An experimental universe is one which constituted
through experiment being conducted by an investigator and it is not found
already in existence.
Merits of Universe Method: some of the merits of universe method are:
 Under this technique of data collection the result obtained are likely to be
more representative, accurate and reliable. This is because the
information is collected from each and every unit of the universe.
 It is an appropriate method of obtaining information on rare events such as
area under some crops and yield thereof, the number of persons of certain
age groups their distribution by sex, educational level of people. This is the
reason why throughout the world the population data are obtained by
conducting census generally every 10 years by census method.
 Under this technique of data collection an extensive and detailed study of
the unit is made possible
Demerits of Universe Method: However, despite these advantages the universe
method is not very popularly used in practice. Following are the demerits of universe
method:
 This method is very costly it required a lot of money to collect data.
 This technique of data collection is highly expensive. It requires a lot of
time, manpower, and administrative personnel as well. Therefore this type
of technique cannot affordable by small organisations.
 Since the technique takes a lot of time in collecting the data from each and
every item, it may not possible to meet with an urgent situation by answering
to a problem under study promptly. Moreover, in case of long period,
condition of phenomenon might have radically changed so that the result
obtained from the enquiry may not truly represent the situation
 This technique of data collection cannot be applied where the universe is
infinite of hypothetical. it also cannot applied, where in course of study the
item itself is destroyable.
Advisability: However, this technique of data collection is advisable in the following
cases:
 Where it is necessary to make complete enumeration in detail of the units
constituting a universe like that of census of population.

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  Where it is necessary to have the exact and accurate result and a slight Sampling Techniques

defect in the result is likely to cause loss of life or serious causalities to

people of serious damage to the machineries and equipments
 Where, the size of the universe is considerable small.
NOTES
 Where, the quality of the incoming lot or the unit is very poor of unknown.

4.3 CONCEPT OF POPULATION AND SAMPLE

A ‘population’ is any group of individuals/units that have one or more characteristics

in common which are of interest to the researcher for a particular research. A
population may include all the individuals of a particular type or a more restricted
part of that group, e.g., a group of all the university teachers, or a group of male/
female university teachers, or distance learners enrolled with NIOS, the National
Institute of Open Schooling. For assessing the study habits of adolescent girls in a
city, all the adolescent girls of that city who are studying in schools and colleges,
make up the population for this study.
Usually, the population covers a very large group of people or objects making
an accurate record of all the characteristics in the population are impossible.
Researchers rarely survey the entire population for two reasons—the cost is too
high and the population is dynamic in that the individuals making up the population
may change over time. The population may be classified as real, artificial or
hypothetical. A real population is one which actually exists.
An artificial population is created by the researcher in order to illustrate a
principle or to make for more convenience and ease in carrying out the study of a
problematic situation. Hypothetical population is an artificial population devised
purely on theoretical basis. Population may also be categorized as ‘known’ (the
frequency distribution and the parameters are known) and ‘unknown’ (a population
for which no such estimates—mean, mode, median, etc., are available).
A ‘sample’ is a small percentage of the larger group who are selected for
research. A sample can be statistically explained as being a subset of a population.
The sample will be able to give an idea of the characteristics of the larger group
from where it has been drawn. It is possible to make deductions about the larger
population on the basis of the sample.
For selecting a sample, it is necessary to have a sampling frame. This is a
complete, accurate and up-to-date list of units in the population. After defining a
population and listing all the units, a researcher selects a sample of units from the
sampling frame.
The term ‘sampling’ refers to the technique whereby a smaller group is
selected from a larger one so that the more manageable smaller group can be
observed and those observations can be applied to the larger group as well. This
is only possible when the sample group shares the same characteristics as the
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Sampling Techniques larger group. Results deduced from sampling are particularly useful when inferences
have to be made based on statistics.
Sampling is an important aspect of data collection. It is the selection of a
NOTES certain percentage of a group of items according to predetermined plan. The benefits
of sampling are that the cost is lower, data can be collected faster, and since the
data set is smaller it is possible to monitor the accuracy and quality of the data
closely. The limitations could be less accuracy, changeability of units, and misleading
conclusions.

4.4 NEED FOR SAMPLING

We can define sampling as the process of obtaining information about an entire

population by examining only a part of it. Sampling is required for the following
reasons:
 It saves time and money. A sample study is usually less expensive than a
census study.
 It produces results at a faster speed.
 It enables more accurate measurement for a sample study as it is conducted
by experienced investigators.
 It is the only method for an infinitely large population.
It usually enables a researcher to estimate sampling errors and thus assists
him/her in obtaining information concerning some characteristics of the population,
such as age group or gender.
Advantages of Sampling
The various advantages of sampling are as follows:
 The solution to know the true or actual values of the various parameters of
the population would be to take into account the entire population. This is
not feasible due to the cost and time involved; therefore, sampling seems
more economical.
 As the magnitude of operation involved in a sample survey is small, the
execution of the fieldwork and the analysis of results can be carried out at a
faster rate and in a lesser time.
 Very small staff is required for gathering and analysing information and
preparing reports; therefore, sampling is a very cheap process.
 A researcher can collect detailed information in a lesser time than is possible
in a census survey.

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  As the scale of operation involved in a sample survey is small, the quality of Sampling Techniques

interviewing, supervision and other related activities is better than the census
survey.
 Sampling provides adequate information needed for the purpose and is NOTES
sufficiently reliable for surveys.

Check Your Progress

1. What does the term ‘sample’ mean?
2. Why do we need sampling?

4.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE

Samples can be of different types. The following are the characteristics of a good
sample:
 True representative: A good sample is a true representative of the
population corresponding to its properties.
 Free from bias: A good sample does not permit prejudices, pre-conceptions
and imagination to influence its choice.
 Comprehensive: Comprehensiveness is a quality of a sample which is
controlled by the specific purpose of the investigation. A sample may
be have all the traits required, but still not be a good representative of
population.
 Economical: A sample should be economical from energy, time and money
viewpoint.
 Approachable: A sample should be easily approachable. The research
tools can be easily administered on them.
 Good size: Size of a sample should be such that it yields an accurate result.
The probability of error can be estimated.
 Feasible: A good sample makes the research more feasible.
 Practical: A good sample has the practicability for research situations.
 Objective: This refers to objectivity in selecting a sampling procedure or
absence of subjective elements from situation.
 Accurate: A good sample yields accurate estimates of statistics and does
not allow for errors.

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Sampling Techniques
4.6 TECHNIQUES OF SAMPLING (PROBABILITY
AND NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES)
NOTES
The sampling method was used in social sciences research in early 1754 by
A.L. Bowley. Since then the method has been progressively used. The sampling
methods are broadly classified into two types: (i) Probability Sampling and
(ii) Non-Probability Sampling.
Criteria for Selecting Sampling
The type of sample has to be selected depending on the area of research. For this
purpose, a variety of sampling methods can be employed, individually or in
combination. Factors commonly influencing the choice of the sampling design
include:
 Nature and quality of the frame.
 Availability of supporting information about units on the frame.
 Accuracy requirements and the need to measure accuracy.
 Whether detailed analysis of the sample is expected.
 Cost/operational concerns.
As there are various sampling methods, it becomes crucial to select an appropriate
sampling method. Young has suggested the following three criteria to be considered
while selecting a sampling method:
 A measurable or known probability sampling technique should be used to
control the risk of errors in the sample estimate.
 Simple, straightforward and workable methods adapted to available facilities
and personnel should be used.
 Achieving optimum balance between expenditure incurred and maximum
of reliable information should be the guiding principle.
The decision whether a probability sampling or a non-probability sampling is to be
applied rests on the constraints which are not very different from those stated
earlier. These are: (i) objectives of the study, (ii) type of study, and (iii) availability
of the resources for the study.
(i) If the objective of the research is to apply the results of the study to a small
local group then sampling may not be given as much consideration as in a
study where the results are to be applied to a larger group. Action research
generally does not require sampling from a larger group. Most of the time
sampling is not very essential in historical research, whereas survey studies
generally have a more rigorous sampling.

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 (ii) The availability of time, funds, manpower and equipment required is another Sampling Techniques

important consideration in deciding about the size and technique of sampling.

(iii) If one is interested in obtaining an estimate of the sampling error, one may
resort to probability sampling rather than to a non-probability one. NOTES
4.6.1 Probability Sampling
Probability sampling is a technique of sampling which gives the probability that a
sample is representative of population. This kind of sample is selected in such a
way that every element chosen has a known probability of being included.
Probability sampling is based on some statistical concepts, such as the Law
of Large Numbers, Central Limit Theorem and the Normal Distribution, etc.
In this type of sampling, the smaller groups are not selected based on the
researcher’s decision but by means of techniques which ensure that every member
of the larger group has the likelihood of being included in the sample group. It is
also called ‘random sampling’.
The Law of Large Number states that as the sample size becomes larger,
probability that the estimate differs from the parameter to a greater extent becomes
small. Or in other words, a larger number provides a more precise measure of the
parameter under consideration. However, one precaution must be taken. While
increasing the size of the sample, care should be taken to maintain the
representativeness of the sample, because a large sample does not automatically
guarantee representativeness.
As per the second concept, sampling distribution approaches normal
distribution provided more the irregular distribution in the population larger is the
sample selected to avoid biases.
The following are different methods of probability sampling.
 Random sampling
In a Simple Random Sample (SRS) of a given size, all subsets in the group have
the same odds of being selected. The frame is not sub-divided or partitioned.
Besides this, any pair of units has the likelihood of being selected as any other
such pair (this is applicable to triples as well, and so on). This reduces preconceptions
and makes the analysis of results easier. However, SRS can be lead to sampling
errors due to the randomness of the selection process which may not be an accurate
representation of the entire population. For example, choosing 10 people randomly
from any given country can produce a balanced group of men and women but can
also have the likelihood of over representing or under representing one sex.
Thus, SRS can be cumbersome and tedious when sampling from an unusually
large target population. In certain instances where research is very specific, for
example, researchers might be interested in examining whether mechanical skills

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Sampling Techniques are equally applicable across racial groups, SRS cannot be used as random selection
of a sub-group as it may not provide accurate findings.
Theoretically, this is a method of selecting ‘n’ units from N units in such a
way that everyone in the population of N units has an equal chance of being selected.
NOTES
This can be done through the following steps:
(i) Defining population by specifying its various limits.
(ii) Preparing the sampling frame.
(iii) Incorporating the names or serial numbers of individual units in the
sampling frame (every unit is to be listed, order does not make any
difference).
It is important to re-emphasize here that a random sample is not necessarily
an identical representation of the population. After this, to get the required ‘n’
units different techniques are available. These techniques are discussed below.
(a) Lottery method: After numbering every unit in the population, they
are well mixed. The required numbers of units are then drawn from all
these well mixed units. The individuals’ objects with these identification
named numbers are then picked up for inclusion in the sample.
However, this technique has some objections. When the population is
very large and includes such individuals/objects which are of such
nature that could not be mixed and further if ‘well mixing’ is not attained
despite all efforts, the principle of randomness in the population may
be violated.
(b) Random table method: The use of random numbers or manual lot
drawing will be too cumbersome to recommend in case of a large
population. In such situations, computer generated random selection
should be resorted, in order to save time and labour. Tables of random
numbers have been generated by computers producing a random
sequence of digits, e.g., random digit tables by Rand Corporation
and prepared by Kendall & Smith, by Fisher & Yates and by Tippet
are frequently used. The required numbers of units are selected from
such a table in any convenient and systematic way. Now suppose we
have to select 20 distance learners for interviews from 80 distance
learners registered at a study centre. We may start with any column
and any row. Because we want 20 numbers, i.e., two digit numbers,
we have to select only the first two digits from each number. If we
select the first column and start from first row then we will get following
22 digit numbers—23, 05, 14, 38, 97, 11, 43, ...............,. 61. You
will notice that numbers greater than 80 will have to be deleted from
this list and for the remaining numbers selecting any other column and
the row the procedure will have to be repeated, till we get the required
number, i.e., 20. If any number is repeated in this list, it is to be
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 substituted by selecting the next number. Until a sample of desired Sampling Techniques

size is obtained, the selection procedure is to be continued.

(c) Selection of sample: In this method, names are arranged under the
intended plan alphabetically, geographically or simply serially. Then,
NOTES
out of the list, every tenth or any other number of cases is taken up. If
every tenth unit is to be selected, the selection begins as seventh,
seventeenth, twenty-seventh, and so on, or fifth, fifteen, twenty-fifth,
and so on.
(d) Grid system: In this method, selection of sample is made from a
particular area. A map of the entire area is prepared, and then a screen
of squares is placed on the map. The areas falling within the selected
squares are taken as samples.
Advantages of Random Sampling
The advantages of random sampling are as follows:
(i) This method calls for no special expertise and training or even insight. It can
be used mechanically by anybody.
(ii) Each individual of the population has an equal chance of being selected into
the sample.
(iii) One individual does not affect the selection of the other.
(iv) It is free from subjective issue or personal error or bias and imagination of
the investigator.
(v) It requires minimum knowledge of the population.
(vi) It provides appropriate data for research purposes.
(vii) Data can be used for inferential purposes.
Disadvantages of Random Sampling
The disadvantages of random sampling are as follows:
(i) Practically listing of all the units in the population may not be possible.
(ii) In case of heterogeneous population, the selected random sample may not
truly represent the characteristics of the population.
(iii) Representativeness cannot be assured.
(iv) This method does not use knowledge about population.
(v) Inferential accuracy of finding depends upon size of sample.
(vi) In case of population with infinite numbers, listing is out of the question.
(vii) It is difficult though not impossible as it involves high cost.
 Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is a variant of the random process of sampling. In this technique
of the requisite number of sample units are selected from the population. This
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Sampling Techniques sampling entails organizing the population in a predetermined order and then
selecting from the list at regular intervals. One starts from a random number and
then proceeds with the selection of every kth element from then onwards. In this
case, k = (population size/sample size). It should be noted that the starting point is
NOTES not automatically the first in the list, but should be randomly chosen from the first
to the kth element in the list, e.g., every 10th name from the telephone directory
(an ‘every 10th’ sample, also referred to as ‘sampling with a skip of 10’).
As long as the starting point is randomized, systematic sampling is a type of
probability sampling. It is easy to implement and the stratification induced can
make it efficient, if the variable by which the list is ordered is correlated with the
variable of interest. ‘Every 10th’ sampling is especially useful for efficient sampling
from databases. However, systematic sampling is especially vulnerable to intervals
in the list. If periodic intervals are present and the period is a multiple or factor of
the interval used, the sample is not going to be an accurate representation of the
target population, making the scheme less accurate than simple random sampling.
Thus, we see that systematic sampling is an EPS (Equal Probability Sampling)
method, as all elements share the same likelihood of being selected (in the example
given, one in ten). It is not ‘simple random sampling’ because different subsets of
the same size have different selection probabilities—e.g., the set {4, 14, 24, ...,
994} has a one-in-ten probability of selection, but the set {4, 13, 24, 34, ...} has
zero probability of selection. Thus, it involves the following steps:
(i) Listing the population elements in some order, say alphabetically, merit-
wise, etc.
(ii) Determining the desired number to be selected from the population, e.g.,
10 per cent of 1000 means 100 out of 1000.
(iii) Starting with any number from among the numbers 1 to 10 (i.e., 1 to k, both
inclusive), to select every ‘10’ (or ‘k’) element from the list. If the number
chosen from 1 to 10 is 4, then the selected numbers will be the 4, 14th, 24th
. . . 994th elements making the sample with 100 elements.
(iv) As the elements are chosen from regular intervals, this technique is also
known as ‘sampling by regular intervals’, sampling by fixed intervals or
sampling by every k unit.
Advantages of systematic sampling
The advantages of systematic sampling are as follows:
(i) It is more practical in that it involves less labour.
(ii) As it is simpler to perform, it may reduce errors.
(iii) The procedure is speedy in comparison with simple random sampling.
(iv) Reduces the field cost.
(v) Inferential statistics may be used.

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Disadvantages of systematic sampling Sampling Techniques

The disadvantages of systematic sampling are as follows:

(i) Selection of every element, other than the first which is selected randomly,
is linked with the first element. This makes the process different from the NOTES
simple random method where selection of every element is independent of
the other one.
(ii) When the list of elements has a periodic arrangement, there is a risk that the
sample interval may coincide with the periodic interval in the list. Suppose,
A, B, C, D and E are the 5 schools selected and then from each school 100
students are selected. The students from school ‘A’ are placed starting from
1, from school ‘B’ starting from 2, from school ‘C’ starting from 3, from
school ‘D’ starting from 4 and from school ‘E’ starting from 5 with an
interval of 5. Thus the school ‘A’ students will hold the numbers 1, 6, 11,
16, 21 . . . 496. The school ‘B’ students will hold the numbers 2, 7, 12, 17,
22, . . . . . . . . . . 497. Now in systematic sampling procedure suppose we
decide to select 5 per cent of the total and randomly choose any number
from 1 to 5 say ‘3’ then starting from 3 we will have to select every 5th
number. These numbers will be 3, 8, 13, 18... . . . . ..498. Have you noticed
that all these numbers belong to school ‘C’? Why has it happened so? The
answer is because every school is repeated in the list with an interval of ‘5’
and elements are selected with an interval of ‘5’.
(iii) Another limitation of the systematic sampling method is the trend of the
listed population. This is explained below—Suppose 100 students are listed
in the decreasing order of academic merit. We want to draw a sample of 20
students from this using systematic sampling method. 20 out of 100 mean
the size of interval is ‘5’. We can draw many samples from this listed
population. If we randomly pick up a number from among 1 to 5, say 3
then the sample will comprise the elements ‘3’, 8th, 13th, 18th . . . . . . .
98th.
(iv) This is not free from error, since bias may creep in due to different ways of
making systematic list by differentiation.
(v) Knowledge of population is essential.
(vi) Information of each individual is essential.
(vii) There is risk in drawing conclusions from observation.
 Stratified sampling
To increase the precision, ‘stratified sampling’ can be one option. The term
‘stratified’ is very much self-explanatory. It involves dividing the population into
such sub-populations (strata) that each one of them is homogeneous within itself.
Population can be divided into different categories by using these ‘strata’ or layers.
Each stratum or section is then treated independently as a separate sub-group.
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Sampling Techniques There are many advantages of dividing into sub-sections. First, researchers
can study these specific sub-groups closely, which may otherwise have got lost in
a generalized random sample. Next, applying the stratified sampling method gives
accurate statistical estimates provided that the categories or sub-divisions are chosen
NOTES according to their relevance to the topic being researched rather than randomly
and that the group size is proportionate to the entire population. Besides this, data
is more readily available for an individual than for a large group. Finally, as each
category or sub-division is treated as a separate population, different sampling
techniques can be used on each, enabling researchers to apply the most appropriate
approach.
Certain limitations to using stratified sampling: First, is breaking down the
population into so many sub-divisions can complicate the research and monitoring
process. The researcher may also lose count of the size of the population. Second,
many of the criteria may not apply to the sub-divisions, reducing the value of
having so many strata. Third, in some cases such as designs with a large number
of strata or those with a specified minimum sample size per group, stratified sampling
can potentially require a larger sample than would other methods although in most
cases, the required sample size would be no larger than would be required for
simple random sampling. The steps to be followed in this method are as follows:
(i) Deciding upon one or more characteristics on the basis of which strata
will be formed, e.g., location of schools—rural, urban, suburban, urban-
slums, metropolitan, etc.
(ii) Dividing the population under consideration into strata on the basis of
stratification characteristics/criteria.
(iii) Listing the units in each stratum separately.
(iv) Selecting requisite number of elements from each stratum using
appropriate random selection technique.
Thus, all the elements selected from all the strata compose the required
sample.
Important points to be noted while doing stratified sampling:
(i) The criteria for dividing the population into strata should be correlated
with the variable being studied.
(ii) The criteria should be practical. It should not yield an unwieldy number
of strata.
(iii) A good measure of the stratification criteria should be available, e.g.,
if a reliable and valid tool of determining socio-economic status is not
available, stratification on this basis would lead to confounding of the
results.
(iv) Selection of the elements at random from each stratum in the same
proportion as that of the actual size of the stratum in the population
improves the representativeness of the sample and helps in achieving
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80 Material
 (v) In some studies (like census), stratification is not possible before the Sampling Techniques

data have been collected. After collecting the data, stratification as

per sex, age, educational level is carried out. Or a simple random
sample of the required size is selected and the classification into strata
is observed. NOTES
Stratified random sampling can be of following three types:
(a) Proportionate sampling: It refers to the selection of a sample from
each sampling unit that is proportionate to the size of unit. Its advantages
include representativeness with respect to various variables used as
basis of classifying categories and increased chances of comparison
between strata.
(b) Disproportionate sampling: It means that the size of the sample in
each unit is not proportionate to the size of unit, but depends upon
considerations involving personal judgment and convenience. This is
more effective for comparing strata which have different error
possibilities.
(c) Optimum allocation stratified sampling: It is representative as it
selects units from each stratum in proportion to corresponding stratum
in the population.
Advantages of stratified sampling
The advantages of stratified sampling are as follows:
(i) Stratified random sampling is very useful when a list of the elements in the
population is not available.
(ii) It is the most applicable method of sampling when the population is
heterogeneous.
Disadvantages of stratified sampling
The disadvantages of stratified sampling are as follows:
(i) It is costly and time consuming.
(ii) Criteria for stratification need to be decided carefully.
(iii) There is risk in generalization if not properly done.
 Multiple/Double sampling
Double sampling is a type of sampling which includes both questionnaire and
interview methods for probing a research problem.
 Multi-stage and multi-phase sampling
This is used in large-scale surveys for more comprehensive investigation. The
researcher may have to use two, three or four stage sampling. In the multi-stage
sampling, a selection of different types of sampling units, such as some Districts in
a State, some Talukas in those Districts and then some Schools, is involved at
different sampling stages. Self-Instructional
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Sampling Techniques Whereas in the multi-phase sampling, the researcher is concerned with the
same type of sampling unit at each phase but some members are asked for more
information than others, e.g., information regarding study habits of distance learners
can be collected from 100 distance learners through a questionnaire and 20 out of
NOTES them can be interviewed for more information. The main distinction between the
multi-stage and the multi-phase sampling is the use of unit of sampling at different
levels in multi-stage sampling but not in multi-phase sampling.
Advantages of multi-stage and multi-phase sampling
The advantages of multi-stage and multi-phase sampling are as follows:
(i)In both the sampling methods, burden on respondents is reduced.
(ii)Relative cost also gets reduced.
(iii)Two-phase sampling is useful in studying rare cases.
(iv) In two-phase sampling, the resulting gain in precision is more due to
possibility of getting more information in details.
(v) This kind of sampling gives a good reorientation of the population.
(vi) It is an objective procedure of sampling.
(vii) Observations thus derived can be used for inferential purposes.
Disadvantages of multi-stage and multi-phase sampling
The disadvantages of multi-stage and multi-phase sampling are as follows:
(i) The disadvantage with this kind of sampling is that it is difficult and complex.
(ii) Error may creep in at the primary or secondary stages.
(iii) It is subjective.
 Cluster sampling
In this type of sampling, the units of samples close to each other are chosen in
clusters, for example, households in the same street or successive items of a
production-line. The population is divided into clusters and some of them are
chosen randomly. Then, the clustered units are selected using random sampling
method.
In this method, the items to be studied are picked up at random at different
stages. For example, if the idea is to study the problem of middle class working
couples in a State, the first stage will be to pick up few districts in the State. The
next stage will be to pick up at random few rural and urban areas for the study.
The third stage will come when from each area few families belonging to the middle
class will be picked up, and the last stage will be when working couples out of
these families will be chosen for study. Thus the stages would be:
State—Districts—Rural and Urban Areas—Middle Classes—Working
Couples

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Advantages of cluster sampling Sampling Techniques

The advantages of cluster sampling are as follows:

(i) This method of sampling is very economical, especially when the cost of
measuring a unit is relatively small. NOTES
(ii) It is easier to administer.
(iii) Large number of units can be sampled for a given cost.
(iv) Practical when the population is large.
Disadvantages of cluster sampling
When the sampling unit is to be an individual element/unit or number in the
population, this method is not applicable. It may not be comprehensive.
4.6.2 Non-Probability Sampling
The non-probability sampling methods are based on the judgments of the investigator
as the most important elements of control. The guiding principles in non-probability
methods are— availability of the subjects, the personal judgment of the investigator,
and convenience in carrying out the research.
Such samples use human judgment in selecting units and have no theoretical
base for estimating population characteristics. The non-probability sampling
methods are of following types:
 Incidental or accidental sampling
 Judgment sampling
 Purposive sampling
 Quota sampling
 Snowball sampling
A non-probability sample is termed as ‘non-random sample’ due to the
very fact that it is selected through non-random method. The main feature of such
a sample is the lack of control of the sampling error on account of which this
method of sampling is referred to as ‘uncontrolled sampling’ method. This
description of the non-probability sampling should not be taken in negative sense.
In spite of all this, many a times it is the demand of the situation to go for non-
probability sampling method. Let us now study the different non-probability sampling
methods one by one.
 Incidental or accidental sampling
Incidental sampling is also known as accidental or convenience sampling. When a
readily or easily available group is selected as a sample, it is termed as an ‘incidental
sample’. Samples are taken because they are more frequently available. It refers
to groups which are used as samples of population because they are readily
available. Incidental sampling is an easy method but parametrical tests cannot be

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Sampling Techniques used for it. A teacher-educator, e.g., may select the students from a school situated
in the same campus which serves as a practising school for the concerned college
of education, find the effectiveness of concept attainment model to teach a
mathematical concept say, a quadrilateral.
NOTES
Advantages of incidental sampling
The administrative convenience of obtaining samples for the study, the ease of
testing, saving in time and completeness of the data collected are some of the
merits of this method.
Disadvantages of incidental sampling
Since there is no well-defined population and no random sampling method is applied
to select the sample, the standard error formulae are applied with a high degree of
approximation. Hence, no valid generalization can be drawn. Any attempt at
generalization based on such data and conclusion thereof will be misleading.
 Judgment sampling
It involves selection of groups from the population on the basis of available
information. The groups should be representative of the population. It has good
evidence and is based on experience. It is an economical method.
 Purposive sampling
Another non-probability sampling method is ‘purposive sampling’. The sample is
selected by some arbitrary method because it is known to be representative of the
total population, or it is known that it will produce well matched groups. The idea
is to pick out the sample in relation to some criterion which is considered important
for the particular study.
In this method, samples are chosen because they resemble some larger
group with respect to one or more characteristics. The controls of criteria for
categorization in such samples are usually identified as representative areas, such
as a state, a district, a city, etc., or representative characteristics of individuals,
such as age, sex, socio-economic status, etc., or representative types of groups,
such as elementary school teachers, secondary school teachers, college teachers,
university teachers, etc. These controls criteria may be further sub-divided, e.g.,
the group of college teachers can be divided into male and female teachers or
teachers in science/arts/commerce colleges, etc.
It has to be noticed here that up to this stage the controls are somewhat
similar to stratification criteria. After deciding upon the category required for the
research, the researcher has to select the sample. Actual selection of the units for
inclusion in the sample is done purposively and not randomly, e.g., in order to
tackle the problem of indiscipline only the undisciplined students are selected as
the sample, excluding others on the basis of past experience.

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Advantages of purposive sampling Sampling Techniques

This method of sampling is useful where a small sample is required. It is focused

on solving problems of particular groups.
Disadvantages of purposive sampling NOTES
This method is applicable only for the selection of samples, such as special cases
like ‘best teacher award winners’ from the population of teachers or ‘meritorious
past students of the school’ from the population of the past students.
 Quota sampling
This is another method of non-probability sampling. It involves the selection of the
sample units within each stratum on the basis of the judgment of the researcher.
What distinguishes it from probability sampling is that once the strength of the
sample (e.g., how many women teachers from among college teachers) is decided
it forms the ‘quota’. The choice of the actual units to fit into this framework is left
to the researcher.
Quota sampling is thus a method of stratification sampling in which the
selection of sample units within the stratum is non-random. These quotas are
determined by the proportion of the groups, e.g., in order to study the attitude of
school teachers towards environment education, first the school teachers will be
stratified into men and women teachers, quotas for these strata will be fixed and
then the teachers will be selected (not randomly).
 Snowball sampling
It refers to the many techniques which use the probability method to select the first
respondents. Additional respondents are added on the basis of referrals by the
first respondents. This technique is used to locate members of rare population by
referrals.

Check Your Progress

3. Name the two types of sampling method.
4. What do you mean by stratified sampling?
5. How is cluster sampling done?

4.7 SAMPLING ERRORS AND HOW TO REDUCE

THEM

Sampling Errors
Even if utmost care has been taken in selecting a sample, the results derived from
a sample study may not be exactly equal to the true value in the population. The

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Sampling Techniques reason is that estimate is based on a part and not on the whole and samples are
seldom, if ever, perfect miniature of the population. Hence, sampling gives rise to
certain errors known as ‘sampling errors’ or sampling fluctuations.
In other words, a sample survey requires study in small portions of population
NOTES
as there can be certain amount of inaccuracy in the information collected during
sampling analysis. This inaccuracy is called sampling error or error variance.
Sampling errors are those errors, which arise on account of sampling and generally
happen to be random variations in the sample estimates of the actual population
values. Figure 4.1 shows sampling error.

Fig. 4.1 Sampling Error

Sampling errors occur randomly and are equally likely to be in either direction
and the magnitude of sampling error depends on the nature of the universe. The
more uniform the universe is, the smaller is the sampling error. Sampling error is
inversely proportional to the size of the sample and vice-versa. In addition, sampling
error is the product of the critical value at a certain level of significance and the
standard error.
Sampling Error = Frame Error + Chance Error + Response Error
Sampling errors would not be present in a complete enumeration survey.
However, the errors can be controlled. The modern sampling theory helps in
designing the survey in such a manner that the sampling errors can be made
insignificant. Sampling errors are of two types: (i) biased and (ii) unbiased.
These errors arise from any bias in selection, estimation, etc. For example,
if in place of simple random sampling, if deliberate sampling has been used in a
particular case; some bias is introduced in the result, and hence such errors are
called ‘biased sampling errors’.
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 An error in statistics is the difference between the value of a statistic and Sampling Techniques

that of the corresponding parameter. These errors arise due to chance differences
between the members of population included in the sample and those not included.
Thus, the total sampling error is made up of errors due to bias, if any, and
NOTES
the random sampling error. The essence of bias is that it forms a constant component
of error that does not decrease in a large population as the number in the sample
increases. Such error is, therefore, also known as ‘cumulative/non-compensating
error’. The random sampling error, on the other hand, decrease as an average as
the size of the sample increases. Such error is, therefore, also known as ‘non-
cumulative/compensating error’.
Bias may arise due to: (i) faulty process of selection, (ii) faulty work during
the collection, and (iii) faulty methods of analysis.
Faulty selection of the sample may give rise to bias in a number of ways.
Some of which are discussed below:
(a) Deliberate selection The deliberate selection of a ‘representative’ sample.
(b) Conscious/Unconscious bias in the selection of ‘random’ sample: The
randomness of selection may not really exist, even though the investigator
claims that he/she had a random sample if he/she allows his/her desire to
obtain a certain result to influence his/her selection.
(c) Substitution: Substitution of an item in place of one chosen in random
sample sometimes leads to bias. Thus, if it were decided to interview every
50th household in a street, it would be inappropriate to interview the 51st
or any other number in its place as the characteristics possessed by it will
differ from those which were originally to be included in the sample.
(d) Non-response: If all the items to be included in the sample are not covered
then, there will be bias even though no substitution has been attempted.
This fault particularly occurs in mailed questionnaires, which are incompletely
returned. Moreover, the information supplied by the informants may also
be biased.
(e) An appeal to the vanity: An appeal to the vanity of the person questioned
may give rise to yet another kind of bias. For example, the question ‘Are
you a good student?’ is such that most of the students would answer ‘yes’.
Any consistent error in measurement will give rise to bias whether the
measurements are carried out on a sample or on all the units of the population.
The danger of error is, however, likely to be greater in sampling work, since the
units measured are usually smaller.
Bias may arise due to improper formulation of the decision problem or
wrongly defining the population, specifying the wrong decision, securing an
inadequate frame, and so on. Biased observations may result from a poorly designed
questionnaire, an ill-trained interviewer, failure of a respondent’s memory, etc.

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Sampling Techniques Bias in the flow of data may be due to unorganized collection procedure, faulty
editing or coding of responses.
In addition to bias which arises from faulty process of selection and faulty
collection of information, faulty methods of analysis may also introduce bias. Such
NOTES
bias can be avoided by adopting the proper methods of analysis.
If possibilities of bias exist, fully objective conclusions cannot be drawn.
The first essential of any sampling or census procedure must, therefore, be the
elimination of all sources of bias. The simplest and the only certain way of avoiding
bias in the selection process is for the sample to be drawn either entirely at random
or subject to restrictions, which while improving the accuracy are of such a nature
that they do not introduce bias in the results. In certain cases, systematic selection
may also be permissible.
Once the absence of bias has been ensured, attention should be given to the
random sampling errors. Such errors must be reduced to the minimum so as to
attain the desired accuracy.
Apart from reducing errors of bias, the simplest way of increasing the
accuracy of a sample is to increase its size. The sampling error usually decreases
with increase in sample size and in fact in many situations the decrease is inversely
proportional to the square root of the sample size. Figure 4.2 illustrates the increase
and decrease proportion between sampling error ad sample size.

Fig. 4.2 Sampling Error and Sample Size

From Figure 4.2, it is clear that though the reduction in sampling error is
substantial for initial increases in sample size, it becomes marginal after a certain
stage. In other words, considerably great effort is needed after a certain stage to
decrease the sampling error than in the initial instances. Hence after that stage
sizable reduction in cost can be achieved by lowering even slightly the precision
required.
From this point of view, there is a strong case for resorting to a sample
survey to provide estimates within permissible margins of error instead of a complete
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enumeration survey, as in the latter the effort and the cost needed will be substantially Sampling Techniques

higher due to the attempt to reduce the sampling error to zero.

As regards non-sampling error, they are likely to be more in case of complete
enumeration survey than in case of a sample survey, since it is possible to reduce
NOTES
the non-sampling errors to a greater extent by using better organization and suitably
trained personnel at the field and tabulation stages.
The behaviour of the non-sampling errors with increase in sample size is
likely to be opposite of that of sampling error, that is, the non-sampling error is
likely to increase with increase in sample size. In many situations, it is quite possible
that the non-sampling error in a complete enumeration survey is greater than both
the sampling and non-sampling errors taken together in a sample survey, and
naturally in such situations the latter is preferred to the former.
When a complete enumeration of units in the universe is made, one would
expect that it would give rise to data free from errors. However, in practice it is
not so. For example, it is difficult to completely avoid errors of observation or
ascertainment. So also in the processing of data tabulation errors may be committed
affecting the find results. Errors arising in this manner are termed as non-sampling
errors, as they are due to factors other than the inductive process of inferring
about the population from a sample.
Thus, the data obtained in an investigation by complete enumeration, although
free from sampling error, would still be subject to non-sampling error, whereas the
results of a sample survey would be subject to sampling error as well as non-
sampling error.
Non-sampling errors can occur at every stage of planning and execution of
the census or survey. Such errors can arise due to a number of causes, such as
defective methods of data collection and tabulation, faulty definition, incomplete
coverage of the population or sample, etc. More specifically, non-sampling errors
may arise from one or more of the following factors:
(i) Data specification being inadequate and inconsistent with respect to the
objective of the census or survey.
(ii) Inappropriate statistical unit.
(iii) Inaccurate/Inappropriate methods of interview, observation or measurement
with inadequate or ambiguous schedules, definitions or instructions.
(iv) Lack of trained and experienced investigators.
(v) Lack of adequate inspection and supervision of primary staff.
(vi) Errors due to non-response, i.e., incomplete coverage in respect of units.
(vii) Errors in data processing operations, such as coding, punching, verification,
etc.
(viii) Errors committed during presentation and printing of tabulated results.

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Sampling Techniques These sources are not exhaustive, but are given to indicate some of the
possible sources of error. In a sample survey, non-sampling errors may also arise
due to defective frame and faulty selection of sampling units.
In some situations, the non-sampling errors may be large and deserve greater
NOTES
attention than the sampling errors. While, in general sampling errors decrease with
increase in sample size, non-sampling errors tend to increase with the sample size.
In the case of complete enumeration, non-sampling errors and in the case of
sample surveys, both sampling and non-sampling errors require to be controlled
and reduced to a level at which their presence does not vitiate the use of final
results.
The reliability of samples can be tested in the following ways:
(i) More samples of the same size should be taken from the same universe and
their results be compared. If results are similar, the sample will be reliable.
(ii) If the measurements of the universe are known then they should be compared
with the measurements of the sample. In case of similarity of measurement,
the sample will be reliable.
(iii) Sub-samples should be taken from the samples and studied. If the results of
sample and sub-sample study show similarity, the sample should be
considered reliable.

Check Your Progress

6. What is sampling error? How it occurs?
7. What are the reasons that bias arises in a research?
8. How the reliability of samples can be tested?

4.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. A ‘sample’ is a small percentage of the larger group who are selected for
research. A sample can be statistically explained as being a subset of a
population. The sample will be able to give an idea of the characteristics of
the larger group from where it has been drawn. It is possible to make
deductions about the larger population on the basis of the sample.
2. Sampling is the process of obtaining information about an entire population
by examining only a part of it. Sampling is required as it saves time and
money, it produces results at a faster speed, it enables more accurate
measurement for a sample study as it is conducted by experienced
investigators and it is the only method for an infinitely large population.

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3. Sampling methods are broadly classified into two types: (i) Probability Sampling Techniques

Sampling and (ii) Non-Probability Sampling.

4. The term ‘stratified’ is very much self-explanatory. It involves dividing the
population into such sub-populations (strata) that each one of them is
NOTES
homogeneous within itself. Population can be divided into different categories
by using these ‘strata’ or layers. Each stratum or section is then treated
independently as a separate sub-group.
5. In cluster sampling, the units of samples close to each other are chosen in
clusters, for example, households in the same street or successive items of
a production-line. The population is divided into clusters and some of them
are chosen randomly. Then, the clustered units are selected using random
sampling method. The items to be studied are picked up at random at
different stages, in this method.
6. Sampling gives rise to certain errors known as ‘sampling errors’ or sampling
fluctuations. Sampling errors are those errors, which arise on account of
sampling and generally happen to be random variations in the sample
estimates of the actual population values. These errors arise from any bias
in selection, estimation, etc. Typically, a sampling error occurs when a sample
survey requires study in small portions of population as there can be certain
amount of inaccuracy in the information collected during sampling analysis.
This inaccuracy is called sampling error or error variance.
7. Bias may arise due to improper formulation of the decision problem or
wrongly defining the population, specifying the wrong decision, securing an
inadequate frame, and so on. Typically, the bias may arise due to the following
reasons:
 Faulty process of selection
 Faulty work during the collection
 Faulty methods of analysis
8. The reliability of samples can be tested in the following ways:
 More samples of the same size should be taken from the same universe
and their results be compared. If results are similar, the sample will be
reliable.
 If the measurements of the universe are known then they should be
compared with the measurements of the sample. In case of similarity of
measurement, the sample will be reliable.
 Sub-samples should be taken from the samples and studied. If the results
of sample and sub-sample study show similarity, the sample should be
considered reliable.

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Sampling Techniques
4.9 SUMMARY

 A ‘population’ is any group of individuals/units that have one or more

NOTES characteristics in common which are of interest to the researcher, for a
particular research.
 A ‘sample’ is a small percentage of the larger group who are selected for
research. A sample can be statistically explained as being a subset of a
population.
 An artificial population is created by the researcher in order to illustrate a
principle or to make for more convenience and ease in carrying out the
study of a problematic situation.
 The term ‘sampling’ refers to the technique whereby a smaller group is
selected from a larger one so that the more manageable smaller group can
be observed and those observations can be applied to the larger group as
well.
 Sampling can be defined as the process of obtaining information about an
entire population by examining only a part of it.
 The characteristics of a good sample are true representative, comprehensive,
economical, approachable, feasible, practical, objective and accurate.
 The sampling method was used in social sciences research in early 1754 by
A.L. Bowley. Since then the method has been progressively used. The
sampling methods are broadly classified into two types: (i) Probability
Sampling and (ii) Non-Probability Sampling.
 The decision whether a probability sampling or a non-probability sampling
is to be applied rests on the constraints which are not very different from
those stated earlier. These are: (i) objectives of the study, (ii) type of study,
and (iii) availability of the resources for the study.
 Probability sampling is a technique of sampling which gives the probability
that a sample is representative of population. This kind of sample is selected
in such a way that every element chosen has a known probability of being
included.
 The Law of Large Number states that as the sample size becomes larger,
probability that the estimate differs from the parameter to a greater extent
becomes small.
 In a Simple Random Sample (SRS) of a given size, all subsets in the group
have the same odds of being selected. The frame is not sub-divided or
partitioned. Besides this, any pair of units has the likelihood of being selected
as any other such pair.

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 Systematic sampling is a variant of the random process of sampling. In this Sampling Techniques

technique of the requisite number of sample units are selected from the
population.
 To increase the precision, ‘stratified sampling’ can be one option. The term
NOTES
‘stratified’ is very much self-explanatory. It involves dividing the population
into such sub-populations (strata) that each one of them is homogeneous
within itself. Population can be divided into different categories by using
these ‘strata’ or layers. Each stratum or section is then treated independently
as a separate sub-group.
 Double sampling is a type of sampling which includes both questionnaire
and interview methods for probing a research problem.
 The main distinction between the multi-stage and the multi-phase sampling
is the use of unit of sampling at different levels in multi-stage sampling but
not in multi-phase sampling.
 In Cluster sampling, the units of samples close to each other are chosen in
clusters, for example, households in the same street or successive items of
a production-line. The population is divided into clusters and some of them
are chosen randomly. Then, the clustered units are selected using random
sampling method.
 The non-probability sampling methods are based on the judgments of the
investigator as the most important elements of control. The guiding principles
in non-probability methods are— availability of the subjects, the personal
judgment of the investigator, and convenience in carrying out the research.
 The non-probability sampling methods are of following types, namely
incidental or accidental sampling, judgement sampling, purposive sampling,
quota sampling and snowball sampling.
 Even if utmost care has been taken in selecting a sample, the results derived
from a sample study may not be exactly equal to the true value in the
population. The reason is that estimate is based on a part and not on the
whole and samples are seldom, if ever, perfect miniature of the population.
Hence, sampling gives rise to certain errors known as ‘sampling errors’ or
sampling fluctuations.
 In other words, a sample survey requires study in small portions of population
as there can be certain amount of inaccuracy in the information collected
during sampling analysis. This inaccuracy is called sampling error or error
variance.
 The sampling error usually decreases with increase in sample size and in
fact in many situations the decrease is inversely proportional to the square
root of the sample size.

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Sampling Techniques  The behaviour of the non-sampling errors with increase in sample size is
likely to be opposite of that of sampling error, that is, the non-sampling
error is likely to increase with increase in sample size.
 Non-sampling errors can occur at every stage of planning and execution of
NOTES
the census or survey. Such errors can arise due to a number of causes, such
as defective methods of data collection and tabulation, faulty definition,
incomplete coverage of the population or sample, etc.
 In some situations, the non-sampling errors may be large and deserve greater
attention than the sampling errors. While, in general sampling errors decrease
with increase in sample size, non-sampling errors tend to increase with the
sample size.

4.10 KEY WORDS

 Stratified sampling: This sampling process involves dividing the population

into such sub-populations (strata) that each one of them is homogeneous
within itself.
 Sampling Error: It refers to an error in a statistical error that occurs when
an analyst does not select a sample that represents the entire population of
data and the results found in the sample do not represent the results that
would be obtained from the entire population.

4.11 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. List the advantages of sampling.
2. What are the characteristics of a good sample?
3. What are the criteria for selecting sampling?
4. Briefly discuss the meaning and statistical concepts of probability sampling.
5. Write short notes on:
(a) Stratified sampling
(b) Systematic sampling
(c) Accidental sampling
(d) Purposive sampling
6. What are sampling errors? What are its different types?

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Long Answer Questions Sampling Techniques

1. Discuss the significance of population and sample in a research with the

help of examples.
2. Describe the various methods of sampling in detail. NOTES
3. Discuss the significance and types of probability and non-probability
sampling.
4. How do sampling errors occur and what impact do they have on research
process?

4.12 FURTHER READINGS

Best, J.W. and J.V. Kahn. 1989. Research in Education. New Delhi: Prentice
Hall.
Buch, M. B. 1974. A Survey of Research in Education. Baroda: CASE, M. S.
University.
Fox, D. J. 1969. The Research Process in Education. New York: Rhinehart and
Winston, Inc.
Garrett. H. E. 1988. Statistics in Psychology and Education. Bombay: Vikils,
Feiffer & Semen’s Ltd.
Guilford, J.P. and B. Fruchter. 1974. Fundamental Statistics in Psychology &
Education. New York: McGraw Hill.

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Research Tools
BLOCK - II
RESEARCH TOOLS AND DIFFERENT TYPES
OF RESEARCH
NOTES

UNIT 5 RESEARCH TOOLS

Structure
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Tools and Techniques of Data Collection
5.2.1 Observation
5.2.2 Interview
5.2.3 Questionnaire
5.2.4 Schedules
5.2.5 Rating Scales and Attitude Scale
5.2.6 Writing of Research Proposal
5.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
5.4 Summary
5.5 Key Words
5.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
5.7 Further Readings

5.0 INTRODUCTION

In the process of decision-making, data plays a vital role. A researcher requires

various data gathering tools which facilitate original research investigations and
observations, leading to useful and valuable results. Data collection is thus an
essentially important part of the research process. Researchers generally collect
evidence either for verifying new hypotheses or for checking current conclusions.
To accomplish their objectives, researchers obtain data from documentaries or
field sources.
In this unit, some of the most commonly used tools or techniques for data
collection like observation, questionnaire, interviews, schedules, rating scales and
attitude scales are discussed. Each of these tools differ in their nature and scope.
The researcher has to bear in mind the suitability of these tools, i.e., relevancy and
effectiveness depending upon the type of problem under consideration.

5.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Discuss the various tools and techniques of data collection like observation,
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  Understand the advantages and disadvantages of different tools of data Research Tools

collection
 Describe the processing of the techniques used in data collection
 Analyse the problems related to the classification of data NOTES
 Know the meaning and usage of rating scale and attitude scale
 Understand the method of writing a research proposal

5.2 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OF DATA

COLLECTION

Let us study the various tools and techniques used for data collection.
5.2.1 Observation
Observations have lead to some of the most important scientific discoveries in
human history. Charles Darwin used his observations of animal and marine life at
the Galapagos Islands to help him formulate his theory of evolution that he described
in On the Origin of Species. Today, social scientists, natural scientists, engineers,
computer scientists, educational researchers and many others use observations as
a primary research method.
The kind of observations one makes depends on the subject being
researched. Traffic or parking patterns on a campus can be observed to ascertain
what improvements could be made. Clouds, plants or other natural phenomena
can be observed as can people, though in the case of the latter one may often have
to ask for permission so as to not violate any privacy issue.
Observation may be defined as ‘a process in which one or more persons
monitor some real-life situation and record pertinent occurrences’. It is used
to evaluate the overt behaviour of the individual in controlled and uncontrolled
situations.
According to Jahoda: ‘Observation method is a scientific technique to
the extent that it (a) serves a formulated research purpose, (b) is planned
systematically rather than occurring haphazardly, (c) is systematically
recorded and related to more general propositions than presented as a set of
interesting curious, and (d) is subjected to checks and controls with respect
to validity, reliability, and precision much as is all other scientific evidence.’
According to Good and Hatt: ‘Observation may take many forms and is
at once the most primitive and the most modern of research techniques. It
includes the most casual, uncontrolled experiences as well as the most exact
film records of laboratory experimentation.’

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Research Tools Types of Observation
Observations are mainly classified in the following two types:
 Participant observation: In the process of ‘participant observation’, the
NOTES observer becomes more or less one of the group members and may actually
participate in some activity or the other of the group. The observer may
play any one of the several roles in observation, with varying degrees of
participation, as a visitor, an attentive listener, an eager learner or as a
participant observer.
 Non-participant observation: In the process of ‘non-participant
observation’, the observer takes a position where his/her presence is not
felt by the group. He/She may follow the behaviour of an individual or
characteristics of one or more groups closely. In this type of observation, a
one-way ‘vision screen’ permits the observer to see the subject but prevents
the subject from seeing the observer.
Observations may also be classified into the following categories:
i. Natural observation: Natural observation involves observing the
behaviour in a normal setting and in this type of observation; no efforts
are made to bring any type of change in the behaviour of the observed.
Improvement in the collection of information can be done with the
help of natural observations.
ii. Subjective and objective observation: All observations consist of
two main components, the subject and the object. The subject refers
to the observer, whereas the object refers to the activity or any type
of operation that is being observed. Subjective observation involves
the observation of one’s own immediate experience, whereas the
observations involving an observer as an entity apart from the thing
being observed are referred to as the ‘objective observation’.
Objective observation is also known as the ‘retrospection’.
iii. Direct and indirect observation: With the help of the direct method
of observation, one comes to know how the observer is physically
present, in which type of situation is he/she present and then this type
of observation monitors what takes place. Indirect method of
observation involves studies of mechanical recording or the recording
by some of the other means like photographic or electronic. Direct
observation is relatively straightforward as compared to indirect
observation.
iv. Structured and unstructured observation: Structured observation
works according to a plan and involves specific information of the
units that are to be observed and also about the information that is to
be recorded. The operations that are to be observed and the various
features that are to be noted or recorded are decided well in advance.
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 of data collection that are also structured in nature. But in the case of Research Tools

unstructured observation, its basics are diametrically against the

structured observation. In such observations, the observer has the
freedom to note down what he/she feels is correct and relevant to the
point of study. This approach of observation is very suitable for NOTES
exploratory research.
v. Controlled and non-controlled observation: Controlled
observations are the observations made under the influence of some
external forces. Such observations rarely lead to improvement in
the precision of the research results. However, these observations
can be very effective if these are made to work in coordination with
mechanical synchronizing devices, film recordings, etc. Non-controlled
observations are made in the natural environment, and reverse to the
controlled observation these observations involve no influence or
guidance of any type of external force.
Recording Techniques of Observation
Many different techniques may be employed to study and document a subject’s
behaviour. The data collection techniques are all accurate but may be suitable for
different purposes. While certain methods help gather detailed descriptions of
behaviour, certain others facilitate documenting behaviour promptly and with bare
minimum description.
 Anecdotal records: Anecdotal records refer to a few sentences jotted
down in a notebook. These sentences pertain to what the subject is engaged
in at a particular moment. Only those behaviours that can be seen or heard
and that can be counted are documented while creating an anecdotal record.
 Narrative description: Narrative description is also known as running
behaviour record and specimen record, and is a formal method of
observation. When following this technique, you are supposed to record
continuously, as detailed as possible, what the subject is doing and saying
when alone or when interacting with other people. In its methodology, it is
similar to anecdotal record but is definitely more detailed. The researcher
studies the context setting, the behaviour patterns, and the order in which
they take place. The main aim of this technique is to gain a objective
description of a subject’s behaviour without conjecture, analysis, or
assessment.
 Checklists: Checklists are usually standardized forms which list specific
skills and behaviours based on standard levels or are specifically compiled
by the researcher for a particular research study.
 Interviewing: In this observation technique, the researching team tries to
identify the subject’s feelings or beliefs that are not visible through simple
observation. During the process of interviewing, everything that the subject
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Research Tools says must be recorded exactly as is. The interviewer should avoid any kind
of editing of the interview subscript.
 Time sampling: This method is distinct from others in two ways—it monitor
and keeps account of a few chosen samples of subject’s behaviour, and
NOTES
only during prearranged periods of time. When a behaviour pattern is seen
during the specified time interval, it is recorded. This technique therefore
helps to gather representative examples of behaviour.
 Frequency counts: In some cases, a researcher may be more interested
in studying the frequency of an occurrence or behaviour or another pattern,
such as how often a consumer buys a particular product or how often an
individual started a conversation with a colleague. To get this data, the
researcher will need to keep a count of the frequency of the particular
behaviour and study how long the behaviour lasts. This is usually done by
simply marking an occurrence on a chart each time the behaviour is repeated.
 Event sampling: This technique is focused on observing specific behaviours
or events in a subject’s behaviour pattern. However, it does not take into
account the frequency or the length of the recording interval.
Advantages of Observation
The advantages of observation are as follows:
 This technique is employed to observe characteristics of various designs of
school buildings and equipment.
 For coaching purposes, an observation of various skills in games and athletics
is made.
 A study of the significant aspects of personality which express themselves
in behaviours can be made.
 The behaviour of the children in a classroom situation can be effectively
analysed.
 The behaviour of those who cannot read, write or speak can be observed.
 Observation of skills in the workshop is made directly.
 Observation of pupils’ behaviour as recorded in the cumulative records
of pupils could serve as anecdotal evidence and supply data for research
studied.
Characteristics of Observation for Research
The characteristics of observation for research are as follows:
 Observation schedule should be specific.
 Steps should be systematic.
 It should be quantitative.

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  It should be recorded immediately. Research Tools

 It should be made by experts.

 Schedule should be scientific. We should be able to check and substantiate
the results. NOTES
Symonds gives a list of nine essential characteristics of good observation,
which are as follows:
i. Good eyesight
ii. Alertness
iii. The ability to estimate
iv. The ability to discriminate
v. Good physical condition
vi. An immediate record
vii. Good perception
viii. Freedom from preconceptions
ix. Emotional disinterest
Planning administration aspect of observation
This includes the following:
a. Securing an appropriate group of persons to observe.
b. Deciding and arranging any special conditions for the group.
c. Determining the length of each observation period, the interval between
periods and the number of periods.
Points to be considered while defining the activities
These are as follows:
a. Inclusion of those activities which are true representatives of the general
category which one is studying.
b. Defining those activities very carefully.
While arranging for the record, the following points should receive attention:
a. Deciding the form for recording so as to make note taking easy and
rapid.
b. Deciding the use of appropriate symbols, abbreviations and some use
of shorthand.
One can train oneself by:
a. Training oneself to observe others as perception improves with
practice.
b. Studying manuals that list observation techniques.

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Research Tools Planning effective observation
This includes the following:
 Sampling to be observed should be adequate. There should be an appropriate
NOTES group of subjects.
 Units of behaviour should be defined as accurately as possible.
 Method of recording should be simplified.
 Detailed instructions may be given to observers to eliminate the difference
in perspective of observers.
 Too many variables may not be observed simultaneously.
 Excessively long periods of observation without interspersed rest periods
should be avoided.
 Observers should be fully trained.
 Observers should be well equipped.
 Conditions of observation should remain constant.
 Number of observations should be adequate.
 Records of observation must be comprehensive.
 Length of each observation period, interval between periods, and number
of periods should be clearly stated.
 Interpretations should be carefully made.
Disadvantages of Observation
The disadvantages of observation are as follows:
 It is very difficult to establish the validity of observations.
 Many items of observation cannot be defined.
 The problem of subjectivity is involved.
 Observation may give undue stress to aspects of limited significance simply
because they can be recorded easily, accurately and objectively.
 Various observers observing the same event may concentrate on different
aspects of a situation.
 The observer has little control over the physical situation.
 Children being observed become conscious and begin to behave in an
unnatural manner.
 Many children try to pose and exhibit at the time of observation.
 There are certain situations which the observer is not allowed to observe,
and he is helpless in that way to produce an accurate account.
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  It may not be feasible to classify all the events to be observed. Research Tools

 Observation is a slow and laborious process.

 There may be lack of agreement among the observers.
 The data to be observed may be unmanageable. NOTES
 Observation needs competent observers and it may be difficult to find them.
 Observation is a costly affair. It involves lot of expenses on travelling, staying
at the places where the event is taking place and purchase of sophisticated
equipment.
5.2.2 Interview
One of the main methods of data collection is conducting interviews. It takes place
as a two-way conversation between the researcher and the respondent, whereby
information is gathered by asking topic related questions.
We learn not only from the respondents’ responses but also his/her gestures,
facial expressions and pauses. Interviewing can be conducted either face-to-face
or over the telephone by skilled personnel by using a structured schedule or an
unstructured guide.
According to Rummel J. Francis: ‘The interview method of collecting
data requires the actual physical proximity of two or more persons, and
generally requires that all the normal channels of communication be open to
their use. It is necessary to see one another, to hear each other’s voices, to
understand one another’s language, and to use all that is psychologically
inherent in physical proximity. It usually entails a non-reciprocal relation
between the individuals concerned. One party desires to get information from
another—one party interviews the other—for a particular purpose.’
Theodore L. Torgerson has stated that the interview method of study extends
certain aspects of the observational technique.
Thus, the interview method permits the gathering of development data to
supplement the cross-sectional data obtained from observations. The interviewer
can probe into casual factors, determine attitudes, discover when the problem
started, enlist the interviewee in an analysis of his own problem and secure his
support of the therapy to be applied.
Types of Interviews
The different types of interviews are as follows:
 Group interview: A proper setting for group interviews requires a group
of not more than 10 to 12 persons with some social, intellectual, and
educational homogeneity, which ensures effective participation by all. For a
full spontaneous participation of all, it is better to arrange a circular seating
arrangement.
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Research Tools  Diagnostic interview: Its purpose is to locate the possible causes of an
individual’s problems, getting information about his past history, family
relations and personal adjustment problem.

NOTES  Clinical interview: Such an interview follows after the diagnostic interview.
It is a means of introducing the patient to therapy.
 Research interview: Research interview is aimed at getting information
required by the investigator to test his/her hypothesis or solve his/her problems
of historical, experimental, survey or clinical type.
 Single interview or panel interviews: For the purpose of research, a
single interviewer is usually present. In case of selection and treatment
purposes, panel interviews are held.
 Directed interview: It is structured, includes questions of the closed type
and is conducted in a prepared manner.
 Non-directive interview: It includes questions of the open-end form and
allows much freedom to the interviewee to talk freely about the problem
under-study.
 Focused interview: It aims at finding out the responses of individuals to
exact events or experiences rather than on general lines of enquiry.
 Depth interview: It is an intensive and searching type of interview. It
emphasizes certain psychological and social factors relating to attitudes,
emotions or convictions.
It may be observed that on occasions several types are used to obtain the
needed information.
Other classifications of interviews are as follows:
 Intake interview, as the initial stage in clinic and guidance centres.
 Brief talk contacts as in schools and recreation centres.
 Single hour interview.
 Clinical psychological interview, stressing psychotherapeutic counselling
and utilizing case history data and active participation by the counsellor
in the re-education of the client.
 Psychiatric interviews, similar to psychological counselling, but varying
with the personality and philosophical orientation of the individual worker
and with the setting in which used.
 Psychoanalytic interviews.
 The interview form of test.
 Group interviews for selecting applicants for special course.
 Research interview.

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Important Elements of Research Interview Research Tools

The important elements of research interview are as follows:

i. Preparation for research interview
 Decide the category and number of persons that you would like to interview. NOTES

 Have a clear conception of the purpose and the information required.

 Prepare a clear outline, a schedule or a checklist of the best sequence of
questions that will systematically bring out the desired information.
 Decide the type of interview that you are going to use, i.e., structured or
non-structured interview.
 Have a well thought-out plan for recording responses.
 Fix up the time well in advance.
 Procure the tools to be used in recording responses.
ii. Executing an interview
 Be friendly and courteous and put the respondent at ease so that he talks
freely.
 Listen patiently to all opinions and never show surprise or disapproval of a
respondent’s answer.
 Assume an interested manner towards the respondent’s opinion, and as far
as possible do not divulge your own.
 Keep the direction of the interview in your own hands and avoid irrelevant
conversation and try to keep the respondent on track.
 Repeat your questions slowly and with proper emphasis in case respondent
shows signs of failing to understand a particular question.
iii. Obtaining the response
Perhaps the most difficult part of the job of an interviewer is to obtain a specific,
complete response. People can often be evasive and answer ‘do not know’ if they
do not want to make the effort of thinking. They can also misunderstand the question
and answer incorrectly in which case the interviewer would have to probe more
deeply.
An interviewer should be skilled in the technique as only then can he/she
gauge whether the answers are incomplete or non-specific. Each interviewer must
fully understand the motive behind the asking of the particular question and whether
the answer is giving the information required. He/She should form the habit of
asking himself/herself, ‘Does that completely answer the question that I just asked?’
Throughout, the interviewer must be extremely careful not to suggest a
possible reply. The interviewer should always content himself/herself with mere
repetition (if the question is not understood to answer).

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Research Tools iv. Reporting the response
There are two chief means of recording opinion during the interview. If the question
is preceded, the interviewer need only check a box or circle or code, or otherwise
NOTES indicate which code comes closest to the respondent’s opinion. If the question is
not preceded, the interviewer is expected to record the response verbatim.
The following points may be kept in view in this respect:
 Quote the respondents directly, just as if the interviewers were newspaper
reporters taking down the statement of an important official without
paraphrasing the reply, summarizing it in the interviewer’s own words,
‘polishing up’ any slang or correcting bad grammar that distorts the
respondent’s meaning and emphasis.
 Ask the respondent to wait until the interviewer gets down ‘that last
thought’.
 Do not write as soon as you have asked the question and do not write
while the respondent talks. Wait until the response is completed.
 Use common abbreviations.
 Do not record and evaluate the responses simultaneously.
v. Closing the interview
It should be accompanied by an expression of thanks in recognition of the
respondent’s generosity in sparing time and effort.
vi. Use of tape recorder in interview
 It reduces the tendency of the interviewer to make an unconscious selection
of data favouring his/her biases.
 The tape recorded data can be played more than once, and thus it permits
a thorough study of the data.
 Tape recorder speeds up the interview process.
 Tape recorder permits the recording of some gestures.
 The tape recorder permits the interviewer to devote full attention to the
respondent.
 No verbal productions are lost in a tape recorded interview.
 Other things being equal, the interviewer who uses a tape recorder is able
to obtain more interviews during a given time period than an interviewer
who takes notes or attempts to reconstruct the interview from memory
after the interview has been completed.

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Indifferent Attitude of the Respondent and the Role of the Research Research Tools

Worker
It is observed that the research worker is likely to encounter several problems
arising out of the apathy of the respondents. In such a situation, the following NOTES
points may be kept in view:
i. When the respondent is really busy and has no time, the field worker may
request for a more convenient time.
ii. When the respondent simply wants to avoid the interview and is not inclined
to be bothered about it, the field worker should try to explain to him/her the
importance of the study, and how his/her own response is of material value
in the case.
iii. When the respondent is afraid to give the interview as it affects his/her boss
or the party to which he/she belongs or any other cause which is likely to
harm his/her interest, the field worker must assure the respondent that
absolute secrecy would be maintained by the researcher and the organization.
iv. When the respondent does not hold a high opinion about the outcome of
such interviews in general, or has a poor opinion about the research
organization or institution conducting it, it is the duty of the research worker
at such times to explain to him/her the importance of the problem, and
convince him/her regarding the status of the research body.
v. When the respondent is suspicious and he/she thinks that the enquiry is
either from the income tax department or some other secret agency, at such
times he/she may generally ask such questions. Who are you? Who told
you our name? Have you interviewed the neighbour?, etc. The research
worker should try to eliminate his/her suspicion. A letter of authority, the
letter head or the seal of the research body would prove to be useful on
such occasions.
vi. When the respondent is unsocial or otherwise confined to his/her own family
(such a tendency is mostly found in the case of newly married couples), the
research worker at such times will try to create his/her interest in the subject
of investigation.
vii. When the respondent is too haughty and thinks it below his/her dignity to
grant an interview to petty research workers, the investigator should get a
letter of introduction from an influential person.
Advantages of Interview Method
The advantages of interview method over other techniques are as follows:
 A well-trained interviewer can obtain more data and greater clarity by altering
the interview situation. This cannot be done in a questionnaire.

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Research Tools  An interview permits the research worker to follow-up leads as contrasted
with the questionnaire.
 Questionnaires are often shallow and they fail to dig deeply enough to provide
a true picture of opinions and feelings. The interview situation usually permits
NOTES
much greater depth.
 It is possible for a skilled interviewer to obtain significant information through
motivating the subject and maintaining rapport, other methods do not permit
such a situation.
 The respondents when interviewed may reveal information of a confidential
nature which they would not like to record in questionnaire.
 Interview techniques can be used in the case of children and illiterate persons
who cannot express themselves in writing. This is not possible in a
questionnaire.
 The percentage of response is much higher than in case of a mailed
questionnaire.
 Removal of misunderstanding: The field worker is personally present to
remove any doubt or suspicion regarding the nature of enquiry or meaning
of any question or term used. The answers are, therefore, not biased because
of any misunderstanding.
 Creating a friendly atmosphere: The field worker may create a friendly
atmosphere for proper response. He/She may start a discussion, and develop
the interest of the respondent before showing the schedule. A right
atmosphere is very conducive for getting correct replies.
 Possible to secure confidential interview: The interviewee may disclose
personal and confidential information which he/she would not ordinarily
place in writing on paper. The interviewee may need the stimulation of
personal contacts in order to be drawn out.
 Advantages of clues: The interview enables the investigator to follow-up
leads and to take advantage of small clues, in dealing with complex topics
and questions.
 Permits exchange of ideas: The interview permits an exchange of ideas and
information. It permits ‘give and take’.
 Useful in the case of some categories of persons: The interview enables the
interviewee to deal with young children, illiterates and those with limited
intelligence or in who’s state of mind is not quite normal.
 Useful apart from research purposes: Interviews are also used for pupil
counselling, for selection of candidates for instructional purposes, for
employment, for psychiatric work, etc.
 Possibility of asking supplementary questions: The respondent does not
feel tired or bored. Supplementary questions may be put to enliven the
whole discussion.
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  Avoiding handwriting: The difficulties of bad handwriting of the respondent, Research Tools

use of pencil, etc., are also avoided as every schedule is filled in by the
interviewer.
 A probe into life pattern is possible: The personal contact with the respondent
NOTES
enables the field worker to probe more deeply into the character, living
conditions and general life pattern of the respondent. These factors have a
great bearing in understanding the background of any reply.
 Reliable information: The information gathered through interviews has been
found to be fairly reliable.
 Deeper probe: It is possible for the interviewer to probe into attitudes,
discover the origin of the problem, etc.
 Interview technique is very close to the teacher: It is generally accepted that
no research technique is as close to the teacher’s work as the interview.
 Possibility of repetition: Sometimes interviews can be held at suitable intervals
to trace the development of behaviour and attitudes.
 Useful for several purposes: Interviews can be used for student counselling,
occupational adjustment, selection of candidates for educational courses,
etc.
 Wide applicability: Interviews can be used for all kinds of research
methods—normative, historical, experimental, case studies and clinical
studies.
 Cross questioning: Interview techniques provide scope for cross questioning.
 Command of the interviewer: This technique allows the interviewer to remain
in command of the situation throughout the investigation.
 Wider opportunities to know the interviewee: Through the respondent’s
incidental comments, facial expression, bodily movements, gestures, etc.,
an interviewer can acquire information that could not be obtained easily by
other means.
 Useful for judging frankness, etc.: Cross questioning by the interviewer can
enable him/her to judge the sincerity, frankness and insight of the interviewee.
Disadvantages of Interview Method
The method of interview, in spite of its numerous advantages has the following
limitations:
 Very costly: It is a very costly affair. The cost per case is much higher in this
method than in case of mailed questionnaires. Generally speaking, the cost
per questionnaire is much less than the cost per interview. A large number of
field workers may have to be engaged and trained in the work of collection
of data. All this entails a lot of expenditure and a research worker with
limited financial means finds it very difficult to adopt this method.

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Research Tools  Biased information: The presence of the field worker while encouraging the
respondent to reply, may also introduce a source of bias in the interview. At
times the opinion of the respondent is influenced by the field worker and his
replies may not be based on what he thinks to be correct but what he thinks
NOTES the investigator wants.
 Time consuming: It is a time consuming technique as there is no guarantee
how much time each interview can take, since the questions have to be
explained, interviewees have to assured and the information extracted.
 Expertness required: It requires a high level of expertise to extract information
from the interviewee who may be hesitant to part with this knowledge.
Among the important qualities to be possessed by an interviewer are
objectivity, insight and sensitivity.
5.2.3 Questionnaire

Questionnaire Tools
A questionnaire is ‘a tool for research, comprising a list of questions whose answers
provide information about the target group, individual or event’. Although they are
often designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case.
This method was the invention of Sir Francis Galton. Questionnaire is used when
factual information is desired. When opinion rather than facts are desired, an
opinionative or attitude scale is used. Of course, these two purposes can be
combined into one form that is usually referred to as ‘questionnaire’.
Questionnaire may be regarded as a form of interview on paper. The
procedure for the construction of a questionnaire follows a pattern similar to that
of the interview schedule. However, because the questionnaire is impersonal, it is
all the more important to take care of its construction.
A questionnaire is a list of questions arranged in a specific way or randomly,
generally in print or typed and having spaces for recording answers to the questions.
It is a form which is prepared and distributed for the purpose of securing responses.
Thus a questionnaire relies heavily on the validity of the verbal reports.
According to Goode and Hatt, ‘in general, the word questionnaire refers
to a device for securing answers to questions by using a form which the
respondent fills himself’.
Barr, Davis and Johnson define questionnaire as, ‘questionnaire is a
systematic compilation of questions that are submitted to a sampling of
population from which information is desired’ and Lundberg says,
‘fundamentally, questionnaire is a set of stimuli to which literate people are
exposed in order to observe their verbal behaviour under these stimuli’.

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Types of Questionnaire Research Tools

Figure 5.1 depicts the types of questionnaires that are used by researchers.

Questionnaire NOTES
Closed form Open form Pictorial

Mailed Personally administered

Individual

In groups

In print

Projected

Fig. 5.1 Types of Questionnaires

Commonly used questionnaires are:

(i) Closed form: Questionnaire that calls for short, check-mark responses
are known as closed form type or restricted type. They have highly
structured answers like mark a ‘yes’ or ‘no’, write a short response
or check an item from a list of suggested responses. For certain type
of information, the closed form questionnaire is entirely satisfactory. It
is easy to fill out, takes little time, keeps the respondent on the subject,
relatively objective and is fairly easy to tabulate and analyse.
For example, How did you obtain your Bachelors’ degree? (Put a
tick mark against your answer)
a. As a regular student
b. As a private student
c. By distance mode
These types of questionnaires are very suitable for research purposes.
It is easy to fill out, less time consuming for the respondents, relatively
objective and fairly more convenient for tabulation and analysis.
However, construction of such type of questionnaire requires a lot of
labour and thought. It is generally lengthy as all possible alternative
answers are given under each question.
(ii) Open form: The open form or unrestricted questionnaire requires the
respondent to answer the question in their own words. The responses
have greater depth as the respondents have to give reasons for their
choices. The drawback of this type of questionnaire is that not many
people take the time to fill these out as they are more time consuming
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Research Tools and require more effort, and it is also more difficult to analyse the
information obtained.
Example: Why did you choose to obtain your graduation degree
through correspondence?
NOTES
No alternative or plausible answers are provided. The open form
questionnaire is good for depth studies and gives freedom to the
respondents to answer the questions without any restriction.
Limitations of open questionnaire are as follows:
 They are difficult to fill out.
 The respondents may never be aware of all the possible answers.
 They take longer to fill.
 Their returns are often few.
 The information is too unwieldy and unstructured, and hence
difficult to analyse, tabulate and interpret.
Some investigators combine the approaches and the questionnaires
carry both the closed and open form items. In the close ended
questions, the last alternative is kept open for the respondents to
provide their optimum response. For example, ‘Why did you prefer
to join [Link]. programme? (i) Interest in teaching, (ii) Parents’ wish,
(iii) For securing a government job, (iv) Other friends opted for this
and (v) Any other.’
(iii) Pictorial form: Pictorial questionnaires contain drawings, photographs
or other such material rather than written statements and the
respondents are to choose answers in terms of the pictorial material.
Instructions or directions can be given orally. This form is useful for
working with illiterate persons, young children and persons who do
not know a specific language. It keeps up the interest of the respondent
and decreases subjects’ resistance to answer.
Questionnaire Administration Modes
Main modes of questionnaire administration are as follows:
 Through mail: Mailed questionnaires are the most widely used and also
perhaps the most criticized tool of research. They have been referred to as
a ‘lazy person’s way of gaining information’. The mailed questionnaire has
a written and signed request as a covering letter and is accompanied by a
self-addressed, written and stamped envelope for the return by post. The
method of mailing out the questionnaire is less expensive in terms of time,
funds required; it provides freedom to the respondent to work at his/her
own convenience and enables coverage of a large population.
 Personal contact/face-to-face: Personally administered questionnaires
both in individual and group situations are also helpful in some cases and
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 have the following advantages over the mailed questionnaire: (i) the Research Tools

investigator can establish a rapport with the respondents; (ii) the purpose of
the questionnaire can be explained; (iii) the meaning of the difficult terms
and items can be explained to the respondents; (iv) group administration
when the respondents are available at one place is more economical in time NOTES
and expense; (v) the proportion of non-response is cut down to almost
zero; and (vi) the proportion of usable responses becomes larger. However,
it is more difficult to obtain respondents in groups and may involve
administrative permission which may not be forthcoming.
 Computerized questionnaire: It is the one where the questions need to
be answered on the computer.
 Adaptive computerized questionnaire: It is the one presented on the
computer where the next questions are adjusted automatically according to
the responses given as the computer is able to gauge the respondent’s ability
or traits.
Appropriateness of Questionnaire
The qualities and features which make questionnaires an effective instrument of
research and help to elicit maximum information are discussed below:
 Type of information required: The usefulness and effectiveness of a
questionnaire is determined by the kind of information sought. Not every
type of questionnaire can be elicited through it. A questionnaire which will
consume more than 10–20 minutes is unlikely to be responded to well.
Also, the questions should be explicit and capable of clear-cut replies.
 Type of respondent reached: A good deal depends upon the types of
respondents covered by the questionnaire. All types of individuals cannot
be good respondents. Only literate and socially conscious individuals would
give any consideration to a questionnaire. Also, the respondent must be
competent to answer the kind of questions contained in a particular
questionnaire.
 Accessibility of respondents: Questionnaires sent by e-mail can help to
survey the opinion of the people living in far-flung places.
 Precision of the hypothesis: Appropriateness of the questionnaire also
depends upon how realistic is the hypothesis in the mind of the researcher.
The researcher must frame his/her questions in such a manner that they elicit
responses needed to verify the hypothesis.
Types of Questions
There are many types of questions that can be asked, but the way to get to the
correct answer is to know which the right question is. It requires knowledge and
expertise to design the correct type of questionnaire.

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Research Tools The following is a list of the different types of questions which can be included
in questionnaire design:
 Open format questions: Open format questions are those which give the
respondent a chance to communicate their individual opinions. There are
NOTES no set answers to choose from. Responses from open format questionnaires
are insightful and even unexpected. Qualitative questions are an example of
open format questions. An ideal questionnaire is one which ends with an
open format question giving the respondents the chance to state their opinion
or ask for their suggestions.
Example: ‘State your opinion about the grading system in education.’
A respondent’s answer to an open-ended question is coded into a response
scale afterwards. An example of an open-ended question is a question where
the testee has to complete a sentence (sentence completion item).
 Closed format questions: Multiple choice questions are the best example
of closed format questions. Closed format questions generate responses
that can be statistics or percentages in nature. Preliminary analysis can also
be performed with ease. Closed format questions have the added advantage
of being able to monitor opinions over a period of time as they can be put to
different groups at different intervals.
Example: ‘Who is not an educationist among the following?’
(i) Prof Yashpal, (ii) John Dewy, (iii) Milkha Singh, (iv) Rabindranath Tagore.
 Leading questions: These types of questions force the audience to give a
particular type of answer.
Example: ‘How would you rate the grading system in India?’
(i) Fair, (ii) Good, (iii) Excellent and (iv) Superb
 Likert questions: Likert questions can help you ascertain how strongly
your respondent agrees with a particular statement. Likert questions can
also help to assess liking and disliking.
Example: ‘Are you punctual in attending your classes?’
(i) Always, (ii) Mostly, (iii) Normally, (iv) Sometimes, (v) Never
 Rating scale questions: In rating scale questions, the respondent is asked
to rate a particular issue on a scale that may range from poor to good.
Rating scale questions usually have an even number of choices, so that
respondents are not given the choice of a middle option.
Example: ‘How was the food at the restaurant?’
(i) Good, (ii) Fair, (iii) Poor (iv) Very Poor
Questions to be avoided during preparation of a questionnaire
The following questions should be avoided when preparing a questionnaire:
 Embarrassing questions: Embarrassing questions are those that ask
respondents about their personal and private life. Embarrassing questions
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  Positive/Negative connotation questions: While defining a question, Research Tools

strong negative or positive overtones must be avoided. Depending on the

positive or negative association of our question, we will get different data.
Ideal questions should have neutral or subtle overtones.
NOTES
 Hypothetical questions: Hypothetical questions are questions that are
based on assumption and hope. An example of a hypothetical question
would be ‘If you were a Director in the Education department what changes
would you bring about?’ These types of questions force the respondent to
give his/her ideas on a particular subject. However, these kinds of questions
do not give consistent or clear data.
Steps Preparing and Administering the Questionnaire
The steps involved in preparing and administering the questionnaire are as follows:
(i) Planning the questionnaire: One should get all the help possible in planning
and constructing the questionnaire. Other questionnaires should be studied
and items should be submitted for criticism to other members of the class or
faculty.
(ii) Modifying questions: Items can be refined, revised or replaced by better
items. If a computer is not readily available for easily modifying questions
and rearranging the items, it is advisable to use a separate card or slip for
each item. This procedure also provides flexibility in arranging items in the
most appropriate psychological order before the instrument is finalized.
(iii) Validity and reliability of questionnaire: Questionnaire designers rarely
deal with the degree of validity of reliability of their instrument. There are
ways to improve both validity and reliability of questionnaires. Basic to the
validity of a questionnaire is asking questions in the least ambiguous way.
The meaning of all terms must be clearly defined so that they have the same
meaning to all respondents. The panel of experts may rate the instrument in
terms of how effectively it samples significant aspects of content validity.
The reliability of the questionnaire may be tested by a second administration
of the instrument with a small sub-sample, comparing the responses with
those of the first. Reliability may also be estimated by comparing the responses
of an alternate form with the original from.
(iv) Try out or pilot testing: The questionnaire should be tried on a few friends
and acquaintances. What may seem perfectly clear to the researcher may
be confusing to the other person who does not have the frame of reference
that the researcher has gained from living with and thinking about an idea
over a long period. It is also a good idea to pilot test the instrument with a
small group of persons similar to those who will be used in the study. They
may reveal defects that can be corrected before the final form is printed.
(v) Information level of respondents: It is important that the questionnaire
be sent only to those who possess the desired information and are likely to
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Research Tools be sufficiently interested to respond objectively and conscientiously.
A preliminary card asking whether the individual would respond is
recommended by some research authorities.
(vi) Getting permission: If the questionnaire is to be used in a public school,
NOTES
it is essential that approval for the project is secured from the Principal.
Students should be informed that participation is voluntary. If the desired
information is delicate or intimate in nature, the possibility of providing for
anonymous responses should be considered. The anonymous instrument is
most likely to produce objective and honest responses.
(vii) The cover letter: A courteous, carefully constructed cover letter should
be included to explain the purpose of the study. The cover letter should
assure the respondent that all information will be held in strict confidence.
The letter should promise some sort of inducement to the respondent for
compliance with the request. In educational circles, a summary of
questionnaire results is considered an appropriate reward, a promise that
should be scrupulously honoured after the study has been completed.
(viii) Follow-up procedures: Recipients are often slow to return completed
questionnaires. To increase the numbers of returns, a vigorous follow-up
procedure may be necessary. A courteous postcard reminding the recipient
may bring in some additional responds. A further step in follow-up may
involve a personal letter or reminder. In extreme cases, it may be appropriate
to send the copy of questionnaire with a follow-up letter.
(ix) Analysing and interpreting questionnaire responder: Data obtained
by the questionnaire is generally achieved through calculation and counting.
The totals are converted into proportion or percentages. Calculation of
contingency coefficient of correlation is often made in order to suggest
probability of relation among data. Computation of chi-square statistics in
is also advisable.
Improving the Validity of a Questionnaire
The validity of the information collected through a questionnaire can be improved
by using the following techniques:
 The questions should be relevant to the subject or problem.
 The questions should be perfectly clear and unambiguous.
 The questions should be retroactive and not repulsive.
 Check whether the information has been collected from a reasonably good
proportion of respondents.
 The information should show a reasonable range of variety.
 The information should be consistent with what is already known or is
expected.

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  Use another external criterion like consultation of documents or interview Research Tools

with a small group of respondents to cross check the truthfulness of the

information given through the questionnaire.
Question sequence should be the following:
NOTES
 Questions should flow logically from one to the next.
 The researcher must make sure that the answer to a specific question is not
prejudiced by earlier questions.
 Questions should flow from the more general to the more specific.
 Questions should follow an order which goes from the least sensitive to the
most sensitive.
 Questions should flow from factual and behavioural questions to attitudinal
and opinion questions.
 Questions should flow from unaided to aided questions.
The three stages theory (also known as the sandwich theory) should be
applied when sequencing questions. The order to be followed should be
first, screening and rapport questions; second, the product specific questions;
and third, demographic questions.
Questionnaire Construction Issues
The following problems are faced by a researcher while constructing a questionnaire.
 It is very important to know exactly how you are going to use the information
received from the research conducted. If the research or information cannot
be implemented or acted upon, then the research would just have been a
waste of time, money and effort.
 Clear parameters regarding the research’s aims and scope should be drawn
before starting the research. This would include the questionnaire’s time
frame, budget, manpower, intrusion and privacy.
 The target audience selected will depend on how arbitrarily one has chosen
the respondents and what the selection criteria are.
 The framework of expected responses should be clearly defined so that the
responses received are not random.
 Only relevant questions should be included in the questionnaire as unrelated
questions are a burden on the researcher and respondent.
 If you have formed a hypothesis which you want to research then you will
know what questions need to be asked.
 The respondents’ background and education should not influence the way
they answer the questions.
 The type of scale, index, or typology to be used shall be determined.

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Research Tools  The way the data has been compiled will determine what information can
be gathered, e.g., if the response option is yes/no then you will only know
how many or what per cent of your sample answered yes/no, we will not
know how the average respondent answered.
NOTES
 The questions asked (closed, multiple-choice, and open) should adhere to
the statistical data analysis techniques available and your goals.
 Questions and prepared responses to choose from should not be biased.
A biased question or questionnaire influences the responses given.
 The order in which the questions are presented or asked is also important
as the earlier questions and their responses may influence the later ones.
 The wording should be kept simple to avoid ambiguity. Ambiguous words
may cause misunderstanding, possibly invalidating questionnaire results.
Double negatives should also be avoided.
 Questions should address only one issue at a time so that the respondent is
not confused as to what response is required.
 The list of possible responses should be comprehensive so that respondents
should not find themselves without a suitable response. A solution to this
would be to add the category of ‘other’.
 Categories in the questionnaire should be kept separate. For example, in
both the ‘married’ category and the ‘single’ category—there may be a need
for separate questions on marital status and living situation.
 Writing style should be informal yet to the point and suitable for the target
audience.
 Personal questions about age, income, marital status, etc., should be placed
at the end of the survey so that even if the respondent is hesitant to give out
personal information, they would still have answered the other questions.
 Questions which try to trick the respondent may end in inaccurate responses.
 Presentation which is pleasing to the eye with the use of colours and images
can end up distracting the respondent.
 Numbering the questions would be helpful.
 Whoever administers the questionnaire, be it research staff, volunteers or
whether self-administered by the respondents, it should have clear, detailed
instructions.
Factors affecting reliability of answers
Factors affecting reliability of answers are as follows:
 Confusing questions: If the questions are not easily intelligible or they are
capable of being interpreted in more than one way, the answers are unreliable,
because the answer may be the result of misinterpretation of the questions
not intended by the researcher.
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  Prejudice regarding sample: The responses received from the sample Research Tools

may not be true representations of the sample.

 Lack of coverage to illiterates: This method is inapplicable to illiterates
and semi-illiterates as they will be unable to read the questions.
NOTES
 Response selectivity: The respondents of a questionnaire may belong to
a selected group. Therefore, the conclusions lack the kind of objectivity
and representativeness essential for its validity.
Disadvantages of the Questionnaire Method
Like all other methods, the questionnaire is also limited in value and application.
This means that it cannot be used in every situation and that its conclusions are not
always reliable. Key limitations of the method are as follows:
 Limited response: As noted earlier, this method cannot be used with
illiterate or semi-illiterate groups. The number of persons who cooperate
and respond to the questionnaire is very small.
 Lack of personal contact: There is very little scope of personal contact in
this method. In the absence of personal contact, very little can be done to
persuade the respondents to fill up the questionnaire.
 Useless in-depth problems: If a problem requires deep and long study, it
is obvious that it cannot be studied by the questionnaire method.
 Possibility of wrong answers: A respondent may not really understand a
question or may give the answer in a casual manner. In both cases, there is
a strong likelihood of misleading information being given.
 Illegibility: Some persons write so badly that it is difficult to read their
handwriting.
 Incomplete response: There are people who give answers which are so
brief that the full meaning is incomprehensible.
Importance of Questionnaire Method
As a matter of fact, this method can be applied in a very narrow field. It can be
used only if the respondents are educated and willing to cooperate. However, it is
still widely used, owing to the following merits:
 Economical: The questionnaire requires paper, printing and postage only.
There is no need to visit the respondents personally or continue the study
over a long period.
 Time saving: Besides saving money, the questionnaire also saves time.
Data can be collected from a large number of people within a small time
frame.
 Most reliable in special cases: It is a perfect technique of research in
some cases.
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Research Tools  Research in wide area: Mailed questionnaire comes very handy if the
sample comprises of people living at great distances.
 Suitable in specific type of responses: The information about certain
problems can be best obtained through questionnaire method.
NOTES
5.2.4 Schedules
A schedule is a questionnaire containing a set of questions that are required to be
answered to collect data about a particular item. A schedule is generally used in a
face-to-face situation. The following are the objectives for which a schedule is
created:
 It is created for a definite item of inquiry. A schedule sets the boundaries for
the subject under study.
 It acts as an aid to memorize the information being collected by the
interviewer from various respondents. It helps to avoid being confused while
analysing and tabulating the data.
 It helps in tabulating and analysing the data in a systematic and standardized
manner.
Types of Schedules
There are five types of schedules, which are as follows:
1. Observation Schedule: This schedule is used to observe all the activities
and record the responses of the respondents under some predefined
conditions. The main idea behind examining the activities is to verify the
required information.
2. Rating Schedule: It is used to measure and rate the thoughts, preferences,
self-consciousness, perceptions and other similar characteristics of the
respondent.
3. Document Schedule: It is used for collecting important data and preparing
a source list. This schedule is mostly used to attain data from autobiographies,
diaries or government records regarding written facts and case histories.
4. Institution Survey Schedule: It is used for studying the problems of
institutions.
5. Interview Schedule: It is used to ask the interviewee questions and record
the responses in the space provided in the questionnaire itself.
Merits of the Schedule Method
The merits of the schedule method are as follows:
 In this method, the researcher is always there to help the respondents. So,
the response rate is high as compared to other methods of data collection.
 The presence of the researcher not only removes doubts present in the
minds of the respondent, but also avoids false replies from the respondent
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  In this method, there is personal contact between the researcher and the Research Tools
respondent. Thus, the data can be collected easily and can also be relied
upon.
 This method helps to better understand the personality, living conditions NOTES
and values of the respondents.
 It is easy for the researcher to detect and rectify defects in the schedule
during sampling.
Limitations of the Schedule Method
The limitations of this method are as follows:
 It is a costly and time-consuming method.
 It requires well-trained and experienced field workers for taking interviews
of the respondents.
 Sometimes, the respondent may not be able to speak out due to the physical
presence of the researcher.
 If the field of research is dispersed, it becomes difficult to organize the
various activities of the research.
Characteristics of a Good Schedule
The essential characteristics of a good schedule are as follows:
 The information or questions included in the schedule should be accurate
and enable the respondent to understand properly the context in which the
questions are being asked.
 The schedule should be pre-arranged and structured in such a manner that
the information gathered or collected is accurate and tenable. For this, the
following points must be considered:
o The size of the schedule should be accurate.
o The questions in the schedule should be understandable and
definite.
o The questions should not contain any biased evaluation.
o All the questions of the schedule should be properly interlinked.
o The information gathered should be organized in a table so that it can
be easily used for statistical analysis.
Suitability of the Schedule Method
The schedule method is mostly applied in the following situations:
 When the field of investigation is wide and dispersed.
 When the researcher requires quick results at lesser cost.
 When the respondents are well-trained and educated.
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Research Tools Organization of the Schedule
The schedule is prepared by performing the following steps:
 Selection of Respondents: Usually, the sampling method is used for the
NOTES selection of respondents. The sample should be representative of the
respondents and should contain all the relevant information about the
respondents.
 Selection and Training of Field Workers: Since the field workers
interview the respondents and collect the required data, this should be done
carefully and proper training should be provided to them.
 Conducting Interviews: For a successful interview and correct results,
the following points must be kept in mind:
o Follow Correct Approach: The field worker should go to the
respondent with the correct approach so that the respondent can clearly
understand the purpose of the interview.
o Generating Accurate Responses: For proper and accurate
response from the respondents, the respondents should not be
misunderstood in their perspective and context.
Difference between Questionnaire and Schedule
When you work with questionnaires and schedules, you will observe there are
several similarities between the two. However, there are prominent differences
also, which are as follows:
 A questionnaire is mostly sent by the interviewer to the interviewee by mail
and is filled by the interviewee, whereas a schedule is filled by the interviewer
at the time of interview.
 Data collection through a questionnaire is cheaper as compared to a
schedules, as money is spent only in preparing the schedules and mailing
them. In the schedule method, extra money is spent on appointing
interviewers and imparting training to them.
 In the case of a questionnaire, response is generally low because many
people do not respond. On the other hand, response is high in the case of
schedules since the interviewer fills them at the time of the interview.
 The identity of the respondent is not always clear in the case of a
questionnaire, whereas in the case of schedules, the identity of the interviewee
or respondent is known.
 The questionnaire method is time consuming as the respondent may not
return the questionnaire in time. There is no such problem with the scheduled
method because the schedule is filled at the time of the interview.
 The questionnaire method does not allow personal contact with the
respondent but the schedule method does.
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  The questionnaire method is useful only if the respondent is literate, while in Research Tools

the case of a schedule it is not necessary for the interviewee to be literate.

 The risk of incomplete and incorrect information is more in a questionnaire,
while in a schedule the information collected is complete and more accurate.
NOTES
5.2.5 Rating Scales and Attitude Scale
Rating scales: Psychological traits are relative concepts. So it is very difficult to
make watertight compartments between them. Sometimes, the degree of a trait is
necessary on the part of the rater. Rating scale is used to evaluate the personal and
social conduct of the learner. We take the opinion of teachers or parents or friends
or judges on a particular quality or trait of a pupil along a scale. The rating scale
may be of 5 points, 7 points, 9 points or 11 points. For example, to assess particular
trait, we can use a 5 point scale as: very good, good, average, below average, and
poor. The trait in question is marked by the judges in any one of the five categories.
Rating scales can be used to evaluate: personality traits, tests, school courses,
school practices, and other school programmes.
Attitude scales: Attitude refers to the bent of mind or feelings of an individual
towards an object, an idea, an institution, a belief, a subject or even a person.
Attitude scales are used to measure this trait objectively with accuracy.
5.2.6 Writing of Research Proposal
In simple terms, a research proposal means a written application that proposes to
pursue or conduct a research study. It aims at presenting the idea around which
the research study revolves. A research proposal should be able to communicate
that the researcher has applied deep thought to the subject of research, and has
put considerable effort in collecting the required information, scrutinizing the available
data and contemplated a well-organized plan for the research. It tries to emphasize
the need of conducting the research, and thus, necessarily involves formulation of
a good research question. The basic components of a research proposal are as
follows:
 Title
 Abstract
 Background
 Objective
 Technical approach
 Bibliography
Based on this format, the desired form and features of the contents contained in a
research proposal can be enumerated as follows:
 A research proposal starts with a foreword that contains the core question,
which the researcher aims to answer. Thus, it is written with the purpose of
explaining something.
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Research Tools  It also contains a concise review of the prevailing literature related to the
researcher’s subject. Here, the researcher aims at reviewing the major
works related to his/her topic and specify the arguments that have been
formulated.
NOTES  The research proposal includes a statement regarding the argument or
explanation that the researcher aims to present.
 The proposal should also indicate the way in which the researcher’s argument
is going to be different from the arguments made by other authors. In other
words, it should emphasize the aspects in which the argument is unique.
 The proposal should also include a short summary of the different parts of
the research.
 A short bibliography containing the important sources being used should
also be written in the proposal. This can also mean including databases,
Websites and interviews.
 The researcher should opt for quality rather than quantity in writing his/her
proposal. Thus, a proposal need not be long and an approximately 3–4
pages of research proposal is quite sufficient.
The research proposal is supposed to communicate the researcher’s overall
effort that is involved in conducting the research. As such, a researcher should
take ample care while writing the research proposal. You should keep in mind
while writing such a proposal that the ideas involved in the research study need to
be presented in a comprehensive and reliable format. The reader should get a
clear-cut idea of what the research is all about and what argument it aims to
convey. It should also emphasize the researcher’s thought process and the depth
of his/her knowledge of the concerned subject matter of research.

Check Your Progress

1. State the participant and non-participant observation.
2. What are anecdotal records?
3. Define interview according to Rummel J. Francis.
4. Name the different types of interview.
5. Why is tape recorder used?
6. What type of questions should be avoided while preparing a questionnaire?
7. What do you understand by ‘schedules’?
8. What is the use of rating scales?

5.3 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. In the process of ‘participant observation’, the observer becomes more or

less one of the group members and may actually participate in some activity
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 or the other of the group. The observer may play any one of the several Research Tools

roles in observation, with varying degrees of participation, as a visitor, an

attentive listener, an eager learner, or as a participant observer. However, in
the process of ‘non-participant observation’, the observer takes a position
where his/her presence is not felt by the group. In this type of observation, NOTES
a one-way ‘vision-screen’ permits the observer to see the subject but
prevents the subject from seeing observer.
2. Anecdotal records refer to a few sentences jotted down in a notebook.
These sentences pertain to what the subject is engaged in at a particular
moment. Only those behaviours that can be seen or heard and that can be
counted are documented while creating an anecdotal record.
3. According to Rummel J. Francis: ‘The interview method of collecting data
requires the actual physical proximity of two or more persons, and generally
requires that all the normal channels of communication be open to their use.
It is necessary to see one another, to hear each other’s voices, to understand
one another’s language, and to use all that is psychologically inherent in
physical proximity. It usually entails a non-reciprocal relation between the
individuals concerned. One party desires to get information from another—
one party interviews the other—for a particular purpose.’
4. The different types of interviews are Group Interview, Diagnostic Interview,
Clinical Interview, Research Interview, Single Interview or Panel Interviews,
Directed Interview, Non-Directive Interview, Focused Interview and Depth
Interview.
5. The tape recorder is used because the tape recorded data can be played
more than once and thus it permits a thorough study of the data. Tape
recorder speeds up the interview process.
6. The questions which need to be avoided while preparing a questionnaire
are embarrassing questions, positive/negative connotation questions, and
hypothetical questions.
7. A schedule is a questionnaire containing a set of questions that are required
to be answered to collect data about a particular item. A schedule is generally
used in a face-to-face situation.
8. Rating scales can be used to evaluate: personality traits, tests, school courses,
school practices, and other school programmes.

5.4 SUMMARY

 Observation may be defined as ‘a process in which one or more persons

monitor some real-life situation and record pertinent occurrences’. It
is used to evaluate the overt behaviour of the individual in controlled and
uncontrolled situations.
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Research Tools  In the process of ‘participant observation’, the observer becomes more or
less one of the group members and may actually participate in some activity
or the other of the group. The observer may play any one of the several
roles in observation, with varying degrees of participation, as a visitor, an
NOTES attentive listener, an eager learner or as a participant observer.
 In the process of ‘non-participant observation’, the observer takes a position
where his/her presence is not felt by the group. He/She may follow the
behaviour of an individual or characteristics of one or more groups closely.
In this type of observation, a one-way ‘vision screen’ permits the observer
to see the subject but prevents the subject from seeing the observer.
 Natural observation involves observing the behaviour in a normal setting
and in this type of observation; no efforts are made to bring any type of
change in the behaviour of the observed.
 Subjective observation involves the observation of one’s own immediate
experience, whereas the observations involving an observer as an entity
apart from the thing being observed are referred to as the ‘objective
observation’.
 Anecdotal records refer to a few sentences jotted down in a notebook.
These sentences pertain to what the subject is engaged in at a particular
moment. Only those behaviours that can be seen or heard and that can be
counted are documented while creating an anecdotal record.
 Narrative description is also known as running behaviour record and
specimen record, and is a formal method of observation.
 Checklists are usually standardized forms which list specific skills and
behaviours based on standard levels or are specifically compiled by the
researcher for a particular research study.
 In some cases, a researcher may be more interested in studying the frequency
of an occurrence or behaviour or another pattern, such as how often a
consumer buys a particular product or how often an individual started a
conversation with a colleague.
 Event sampling technique is focused on observing specific behaviours or
events in a subject’s behaviour pattern. However, it does not take into
account the frequency or the length of the recording interval.
 One of the main methods of data collection is conducting interviews. It
takes place as a two-way conversation between the researcher and the
respondent, whereby information is gathered by asking topic related
questions.
 The interviewer can probe into casual factors, determine attitudes, discover
when the problem started, enlist the interviewee in an analysis of his own
problem and secure his support of the therapy to be applied.

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  There are different types of interviews such as group interview, diagnostic Research Tools

interview, clinical interview, research interview, single interview, directed

interview, focused interview and depth interview.
 The important elements of research interview include preparation for research NOTES
interview, executing an interview, obtaining the response, reporting the
response, closing the interview, use of tape recorder in an interview.
 A well-trained interviewer can obtain more data and greater clarity by altering
the interview situation. This cannot be done in a questionnaire.
 Interview method also has some disadvantages like it is very costly, time
consuming, provides biased information and requires a high level of expertise.
 A questionnaire is ‘a tool for research, comprising a list of questions whose
answers provide information about the target group, individual or event’.
Although they are often designed for statistical analysis of the responses,
this is not always the case. This method was the invention of Sir Francis
Galton. Questionnaire is used when factual information is desired.
 A schedule is a questionnaire containing a set of questions that are required
to be answered to collect data about a particular item. A schedule is generally
used in a face-to-face situation.
 There are five types of schedules namely observation schedule, rating
schedule, document schedule, institution survey schedule, and interview
schedule.
 The information or questions included in the schedule should be accurate
and enable the respondent to understand properly the context in which the
questions are being asked.
 The schedule should be pre-arranged and structured in such a manner that
the information gathered or collected is accurate and tenable.
 A research proposal means a written application that proposes to pursue or
conduct a research study. It aims at presenting the idea around which the
research study revolves. A research proposal should be able to communicate
that the researcher has applied deep thought to the subject of research, and
has put considerable effort in collecting the required information, scrutinizing
the available data and contemplated a well-organized plan for the research.
 The basic components of a research proposal include title, abstract,
background, objective, technical approach, and bibliography.

5.5 KEY WORDS

 Observation: It refers to a process in which one or more persons monitor

some real-life situation and record pertinent occurrences.

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Research Tools  Questionnaire: It refers to a tool for research comprising a list of questions
whose answers provide information about the target group, individual or
event.
 Rating scale: It refers to a scale used to evaluate the personal and social
NOTES
conduct of a learner.
 Research proposal: It refers to a document proposing a research project,
generally in the sciences or academia, and generally constitutes a request
for sponsorship of that research.

5.6 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. What are the characteristics of ‘observation’?
2. What are the various types of observation technique?
3. State the significance of questionnaire. Name five steps which can be taken
to improve a questionnaire.
4. What are the steps involved in preparing for a research interview?
5. Briefly mention the types of questions included in a questionnaire.
6. List the characteristics of a good schedule.
7. What is research proposal and its contents?
Long Answer Questions
1. Discuss the various types of observation.
2. Elaborate on the advantages and disadvantages of observation.
3. Discuss the various types of interviews.
4. What are the different types of questionnaires? Discuss.
5. Analyse the merits and demerits of schedules.

5.7 FURTHER READINGS

Best, J.W. and J.V. Kahn. 1989. Research in Education. New Delhi: Prentice
Hall
Buch, M. B. 1974. A Survey of Research in Education. Baroda: CASE, M. S.
University.
Fox, D. J. 1969. The Research Process in Education. New York: Rhinehart and
Winston, Inc.

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Garrett. H. E. 1988. Statistics in Psychology and Education. Bombay: Vikils, Research Tools

Feiffer & Semen’s Ltd.

Guilford, J.P. and B. Fruchter. 1974. Fundamental Statistics in Psychology &
Education. New York: McGraw Hill.
NOTES

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Descriptive Research

UNIT 6 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

NOTES Structure
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Causal, Comparative and Correlation Studies
6.2.1 Causal Research Design
6.2.2 Casual Comparative Studies
6.2.3 Correlation and Prediction Studies
6.3 Case Study
6.4 Ethnography
6.5 Document Analysis and Analytical Method
6.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
6.7 Summary
6.8 Key Words
6.9 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
6.10 Further Readings

6.0 INTRODUCTION

A descriptive research study describes the characteristics of a particular problem

or an individual or a group. Descriptive studies include specific predictions
concerned with study, facts and characteristics concerning an individual, a group
or situations. Most of the social research is based on descriptive research studies.
In descriptive studies, the questions related to ‘what’, ‘why’, ‘where’ and ‘who’
need to be answered.
The following steps must be followed while designing a descriptive study:
1. Formulating the objectives of the study: This step specifies the
objectives to ensure that the collected data is related to the study;
otherwise, the research will not provide the desired result.
2. Designing the data collection methods: This step helps to select
the method, that is, observation, questionnaires, interview or
examination of records, for collecting the data.
3. Processing and analysing the data: The data collected for the
research study must be processed and analysed. This includes analysing
the data collected through interviews and observations, tabulating the
data and performing statistical computations.
4. Reporting the researched data: For reporting the findings, the layout
should be well planned, and presented in a simple and effective style.
In descriptive studies, the following considerations should be kept in mind:
 The phenomenon under study should be described.
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  The recommendations are definite. Descriptive Research

 The objectives should be specific, data requirements should be clear

and large samples should be used.
NOTES
6.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Prepare an overview of casual comparative studies
 Discuss the case study method
 Analyse the ethnographic method of descriptive research
 Elaborate the analytical research method

6.2 CAUSAL, COMPARATIVE AND CORRELATION

STUDIES

Let us analyse the properties of casual, comparative and correlation studies.

6.2.1 Causal Research Design
This research design is used to obtain the evidence of cause-and-effect (causal)
relationships. Like descriptive research design, causal research design also requires
a plan and structure and is more appropriate for the following purposes:
 To understand cause (independent) variables and effect (dependent)
variables of the phenomenon
 To determine the nature of the relationship between cause and effect
variables to make predictions about effect
In this design, causal (independent) variables are manipulated in a relatively
controlled environment, in which the other variables that may affect the dependent
variable are controlled or checked as much as possible. The effect of this
manipulation on one or more dependent variables is then measured to infer causality.
The main method of causal research is experimentation.
6.2.2 Casual Comparative Studies
With the help of these studies a researcher explains not only the status quo but also
how and why it is so. This method is used when experimental method is
impracticable or costly. Through such studies similarities and differences among
the different phenomenon or system are discovered, for example ‘a comparative
study of achievements of students of A.K. Inter college and Government Girls
Inter College in term of infrastructure available.’
Casual comparative studies are conducted when a researcher cannot
manipulate independent variable by controlling the dependent one i.e., laboratory
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Descriptive Research Limitation of the Study
 The results obtained by this method can be criticized on the ground that so
many factors contribute to a particular effect and it is very difficult to isolate
NOTES the real factors responsible for that effect.
 Control on variable is not possible here.
 Classification of subjects into dichotomous group is very difficult.
 When relationship between variables is established, it is very difficult to
determine which is the cause and which is the effect.
6.2.3 Correlation and Prediction Studies
These studies help us to know the extent of relationship between any two variables
at present and to what extent one variable is expected to affect the other one in
future. Coefficient of correlation gives us this magnitude and direction of relationship.
For instance, if coefficient of correlation is 0.70 between academic achievement
and socio-economic status, it means that if socio-economic status of child improves
in future, his achievement will also increase. The direction of relationship between
two variables may be positive or negative and degree of relationship may range
between zero and one. Negative sign means inverse relationship. Positive sign
means direct relationship. Zero coefficient means no relationship. Coefficient in
the range of 0.45-0.55 means average relationship and coefficient above 0.70
means high level of relationship between two variables. High level of positive
correlation means if subject scores high in one field (intelligence) he is expected to
score high in related field (achievement).
Methods of correlation: We can calculate correlation by the following methods:
 Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation
 Spearman’s Rank Order Correlation
 Point Biserial
 Tetrachoric Correlation
 Biserial Correlation
 Phi Coefficient Correlation
Types of Correlation: Types of correlation are as follows:
 Multiple Correlations
 Partial Correlation
 Use of r2 in Correlation Studies
Application of Correlation Studies: The following four types of predictions
are possible through correlation:
i. Prediction of attributes from other attributes
ii. Prediction of attributes from measurement
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 iii. Prediction of measurement from attribute Descriptive Research

iv. Prediction of measurement from other measurement

Limitation of Correlation Studies
NOTES
1. Coefficient of correlation is only a number representing degree of relationship
but they should not be taken arbitrarily. 0.70 coefficient is not double the
degree of 0.35 coefficient.
2. A high degree of correlation between any two variables does not necessarily
mean that there exists a cause and effect relationship between them. Other
factors may also be at work that might have influenced both the variables.
3. Some logical relationship must be there in advance between the two
variables. Merely correlating the numerals on two variables is wrong. For
example, if we correlate anxiety with food habits, it will be wrong.

6.3 CASE STUDY

The case study method is mainly used for the purpose of qualitative analysis. It
involves a thorough and complete examination of a social unit. A social unit can
either be a person, a family, an institution, a cultural group or even the entire
community. A case study involves the in-depth study of a particular subject. The
case study method emphasizes on the complete investigation of only restricted
number of events related to a subject and the relationship between the different
events. The main objective of a case study is to determine the factors that are
responsible for the behaviour patterns of the given unit in totality.
In the words of the eminent researcher [Link], ‘The case study method is
a technique by which individual factor, whether it be an individual or just an
episode in the life of an individual or a group, is analysed in its relationship to
any other in the group’. Thus, a fairly exhaustive study of a person or group is
known as life or case study. Burgess has used the words, the ‘social microscope’ for
the case study method. Another researcher, Pauline V. Young, has defined the concept
of case study as ‘A comprehensive study of a social unit of a person, a group, a
social institution, a district, or a community’. In short, case study is a method
that involves qualitative analysis of an individual or a situation or an institution.
Characteristics of the Case Study Method
The following are certain characteristics of the case study method:
 In this method, the researcher is allowed to take one or more than one
social unit for study. Instead of a social unit, the researcher can also select a
situation for study.
 This method involves intensive study of the selected unit. As each unit
is studied for its minute details, the study takes a long period of time. This
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Descriptive Research help and ensures the correctness of the information collected about a
particular unit.
 This method helps to determine the complex factors of a particular unit.
NOTES  It also helps to determine the integrity of the selected unit with the other units.
 This method follows the qualitative approach rather than the quantitative
approach.
 In the case study method, efforts are made to determine the mutual inter-
relationship of the causal factors.
Evolution and Scope of the Case Study Method
In the field of sociology, the case study method is an extensively used research
technique. Frederic le Play introduced this method in the field of social investigation.
Herbert Spencer was the first to make use of case materials in his comparative
study of different cultures. This method is also used by anthropologists, historians,
novelists and dramatists to solve their problems related to their areas of interest.
Even management experts use this method to obtain clues of certain management
problems. Conclusively, the case study method is used in different disciplines.
Major Phases of the Case Study Method
The major phases involved in case study method are as follows:
 Identification and resolution of the status of the phenomenon or the unit to
be examined.
 Accumulation of data and selection of the phenomenon.
 Investigation of the history of the selected phenomenon.
 Analysis and recognition of informal factors related to the selected
phenomenon.
 Application of corrective measures.
 Review of programme to identify the effectiveness of the treatment applied.
Advantages of the Case Study Method
Some of the important advantages of the case study method are as follows:
 As the case study method involves exhaustive study of a particular unit, the
complete behaviour pattern of the concerned unit is understood. According
to Charles Horton Cooley, case study deepens our perception and gives us
a clearer insight into life. It gets at behaviour directly and not by an indirect
and abstract approach.
 With the help of a case study, a researcher can obtain genuine and progressive
record of personal experiences.
 It helps a researcher to determine the natural history of the selected unit. It
also helps determine the relationship of the selected unit with the social
factors of the surrounding environment.
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  It also helps to frame relevant hypotheses along with the data, which may Descriptive Research

be helpful in testing them.

 It helps to obtain in-depth knowledge of a particular subject, which is possible
neither with the help of the observation method nor with the help of the
NOTES
scheduled method.
 The researcher is allowed to use one or more than one method under this
method, depending upon the situation. Alternatively, the use of different
methods, such as depth interviews, questionnaires, documents, study reports
of individuals and letters is possible in case of case study.
 It helps to determine the nature of the selected unit along with the nature of
the universe.
 It helps to increase the experience of the researcher, which in turn enhances
his/her analysing ability and skills.
 It enables the researcher to observe social changes.
 It helps to obtain conclusions and maintain continuity in the research process.
 It helps to obtain data necessary for taking decisions on some management
problems.
Limitations of the Case Study Method
Some of the important limitations of this method are as follows:
 The situations of case study are mostly incomparable.
 According to Read Bain, case data is significant data as it does not provide
any knowledge of the impersonal, universal, non-ethical, non-practical and
repetitive aspects of a phenomenon.
 There are always some chances of false generalization because there are no
specific rules of data collection.
 It is a time-taking technique and requires a lot of expenditure.
 It is based on certain assumptions, which may not be true in some cases.
This decreases the usefulness of the case data collected for a particular
social unit.
 It can be used only in a limited geographic area.

Check Your Progress

1. State one limitation of the casual comparative studies.
2. Name any one limitation of the case study method.
3. Who was the pioneer of the case study method?

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Descriptive Research
6.4 ETHNOGRAPHY

Ethnography is a qualitative research method that is used by anthropologists to

NOTES describe a culture of a group, e.g., what are the characteristics of a particular
group.
Culture is defined in many ways but usually comprises origins, values, roles,
as well as material items linked to a particular group of people. Ethnography
research, therefore, seeks to comprehensively describe a large number of aspects
of a cultural group in order to enhance the understanding of the subjects of the
study.
Ethnographic research focuses on local as well as foreign cultures and seeks
to understand native people—those who are isolated from modern civilization.
One of the famous anthropologists, who undertook research of this nature, was
Margaret Mead. Her renowned study of three New Guinea cultures explored the
gender characteristics and roles of these cultures. By examining a large number of
cultural norms, gender characteristics and roles, this type of research enables
scientists to categorize key characteristics of each gender. Several ethnographic
studies have provided significant detail of cultural roles that challenge the Western
perspectives of gender characteristics.
The orientation or mindset of the researcher undertaking ethnographic studies
is termed ‘ethic’ or ‘emic’. The ethic orientation refers to the view from the
perspective of an outsider.
Assumptions
Research that follows the critical approach differs from research that follows the
descriptive or interpretive approaches. The latter have historically adopted a
more detached, objective and value-free assessment of knowledge, although there
is some degree of convergence between the critical and descriptive approaches in
contemporary ethnography. Critical approaches are aligned with the post-
enlightenment philosophical tradition which believes in situating research within its
social context. This enables the researcher to consider how knowledge is influenced
by the values of human beings and communities, implicated where there are power
struggles, and critical in the process of democratizing relationships as well as
institutions. The critical approach questions dichotomies, such as the separations
of theory and method, interpretation and data, subjective and objective, and ethics
and science. The method also specifically questions the treatment of the second
term in each pair as constituting valid research. Critical ethnography views these
binary constructs as being interconnected and making mutual contributions to the
body of knowledge.
Ethnography accepts a complicated theoretical orientation toward culture.
Culture, expressed by collections of humans of varying characteristics and
magnitude, such as educational institutions, student bodies or classes, or activity
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groups, is treated as heterogeneous, conflicted, negotiated, and evolving, as Descriptive Research

opposed to unified, cohesive, fixed and static. It should also be noted that while
cultures carry the ‘different-but-equal’ view, critical ethnography openly assumes
that cultures are not positioned equally in power relations. Further, critical
ethnography assumes that the descriptions of culture are shaped by the biases of NOTES
the researcher, the project sponsors, the audience, or the dominant communities.
Hence, cultural representations are deemed to be partial and partisan. Studies that
adopt the ethnographic approach should be conducted against the backdrop of
the theoretical assumptions behind this research initiative.
Data
 Provides evidence of cohabitating or spending considerable time with people
who are in the study setting, by observing and recording their activities as
they unfolded through notes or journals, (Emerson, Fretz and Shaw, 1995),
audio and video recordings, or both. One of the trademarks of ethnography
is the extended and first-hand participant observations of their interactions
with participants in the study setting.
 Records participants’ beliefs as well as their attitudes through typical means
such as notes or transcriptions of informal conversation and interviews, as
well as participant journals (Salzman, 2001).
 Includes multiple sources of data. Besides observation and interactions with
participants, these sources can include life histories (Darnell, 2001) or
narrations (Cortazzi, 2001), photography, audio or video recordings
(Nastasi, 1999), written documents (Brewer, 2000), data that describes
historical trends, as well as questionnaires and surveys (Salzman, 2001).
 Often called for in critical ethnography (and also in several cases of
descriptive or interpretive ethnography), to use additional sources of data
and reflection including:
o Evidence to show how the differences in power between you and the
informants or subjects were addressed. It is idealistic to assume that
differences in power may be totally eliminated, and hence what must
be addressed is how these differences were managed, amended, or
moved and also the influence that they had on the data gathered.
o The attitudes as well as biases towards the community and its culture.
There needs to be a record of how perspectives got modified as the
research progressed and how these modifications impacted the data
that was collected.
o The impact that your behaviour and activities have had on the
community. One must state if one was personally involved in the ethical,
social, or political challenges faced by the community. The data should
also contain the manner in which this involvement could have provided
deeper insights or impacted the research (and also the manner in which
the tensions were addressed).
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Descriptive Research o Expose the contradictions in the statements made by the insiders or
informants. Rather than opting for a particular data set over another,
or attempting to tie up all the loose ends in order to arrive at
generalizations, one should wade through the diverse insider
NOTES perspectives in order to more accurately represent the complex nature
of the culture.
o A wider insight and understanding of the context within which the
culture prevails. Context creation is a continuous activity taking place
even as the informants are interacting with the researcher. However,
the data must expose the manner in which external forces outside the
community shape culture. A study of the manner in which local culture
is shaped by social and political institutions and also obtains pre- and
post-research data on the status of the culture.
Analysis and Interpretation of Data
The emic perspective addresses the attitudes, beliefs, behaviours and practices of
the participants. This assists in achieving the objective of ethnography which is to
develop a comprehensive understanding of how people embedded in specific
contexts experience and react to their social and cultural worlds.
 Ethic perspective refers to situations in which the researcher approaches
outsiders to analyse various behaviours or phenomena related with the
culture under study.
 Symbols refer to any material such as architecture technology as a source
of information. Ethnographic researcher uses these symbols in understanding
the participant’s behaviour.
 Tacit knowledge refers to deep and hidden information about cultural beliefs
and assumptions, but this knowledge is never formally or informally discussed
with the participants. Researchers use this knowledge individually.
 Practice reflexivity is an introspective process of self-examination and
self-disclosure of one’s own background, identity or subjectivity, as well as
assumptions that are made and which may determine biases in data collection
and in its interpretation.
 Approach is the data discovery and analysis in a manner that is inductive
and recursive. Be aware that patterns, categories and themes will evolve as
data collection progresses and be cautious not to impose these up front.
 Evidence of triangulation should be depicted in the report. It is the
systematic process of scanning multiple data sources of information and
deriving conclusions so as to confirm or disregard evidence.
 Specific context and particular time period are important features of
ethnographic knowledge. This is because of its first-hand and experiential
nature. However, most modern ethnographers acknowledge that the cultures
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 being studied are unstable and ever-evolving. They pay attention to exploring Descriptive Research

how embedded and interdependent they are with broader socio-cultural

contexts.
 It must be noted that a large number of ethnographers accept and expose
NOTES
heterogeneity and diversity within the cultures being studied. This is
despite the fact that ethnographic reports often present abstractions and
generalizations about attitudes, behaviours, and beliefs of these cultures.
 It thus provides evidence of how the tensions embedded in the research
have been interpreted with openness while taking into account their
complexity as follows:
(i) Between the standpoint of the insider (emic) and outsider (ethic). We
usually bring a relative outsider status and generalized ethic perspectives
and can therefore offer certain interpretations which are not available
to the insiders.
(ii) Between the macro and micro perspectives on the culture. The strength
of ethnography is its localized, detailed and grounded perspective.
However, local culture is greatly impacted by global forces which
emerge from ideological, economic, and geopolitical structures.
Sensitivity to and understanding of the macrolevel impact on local
culture provides important insights into the prospects for community
empowerment.
(iii) Between the structural and the temporal. While descriptive
ethnography has always placed a value on capturing the historical
present (i.e., culture understood as an independent and well-
constructed static system), critical ethnography believes that culture
is exposed to historical influences and also itself shapes history,
even though it is considered autonomous from other social
institutions.
(iv) Between interpreting and explaining. Critical ethnography takes into
account that culture, if regarded as ideology, may result in
misinterpretation of social life. In the same way, a culture that is simply
accepted and lived out is not always flexible for the insiders to
experience relevant reflection. If one displays adequate respect and
sensitivity to the community, one may be in a position to explain some
of the questions and contradictions that are unresolved following the
informant’s interpretation.
(v) Between the parts and the whole of the culture. By explaining the
tensions in a culture, one achieves a consistency and uniformity about
the entire community that basically serves to stereotype, essentialize,
and generalize its culture. Hence, a critical interpretation must not
oversimplify but, on the other hand, should represent all the complexity,
instability and diversity of the culture.
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Descriptive Research Between the different subject positions of the researcher. The researcher
should be flexible and have a reflexive approach; should understand and interpret
personal biases, backgrounds, and identities (such as race, religion, ethnicity, class,
gender, region) both within the field and outside; and acknowledge the ways that
NOTES these can affect the research and cultural representation.

6.5 DOCUMENT ANALYSIS AND ANALYTICAL

METHOD

Document analysis is a kind of qualitative research in which documents are

interpreted by the researcher to convey the meaning of the assessment
topic. Analysing documents incorporates coding content into themes similar to
how focus group or interview transcripts are analysed.
Analytical Research Method: In analytical research investigator or
enumerator has to use facts or information already available, and analyse these
(facts or information) to make critical evaluation of the material. Analytical approach
concentrates on the process of the final result. It stands applicable in all stages of
research.
Analytical studies identify and quantify associations, test hypothesis, identify
causes and determine whether an association exists between variables such as
between an exposure and a disease. Statistical procedures are used to determine
if a relationship is likely to have occurred by chance alone. Analytical studies
usually compare two or more groups or sets of data. Example: case control study,
cohort study, randomized controlled clinical trial and lab study.

Check Your Progress

4. What does the emic perspective address?
5. What is triangulation?

6.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. The results obtained by the method of Casual comparative studies can be

criticized on the ground that so many factors contribute to a particular effect
and it is very difficult to isolate the real factors responsible for that effect.
2. One of the limitations is that the situations of case study are mostly
incomparable.
3. Frederic le Play introduced the case study method in the field of social
investigation. Herbert Spencer was the first to make use of case materials in
his comparative study of different cultures.
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 4. The emic perspective addresses the attitudes, beliefs, behaviours and Descriptive Research

practices of the participants. This assists in achieving the objective of

ethnography which is to develop a comprehensive understanding of how
people embedded in specific contexts experience and react to their social
and cultural worlds. NOTES

5. It is the systematic process of scanning multiple data sources of information

and deriving conclusions so as to confirm or disregard evidence.

6.7 SUMMARY

 A descriptive research study describes the characteristics of a particular

problem or an individual or a group.
 The main method of causal research is experimentation.
 Casual comparative studies are conducted when a researcher cannot
manipulate independent variable by controlling the dependent one i.e.,
laboratory experiment is not possible.
 Types of correlation are as follows:
o Multiple Correlations
o Partial Correlation
o Use of r2 in Correlation Studies
 The case study method is mainly used for the purpose of qualitative analysis.
It involves a thorough and complete examination of a social unit.
 In the field of sociology, the case study method is an extensively used research
technique. Frederic le Play introduced this method in the field of social
investigation.
 Research that follows the critical approach differs from research that follows
the descriptive or interpretive approaches.
 Ethnography accepts a complicated theoretical orientation toward culture.
 The emic perspective addresses the attitudes, beliefs, behaviours and
practices of the participants.
 Document analysis is a kind of qualitative research in which documents
are interpreted by the researcher to convey the meaning of the assessment
topic.
 In analytical research investigator or enumerator has to use facts or
information already available, and analyse these (facts or information) to
make critical evaluation of the material.

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Descriptive Research
6.8 KEY WORDS

 Social unit: A social unit can either be a person, a family, an institution, a

NOTES cultural group or even the entire community.
 Ethnography: It is a qualitative research method that is used by
anthropologists to describe a culture of a group, e.g., what are the
characteristics of a particular group.
 Culture: It basically refers to origin, values, roles as well as material items
linked to a particular group of people.

6.9 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. Define the term ‘descriptive research’.
2. Write a short note on correlation and prediction studies.
3. List the limitations of correlation studies.
Long-Answer Questions
1. ‘A case study involves the in-depth study of a particular subject.’ Explain
the statement.
2. Examine the ethnographic method of descriptive research.
3. Critically analyse the analytical research method.

6.10 FURTHER READINGS

Best, J.W. and J.V. Kahn. 1989. Research in Education. New Delhi: Prentice
Hall.
Buch, M. B. 1974. A Survey of Research in Education. Baroda: CASE, M. S.
University.
Fox, D. J. 1969. The Research Process in Education. New York: Rhinehart and
Winston, Inc.
Garrett. H. E. 1988. Statistics in Psychology and Education. Bombay: Vikils,
Feiffer & Semen’s Ltd.
Guilford, J.P. and B. Fruchter. 1974. Fundamental Statistics in Psychology &
Education. New York: McGraw Hill.

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 Historical Research

UNIT 7 HISTORICAL RESEARCH

Structure NOTES
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Meaning and Scope of Historical Research
7.2.1 Nature and Value of Historical Research
7.2.2 Types of Historical Research
7.2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Historical Research
7.2.4 Process of Historical Research
7.2.5 Sources of Data in Historical Research
7.2.6 Evaluation of Data
7.2.7 Purpose of Historical Research
7.2.8 Problems in Historical Research
7.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
7.4 Summary
7.5 Key Words
7.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
7.7 Further Readings

7.0 INTRODUCTION

History is a meaningful record of past events. It is a valid integrated account of

social, cultural, economic and political forces that had operated simultaneously to
produce historical events. It is not simply a chronological listing of events but an
integrated assessment of the relationship between people, events, times and places.
It is used to understand the present on the basis of what we know about past
events and developments.
In this unit, you will study about the meaning and scope of historical research,
uses of historical research, steps involved in historical research, the types of historical
sources and external and internal criticism of historical sources.

7.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Discuss the meaning and scope of historical research
 List the uses of historical research
 Discuss the steps involved in historical research
 Identify the types of historical sources
 Examine external and internal criticism of historical sources

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Historical Research
7.2 MEANING AND SCOPE OF HISTORICAL
RESEARCH

NOTES Historical research attempts to establish facts so as to arrive at a conclusion

concerning past events. It is a process by which a researcher is able to come to a
conclusion as to the likely truth of an event in the past by studying objects available
for observation in the present. Historical research is a dynamic account of the
past, which seeks to interpret past events in order to identify the nuances,
personalities and ideas that have had an influence on these events.
According to Kerlinger: ‘Historical research is the critical investigation
of events, developments, and experience of the past, the careful weighing of
the evidence of the validity of sources of information of the past, and the
interpretation of the weighed evidence.’
According to Gay (1981): ‘Historical research is the systematic collection
and objective evaluation of data related to past occurrences in order to test
hypotheses concerning causes, effects, or trends of those events which may
help to explain present events and anticipate future events.’
Therefore, it can be concluded that true historical research is a process of
reconstructing the past through systematically and objectively collecting, evaluating,
verifying and synthesizing evidence relating to the past events to establish facts
and defensible conclusions, often in relation to particular hypotheses (if appropriate),
to arrive at a scholarly account of what happened in the past.
7.2.1 Nature and Value of Historical Research
The main aim of historical research is to obtain an exact account of the past to gain
a clearer view of the present. Historical research tries to create facts to arrive at
conclusions concerning past events. It is usually accompanied by an interpretation
of these events at the end of their relevance to present circumstances and what
might happen in the future. This knowledge enables us, at least partially, to predict
and control our future existence.
 Historical research as many other types of research, includes the delimitation
of a problem, formulating hypothesis or tentative generalization, gathering
and analysing data, and arriving at conclusions or generalizations, based
upon deductive-inductive reasoning. However, the historian faces greater
difficulties than researchers in any field.
 The job of the historian becomes more complicated when he derives truth
from historical evidence. The major difficulty lies in the fact that the data on
which historical facts are based cannot be substantiated and is relatively
inadequate.
 It may be difficult to determine the date of occurrence of a certain historical
event partly because of changes brought in the system of calendar and
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 partly due to incomplete information. The historian lacks control over both Historical Research

treatment and measurement of data.

Historical research has great value in the field of educational research because
it is necessary to know and understand educational achievements and trends of
NOTES
the past in order to gain perspective on present and future direction. Knight (1943),
Good, Barr and Scates (1941) have given the following analysis of the value of
historical research:
Knowledge of the history of schools and other education agencies is an
important part of the professional training of the teacher or school administrator.
(i) Much of the school work is traditional. The nature of work is restrictive and
tends to foster prejudices in favour of familiar methods. The history of
education is the ‘sovereign solvent’ of educational prejudices.
(ii) The history of education enables the educational worker to delete facts and
drills in whatever form they appear, and it serves as a necessary preliminary
to educational reforms.
(iii) Only in light of their origin and growth can the numerous educational problems
of the present be viewed sympathetically and without bias by the teacher,
administrator or public.
(iv) The history of education shows how the functions of social institutions shift
and how the support and control of education have changed.
(v) It inspires respect for and reverence for great teachers.
The history of education serves to present the educational ideas and standards
of other times, and it enables social worker to avoid mistakes of the past.
7.2.2 Types of Historical Research
The various types of historical research are:
 Legal Research: It is of immense value and interest to educational
administrators. It seeks to study the legal basis of educational institutions
run by different religions and castes, central and state schools, school finance,
etc. But this type of researches need special training in the field of law.
Anybody without this training is not competent to do this type of research.
 Biographic Research: It aims at determining and presenting truthfully the
important facts about the life, character and achievements of famous and
important educators, e.g., contributions of Dr. Radha Krishnan, Prof. B.K.
Passi, Prof. L.C. Singh, etc.
 Studying the History of Ideas: This involves the tracing of major
philosophical or scientific thoughts from their origins through their different
stages of development. It aims at tracing changes in popular thought and
attitudes over a given period of time.

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Historical Research  Studying the History of Institutions and Organizations: While studying
such history, the same general method applies as for the study of a University.
For example, one may study the history of the growth and development of
National Law Universities, IIMs, etc.
NOTES
7.2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Historical Research
The advantages of historical research are:
 The researcher is not physically involved in the situation under study.
 No danger of experimenter-subject interaction.
 Documents are located by the researcher, data is gathered, and conclusions
are drawn out of sight.
 Historical method is much more synthetic and eclectic in its approach than
other research methods, using concepts and conclusions from many other
disciplines to explore the historical record and to test the conclusions arrived
at by other methodologies.
 Perhaps more than any other research method, historical research provides
librarians with a context. It helps to establish the context in which librarians
carry out their work. Understanding the context can enable them to fulfil
their functions in society.
 It provides evidence of ongoing trends and problems.
 It provides a comprehensive picture of historical trends.
 It uses existing information.
Historical research suffers from several limitations, some are natural due to the
very nature of the subject and others extraneous to it and concerning the capabilities
of the researcher.
 Good historical research is not lazy. It is slow, painstaking and exacting. An
average researcher finds it difficult to cope with these requirements.
 Historical research requires a high level of knowledge, language skills and
art of writing on the part of the researcher.
 Historical research requires a great commitment to methodological scholarly
activity.
 Sources of data in historical researches are not available for the direct use
of the researcher and historical evidence is, by and large, incomplete.
 Interpretation of data is very complex.
 Through historical research, it is difficult to predict the future.
 Scientific method cannot be applied to historical evidence.
 Modern electronic aids (like computers) have not contributed much towards
historical research.

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  It is not possible to construct ‘historical laws’ and ‘historical theories’. Historical Research

 Man is more concerned with the present and future and has a tendency to
ignore the past.
 Time-consuming. NOTES
 Resources are scarce.
 Data can be contradictory.
 The research may not be conclusive.
 Gaps in data cannot be filled as there are no additional sources of
information.
A historian can generalize but not predict or anticipate, can take precautions
but not control; can talk of possibilities but not probabilities.
7.2.4 Process of Historical Research
Historical research includes the delimitation of a problem, formulating hypothesis
or tentative generalizations, gathering and analysing data, and arriving at conclusions
or generalizations based upon deductive-inductive reasoning. However, according
to Ary, et al., (1972) the historian lacks control over both treatment and
measurement of data. He has relatively little control over sampling and he has no
opportunity for replication. As historical data is the closed class of data located
along a fixed temporal locus, the historian has no choice of sampling his data. He
is supposed to include every type of data that comes his way. Historical research
is not based upon experimentation, but upon reports of observation, which cannot
be authenticated. The historian handles data which are mainly traces of past events
in the form of various types of documents, relics, records and artefacts, which
have a direct or indirect impact on the event under study.
In deriving the truth from historical evidence, the major difficulty lies in the
fact that the data on which historical research is based are relatively inadequate.
It may be difficult to determine the data of occurrence of a certain historical
event partly because of changes brought out in the system of calendar and partly
due to incomplete information.
Historical research attempts to establish facts to arrive at a conclusion
concerning the past events.
Steps in Historical Research: The steps involved in undertaking a historical
research are not different from other forms of research. But the nature of the
subject matter presents a researcher with some peculiar standards and techniques.
In general, historical research involves the following steps:

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Historical Research

NOTES

Step 1: The first step is to make sure the subject falls in the area of the history of
education. One topic could be the study of the various educational systems and
how they have changed with the passing of time. On the other hand, studying
‘contributions of education’ as a component of national history can be of interest
to a researcher. The researcher may be interested in a historical investigation of
those aspects of education that have not been touched upon by any studies yet.
Moreover, the researcher may be interested in re-examining the validity of current
interpretations of certain historical problems which have already been studied.
Step 2: This necessitates that a thought is given to the various aspects of the
problem and various dimensions of the problem are identified. Hypothesis also
needs to be formulated. The hypothesis in historical research may not be able to
be tested, they are written as explicit statements that tentatively explain the
occurrence of events and conditions. While formatting a hypothesis, a researcher
may formulate questions that are most appropriate for the past events he is
investigating. Research is then directed towards seeking answers to these questions
with the help of the evidence.
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Step 3: Collection of historical evidence involves following two sub-steps: Historical Research

(i) Selection of sources of historical evidence

(ii) Cutting out the historical evidence from them
Historical evidence is hidden broadly in two types of historical sources and NOTES
is useful to the researcher in many respects. The primary sources, however, are
closest to the researcher’s heart and kept at the highest pedestal.
Step 4: Historical evidence collected must be truthful; hence for establishing the
validity of these sources, the dual processes of external and internal criticism are
used. External criticism is undertaken to establish the authenticity of the documents
of source, correctness of author or builder, data or period to which it belongs, etc.
Internal criticism is done to judge the correctness of the contents of sources.
Step 5: Though statistical testing of hypothesis is not possible, the relationship
among various facts still needs to be established, and synthesis and integration of
the facts in terms of generalization needs to be done.
Three strategies are used to analyse educational concepts. These are:
(i) Generic Analysis: Identifies the essential meanings of a concept and isolates
those elements that distinguished the concept from other words.
(ii) Differential Analysis: Is used when a concept means to have more than
one standard meaning and the basis for differentiating between meanings is
unclear.
(iii) Conditions Analysis: Involves identification of the context condition in
which it can be safely said that the concept was present. Such conditions
are rejected, revised and new conditions added.
In this type of investigation, the researcher must be very cautious while
dealing with the ‘cause and effect’ relationship.
Step 6: The final stage of the study is the preparation of a systematic and
comprehensive report. It is not just the data which is of significance in such a
study. Of prime relevance are the ideas and insights of the researcher, particularly
his assessment of the interaction between the data and the ideas that are used to
explain the data.
7.2.5 Sources of Data in Historical Research
In this section, we discuss the three sources of data in historical research: (i) Primary
sources, (ii) Secondary sources, and (iii) Tertiary sources.
(i) Primary Sources: Primary sources are eye witness accounts and are the
only firm basis of historical enquiry. Good, Barr and Scates (1941) have
called them the ‘first witness to a fact’.
Direct observation, and reporting or recording of the same, comprise primary
sources of data. These provide first-hand information about events that
have occurred in the past. Some of the main types of primary sources are:
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Historical Research  Verbal narratives written by the participants or observers. These may
take various forms, such as official minutes or records, biographies,
letters, contracts, deeds, wills, certificates, magazines or newspaper
accounts, maps, pictures, books, etc.
NOTES  Personal primary sources which are typically a person’s observation
of events in which he has participated.
 Physical artefacts like museum collections, artefacts in historical spots
such as remains or relics, as well as various other types of institutions.
 Mechanical artefacts represent information that is observed through
the medium of non-natural items like photographs, films, and audio
cassettes.
(ii) Secondary Sources: Secondary sources of data basically refer to
information that is obtained second-hand. For instance, the person from
whom information is obtained neither participated nor witnessed the events.
Some types of secondary sources are magazine and newspaper articles,
interviews referred to in the articles, research papers, research reports,
documentaries, etc.
While carrying out historical studies, primary sources of data have highest
credibility when they are used to authenticate presented facts. However,
second-hand information that is available, should also be considered in order
to develop a more holistic view.
Advantages of Secondary Sources
(a) They may acquaint a researcher with major theoretical issues in his
field and to the work that has been done in the area of study.
(b) They may suggest possible solutions of the problem and working
hypotheses and may introduce the researcher to important primary
sources.
Some type of data may be primary sources for some purposes and
secondary sources for another. For example, a high school textbook in
Indian history will be ordinarily classified as secondary source, but the book
would be a primary source of data if one were making a study of the changing
emphasis on national integration in high school history textbooks.
(iii) Tertiary Sources: These sources include bibliographies, catalogues and
indexes that guide a researcher to primary and secondary sources.
7.2.6 Evaluation of Data
The main feature of historical research is the evaluation of historical data. The
backbone of historiography is the authenticity of data collected through different
sources. Even when the data are collected through different sources, doubts can
be raised about their validity, reliability and relevance. The process of judging
validity, reliability and relevance of data is carried out through two devices viz.,
(a) External criticism and (b) Internal criticism.
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(a) External Criticism Historical Research

External criticism is also known as lower criticism. It involves testing the sources
of data for integrity, i.e., every researcher must test the information received to
ensure that any source of data is in fact what it seems to be. External criticism NOTES
helps to determine whether it is what appears or claims to be and whether it reads
true to the original so as to save the researcher from being the victim of fraud. On
the whole, the general criteria followed for such criticism depends on:
 A good chronological sense, a versatile intellect, common sense, an intelligent
understanding of human behaviour, and plenty of patience and persistence
on the part of the researcher.
 Recent validation of the quality of the source.
 A good track record of the source.
This information may be found in relevant literature. Thereafter, these literary
sources can be verified for genuineness of content by verifying signatures,
handwriting, writing styles, language, etc. Further, material sources of information
can be verified through physical and chemical tests on the ink, paint, paper, cloth,
metal, wood, etc.
(b) Internal Criticism
After the integrity of the data sources are established, the actual data content is
subject to verification—this process is known as the internal criticism of the data.
It is also called higher criticism which is concerned with the validity, truthfulness, or
worth of the content of document.
At the outset, the information obtained through a particular source is
examined for internal consistency. The higher the internal consistency, the greater
the accuracy. The researcher should establish the literal as well as the real meaning
of the content within its historical context.
This is followed by an evaluation of the external consistency of the data.
This is important because, although the authorship of a report is established, the
report may comprise distorted pictures of the past. For verifying that the content is
accurate, the researcher should. firstly compare the information received through
two independent sources, and secondly match new information obtained with the
information already on hand which has been tested for reliability. Fox (1969)
suggested three major principles that need to be followed in order to establish
external consistency of the data: (i) Data from two independent sources to be
matched for consistency, (ii) Data must have been obtained from at least one
independent primary source, and (iii) Data should not be gathered from a source
that has a track record of providing contradictory information. It is recommended
that the researcher apply his professional knowledge and judgment to make a final
evaluation in case it is not possible to find matching information from two comparable
sources.
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Historical Research The following series of questions have been listed by Good, Barr and Scates
(1941) to guide a researcher in the process of external and internal criticism of
historical data:
 Who was the author, not merely what his name was but what his personality,
NOTES
character and position were like, etc.?
 What were his general qualifications as a reporter—alertness, character
and bias?
 What were his special qualifications as a reporter of the matters here treated?
 How was he interested in the events related?
 Under what circumstances was he observing the events?
 Had he the necessary general and technical knowledge for learning and
reporting the events?
 How soon after the events was the document written?
 How was the document written, from memory, after consultation with others,
after checking the facts, or by combining earlier trial drafts?
 How is the document related to other documents?
 Is the document an original source—wholly or in part? If the latter, what
parts are original, what borrowed? How credible are the borrowed
materials? How accurately is the borrowing done? How is the borrowed
material changed and used?
Perpetually, the researcher needs answers for all these questions and,
therefore, he has to depend, somewhat, upon evidence he can no longer verify. At
times, he will have to rely on the inferences based upon logical deductions in order
to bridge the gaps in the information.
7.2.7 Purpose of Historical Research
Historical research is carried out to serve the following purposes:
 To discover the context of an organizational situation: In order to
explore and explain the past, a historian aims to seek the context of an
organization/a movement/ the situation being studied.
 To answer questions about the past: There are many questions about
the past to which we would like to find answers. Knowing the answers can
enable us to develop an understanding of past events.
 To study the relationship of cause and effect: There is a cause and
effect relationship between two events. A historian would like to determine
such a relationship.
 To study the relationship between the past and the present: The past
can often help us get a better perspective about current events. Thus, a
researcher aims to identify the relationship between the past and the present,
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  To reorganize the past: A historian reconstructs the past systematically Historical Research

and objectively, reaching conclusions that can be defended.

 To discover unknown events: There are some historical events that could
have occurred in the past that are not known. A historian seeks to discover
NOTES
these unknown events.
 To understand significance of events: There may be significant events
that could have been responsible for shaping the organization/movement/
situation/individual being studied by a historian.
 To record and evaluate the accomplishments of individuals,
institutions and other kinds of organizations: Historians are greatly
interested in recording and evaluating the accomplishments of leading
individuals and different kinds of organizations including institutions and
agencies as these influence historical events.
 To provide understanding of the immediate phenomenon of concern:
A researcher may be investigating a phenomenon. Historical perspective
can enable him to get a good understanding of the immediate phenomenon
of concern.
The students and teachers in the discipline of education can develop the following
competencies through a study of history and conducting historical research:
(i) Undertaking of dynamics of educational change
(ii) Increased undertaking of the relationship between education and the culture
in which it operates
(iii) Increased understanding of contemporary educational problem
(iv) Understanding the functions and limitations of historical evidence in analysing
educational problems
(v) Development of elementary ability in locating, analysing and appraising
historical evidence
(vi) Development of a sense of dignity and responsibility of the teaching
profession
7.2.8 Problems in Historical Research
The problems encountered in historical research are:
 Amount of data: Often, it is difficult to decide as to how much data is
sufficient to reach meaningful conclusions.
 Selection of data: A historian must avoid improper or faulty selection of
data which may be the result of relying too heavily on some data, ignoring
other data, etc. This can result in a bias in the study.
 Evaluation of historical data and their sources: Inadequate evaluation
of data and their sources can lead to misleading results.
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Historical Research  Synthesis of data into a narrative account: Due to the very nature of
historical research, it becomes most fruitful, if a researcher is able to
successfully synthesize or integrate the facts into meaningful generalizations.
Thus, a failure on the part of a researcher to interpret data adequately is
NOTES considered a serious setback.
There are four problems at the stage of synthesis and in report preparation
as given below:
(i) The ability to establish causation from interrelated events is the first problem.
It is incorrect to infer that one event caused the other just because they
occurred simultaneously.
(ii) The second problem is to accurately define the keywords and terms such
that ambiguity is avoided and the correct connotation is established.
(iii) Distinguishing between evidence indicating how people should behave vs.
how they did behave is the third problem.
(iv) The fourth problem involves distinguishing between the intent and the
outcome. This means that educational historians ensure that the consequences
of some activity or policy were actually the intended consequences.
Historical synthesis and interpretation are considered an art, which is
subjective in nature. This raises a serious problem of subjectivity. ‘Historical synthesis
is necessarily a highly subjective art. It involves the intuitive perception of patterns
and relationships in the complex web of events, as well as the art of narrative
writing. Explanations and judgments may be called for, that will involve the historian’s
own personality, experience, assumptions, and moral values. Inevitably there are
personal differences among historians in this respect, and prolonged academic
disputes among historians of different schools or nationalities have arisen over
practically every event. The initial reduction of complex events of the recent past
to comprehensible pattern is particularly difficult and subjective…’. Since the very
process of writing a narrative is a human one, therefore, total objectivity is almost
impossible. As a consequence, bias and distorting of facts to fit preconceived
notions or ideas are not unusual. It may also be kept in mind that historical
conclusions are conditioned by place, time and the author. In order to overcome
some of these inherent weaknesses, the writer must clearly indicate the underlying
assumptions in his approach. In case he belongs to a particular school of thought,
the same must be stated clearly.

Check Your Progress

1. Name any two types of historical research.
2. Mention the problems encountered in historical research.

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 Historical Research
7.3 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS

1. Two types of historical research are the following: NOTES

i. Legal research
ii. Biographic research
2. The problems encountered in historical research are the following:
 Amount of data: Often, it is difficult to decide as to how much data is
sufficient to reach meaningful conclusions.
 Selection of data: A historian must avoid improper or faulty selection
of data which may be the result of relying too heavily on some data,
ignoring other data, etc. This can result in a bias in the study.
 Evaluation of historical data and their sources: Inadequate evaluation
of data and their sources can lead to misleading results.
 Synthesis of data into a narrative account: Due to the very nature
of historical research, it becomes most fruitful, if a researcher is able to
successfully synthesize or integrate the facts into meaningful
generalizations. Thus, a failure on the part of a researcher to interpret
data adequately is considered a serious setback.

7.4 SUMMARY

 History is a meaningful record of past events. It is a valid integrated account

of social, cultural, economic and political forces that had operated
simultaneously to produce historical events.
 The main aim of historical research is to obtain an exact account of the past
to gain a clearer view of the present.
 The job of the historian becomes more complicated when he derives truth
from historical evidence.
 Historical research includes the delimitation of a problem, formulating
hypothesis or tentative generalizations, gathering and analysing data, and
arriving at conclusions or generalizations based upon deductive-inductive
reasoning.
 Primary sources are eye witness accounts and are the only firm basis of
historical enquiry. Good, Barr and Scates (1941) have called them the ‘first
witness to a fact’.
 After the integrity of the data sources are established, the actual data content
is subject to verification—this process is known as the internal criticism of

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Historical Research the data. It is also called higher criticism which is concerned with the validity,
truthfulness, or worth of the content of document.
 Historians are greatly interested in recording and evaluating the
accomplishments of leading individuals and different kinds of organizations
NOTES
including institutions and agencies as these influence historical events.
 Historical synthesis and interpretation are considered an art, which is
subjective in nature. This raises a serious problem of subjectivity. ‘Historical
synthesis is necessarily a highly subjective art. It involves the intuitive
perception of patterns and relationships in the complex web of events, as
well as the art of narrative writing.

7.5 KEY WORDS

 Historical research: It is the systematic collection and objective evaluation

of data related to past occurrences in order to test hypotheses concerning
causes, effects, or trends of those events which may help to explain present
events and anticipate future events.
 Primary sources: These are eyewitness accounts and are the only firm
basis of historical enquiry.
 Secondary sources: These sources of data refer to information that is
obtained second-hand.

7.6 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. Write a short note on the meaning and scope of historical research.
2. List the types of historical research.
3. Briefly mention the sources of data in historical research.
4. Mention the purposes of conducting historical research.
Long-Answer Questions
1. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of historical research.
2. Explain the process of historical research.
3. How is historical data evaluated?

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7.7 FURTHER READINGS

Best, J.W. and J.V. Kahn. 1989. Research in Education. New Delhi: Prentice
Hall. NOTES
Buch, M. B. 1974. A Survey of Research in Education. Baroda: CASE, M. S.
University.
Fox, D. J. 1969. The Research Process in Education. New York: Rhinehart and
Winston, Inc.
Garrett. H. E. 1988. Statistics in Psychology and Education. Bombay: Vikils,
Feiffer & Semen’s Ltd.
Guilford, J.P. and B. Fruchter. 1974. Fundamental Statistics in Psychology &
Education. New York: McGraw Hill.

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Experimental Research

UNIT 8 EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
NOTES
Structure
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Design: Pre-Experimental, Quasi-Experimental and True-Experimental
8.3 Internal and External Experimental Validity
8.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
8.5 Summary
8.6 Key Words
8.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
8.8 Further Readings

8.0 INTRODUCTION

Experiments are used to infer causality where the researcher actively manipulates
one or more causal variables and measure their effects on the dependent variable.
There are three necessary conditions for inferring causality: (i) concomitant variation
(ii) time order of occurrence of variables, and (iii) the absence of other possible
causal factors. Various concepts like independent variables (treatments), test units,
dependent variables, exogenous variables are used in conducting an experiment.
An experiment can be conducted under different environmental conditions, namely,
laboratory and field. The researcher has two goals while conducting an experiment:
(i) to keep the internal validity of the experiment very high and (ii) to make
generalization of the results of the experiments to a wider population.
In this unit, you will learn the different experimental research designs. This
will include a discussion on the internal and external validity of experimental research.

8.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Describe the pre-experimental design
 Explain quasi-experimental design
 Examine true-experimental designs
 Understand the repeated measures, nesting and single-subject design
 Discuss the internal and experimental validity and control of variables

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8.2 DESIGN: PRE-EXPERIMENTAL, QUASI-
EXPERIMENTAL AND TRUE-EXPERIMENTAL

Pre-experimental designs do not make use of any randomization procedures to NOTES

control the extraneous variables. Therefore, the internal validity of such designs is
questionable. Three designs included in this category are elaborated below:
(i) One-Shot Case Study: This design is also known as the after–only design
and may be presented symbolically as:
X O
This means that only one test group is subjected to the treatment X and then
a measurement on the dependent variable is taken (O). It may be noted that
the symbol R does not appear in this design. This means there was no
random assignment of test units to the treatment group. This means that the
test units were either self-selected or arbitrarily selected by the researcher.
In the sales training programme example, the sales manager might have
chosen those sales people whom he likes or may ask the sales people to
volunteer for the training programme.
Let us examine another example here. The objective is to study the impact
of an extra ten day credit period (X) on a credit card payment time (O) and
one decides to study the relationship/impact by offering this to the customers
who make an average usage of ` 25,000/- per month. The problem in this
case would be that no measure was taken to establish their payment behaviour
prior to the extended period. Hence, no valid conclusion can be made from
this design. There is no pre-treatment observation on performance. The
level of ‘O’ might be affected by several uncontrolled extraneous factors
like history, maturation, selection bias and test unit mortality. These
uncontrolled extraneous variables will confound the experiment and render
the design internally invalid.
(ii) One-Group Pre-Test–Post-Test Design: This design is also called before–
after without control group design. This design may be written symbolically
as:
O1 X O2
In this design also, test units are not selected at random as the symbol ‘R’ is
not appearing here. The test units are subjected to the treatment X and both
pre-treatment (O1) and post-treatment measurement (O2) are taken. For
instance, in the credit card example, one might take the payment time before
and after the extended ten-day period. One may be tempted to compute
treatment effect as O2 – O1, which may not be really so, as this difference
could be the result of many uncontrolled extraneous factors like history,
maturation, testing, instrumentation, regression, selection and mortality. This

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Experimental Research would make the design invalid for making any causal inferences on account
of the following reasons:
 The economic condition might have changed during the two periods
(history).
NOTES
 The test units may mature over time (maturation).
 The pre-test measurement on the test units may influence the
performance (testing).
 The prices of goods might have changed over time (instrumentation).
 Test units might not have been selected at random (selection bias).
 Some test units might have left before the experiment was complete
(mortality).
 Test units might be self-selected on the basis of the current poor
performance and may have a better period ahead because of sheer
luck (regression).
(iii) Static Group Comparison: This design is symbolically written as:
Group 1 - X O1
Group 2 - O2
This design uses two treatment groups. Test units in both the groups are not
selected at random. The first group, called the experimental group, is
subjected to the treatment X, whereas the second group, namely, the control
group, is not subjected to any treatment. Both groups are measured only
after the treatment has been presented. Thus, it is critical to understand that
in this design the exposure as well as the experimental treatment is not
under the control of the researcher. Consider the following example:
A study wants to assess the relationship of ‘family support’ (measured by
the presence of domestic help or spouse/family’s help in carrying out domestic
chores) with the work–life balance of BPO women employees. Here, the
presence or absence of help is ascertained and then we can measure the
work–life balance. Thus the design is essentially ex-post facto and any
segregation into experimental or control group is not made by the researcher.
The treatment effect could be measured by O1 – O2. However, this difference
could be attributed to at least selection bias and mortality. Moreover, since the
test units are not selected at random, the two groups could differ prior to the
application of treatment. All these are sufficient to make the design invalid for
drawing any causal inferences.
Quasi-Experimental Designs
In quasi-experimental design the researcher can control when measurements are
taken and on whom they are taken. However, this design lacks complete control
of scheduling of treatment and also lacks the ability to randomize test units’ exposure
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to treatments. As the experimental control is lacking, the possibility of getting Experimental Research

confounded results is very high. Therefore, the researchers should be aware of

what variables are not controlled and the effects of such variables should be
incorporated into the findings. There are two forms of quasi-experimental designs.
NOTES
(i) Time Series Design: This design involves a series of periodic measurements
on the dependent variable for a group of test unit. The treatment X is then
administered and a series of periodic measurements are again taken to
measure the effect of treatment. This design may be written symbolically as:
O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8
The above is a quasi-experimental design since there is no randomization of
treatment to test units. Further, the timing of treatment presentation as well
as which of the test units are exposed to the treatment may not be within the
researcher’s control. Because of the multiple observations in time series
design, the effect of maturation, main testing effect, instrumentation and
statistical regression can be ruled out. If test units are selected at random,
selection bias can be reduced. Further, if a strong measure like giving certain
incentives to the respondents is introduced, mortality effect can more or
less be controlled.
The major drawback of this experiment is the inability of a researcher to
control the effect of history. The results of the experiment may be affected
by an interactive testing effect because multiple measurements are made on
these test units. If a researcher could keep a record of key changes in
various unusual economic activities and if no changes are found, one can
reasonably conclude that the treatment has exerted an effect on test unit.
This design may look similar to the one group pre-test-post-test design
given by O4 X O5. However, there are differences as in case of time series
design, a number of periodic measurements are taken both before and after
the application of the treatment. But in the case of one group pre-test–post-
test design, one measurement is taken prior to the treatment and one after
that.
The results of taking multiple measurements can be compared with one
group pre-test – post-test design. This is shown in Figure 1.5, where X
(treatment) is the new advertising campaign and the measurement on
dependent variable represents the market share at certain periodic intervals.
Six different scenarios (A to F) are presented.
The case of one group pre-test–post-test design would be shown as O4 X
O5 and the analysis of the results would indicate some positive effects of the
new advertising campaign in situations A, B, D and E, whereas in situations
C and F, advertising would not be having any effect. The conclusion in the
case of time series design would be as follows:

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Experimental Research

NOTES

Possible Results of a Time Series Experiment

 In situation A, the campaign had a short-run positive effect, after which

market share was sustained.
 In situation B, the new advertising campaign had a short-run positive
effect. The rise in market share was temporary. The market share
reverts to the level which was there before the application of the
treatment.
 In situation C, the treatment had a delayed positive effect and,
accordingly, it took longer time to appear.
 In situation D, E, and F the changes that occur after the application of
treatment are in line with what occurred prior to the application of
treatment. Therefore, the new advertising campaign had no effect on
the market share.
Therefore it is seen that by taking multiple observations, the results have
altogether different interpretations and inferences.
(ii) Multiple Time Series Design: In this design, one more group called the
‘control group’ is added to the time series design. The design may be
diagrammed symbolically as:
Experimental Group: O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8
Control Group: O 1 O 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 O 6 O 7 O 8
The experimental group is subjected to the treatment X, whereas the control
group is without any treatment. Taking the example of the sales training
programme, the sales training would represent treatment, and observations
O1, O2, O3 ... would represent sales volume of this group. The test unit of
the control group would compromise sales people who are not sent for the
training programme. The measurement on the sales volume is denoted by
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 O1, O2, O3, ... etc. The measurement on the sales for both the groups is Experimental Research

taken after the training programme. The treatment effect (sales training) is
found by comparing the average sales of the two groups before and after
the training programme. The major drawback of this design is the possibility
of the interactive effect in the experimental group. NOTES

True Experimental Designs

In true experimental designs, researchers can randomly assign test units and
treatments to an experimental group. Here, the researcher is able to eliminate the
effect of extraneous variables from both the experimental and control group.
Randomization procedure allows the researcher the use of statistical techniques
for analysing the experimental results. Included in this category are the following:
(i) Pre-Test–Post-Test Control Group: This design is also called before-after
with control group. It is symbolically presented as:
Experimental Group: R O1 X O2
Control Group: R O3 O4
In this design, test units in both experimental and control group are selected at
random at the same time. The experimental group is subjected to the treatment X,
whereas in the control group, there is no treatment applied. Pre-test measurements
O1 and O3 are taken in the experimental and control group at the same time.
Similarly, post-test measurements O2 and O4 are taken for the experimental and
the control group at the same time. All the extraneous variables operate equally on
both the experimental and control group because of randomization. Therefore, the
only difference in the two groups is the effect of treatment in the experimental
group.
If the difference in the post-test and pre-test measurements of experimental
and control group is denoted by A and B respectively, then
A = O2 – O1 = Treatment + Extraneous variables
B = O4 – O3 = Extraneous variables
The extraneous variables would include history, maturation, testing, instrumentation,
statistical regression, selection bias and test unit mortality. However, it may be
worth noting that the interactive testing effect would be present only in the
experimental group and would be missing in the control group. This is because
only the experimental group is subjected to the treatment. Therefore A – B = (O2
– O1) – (O4 – O3) = Treatment effect which would include interactive testing effect.
Therefore, it is doubtful to generalize the results of the experiment.
(ii) Post-Test – Only Control Group Design: This design is also named as
after-only with one control group and is presented symbolically as:
Experimental Group : R X O1
Control Group: R O2
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Experimental Research Here, the test units in both the experimental and the control group are selected
at random. The experimental group is subjected to the treatment X, and
post-test measurements are taken on both experimental (O1) and control
group (O2) at the same time. The post-test measurement (O1) on experimental
NOTES group comprises treatment effect and all other extraneous variables, whereas
O2 comprises only extraneous variables. Therefore, the difference in the
post-test measurement of experimental and control group is taken as a
measure of treatment effect. Hence,
O1 – O2 = (Treatment effect + Extraneous factors) – (extraneous
factors)
= Treatment effect
As pre-test measurement is absent, the effect of instrumentation and
interactive testing effect is ruled out. As there is a random assignment of test
units to both the groups, it can be approximately assumed that both the
groups were equal prior to the application of treatment to the experimental
group. Further, one can always assume that the test units’ mortality affects
each group equally. One can always justify these assumptions by taking a
large randomized sample. This design is widely used in marketing research.
(iii) Solomon Four-Group Design: This design is also called four-group six-
study design. This is also referred to as ‘ideal controlled experiment’. As
will be seen, this design helps the researcher to remove the influence of
extraneous variables and also that of the interactive testing effect. This design
is symbolically presented as:
Experiment Group 1 R O1 X O2
Control Group 1 R O3 O4
Experiment Group 2 R X O5
Control Group 2 R O6
In the above design test units are selected at random in all the four groups.
It is seen that the experimental group 2 and control group 2 are not given
any pre-test measurement, whereas experimental group 1 and control group
1 are subjected to pre-test measurement O1 and O3 respectively. Both
experimental groups 1 and 2 are subjected to the same treatment X at the
same time.
As the experimental group 2 and control group 2 are not subjected to pre-
test measurement, we would need their estimates to remove the influence
of extraneous variables and interactive testing effect. As test units from all
the four groups are chosen at random, it can be assumed that all the four
groups are equal before experiment. Therefore, the pre-test measurements
O1 and O3 on experimental and control group 1 can be used as an estimate
of the pre-test measurement of experimental and control group 2. The results

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of difference of various post-test and pre-test measurement would give the Experimental Research

following results:
Experimental Group 1:
O2 – O1 = Treatment effect + Extraneous factors without NOTES
interactive testing effect + Interactive testing effect ...(i)
Control Group 1:
O4 – O3 = Extraneous factors without interactive testing effect ...(ii)
As this group was not subjected to any treatment, there would not be any
interactive testing effect.
Experimental Group 2:
O5 – O1 = Treatment effect + Extraneous factors without
interactive testing effect ...(iii)
O5 – O3 = Treatment effect + Extraneous factors without
testing effect ...(iv)
As there was actually no pre-test measurement, the interactive testing effect
cannot occur here.
Control Group 2:
O6 – O1 = (Extraneous factors without testing effect) ...(v)
O6 – O3 = (Extraneous factors without testing effect) ...(vi)
As the group was not subjected to any treatment, the difference in
measurement would only indicate the effect of extraneous factors without
interactive testing effect.
By taking the average of (v) and (vi), one gets:
O1  O3
O6  = (Extraneous factors without testing effect) ...(vii)
2
By taking the average of (iii) and (iv), one obtains:
O1  O3
O5  = Treatment effect + Extraneous factors without
2
testing effect ...(viii)
By subtracting (vii) from (viii), one obtains:

 O1  O3   O1  O3 
 O5     O6  = O5 – O6 = Treatment effect
 2   2 
By subtracting (viii) from (i), one obtains:

 O  O3 
O2  O1   O5  1  = Interacting testing effect
 2 
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Experimental Research Therefore, this design has helped not only in measuring the effect of treatment,
but also in obtaining magnitude of the interactive testing effect and extraneous
factors.
To conduct this experimental design, the time and cost required are enormous
NOTES
and therefore, this design is not commonly used in research. However, as
seen, this experimental design guarantees the maximum internal validity. In
businesses where establishing cause-and-effect relationship is very crucial
for survival, this design is useful.
Statistical Designs
Statistical designs allow for statistical control and analysis of external variables.
The main advantages of statistical design are the following:
 The effect of more than one level of independent variable on the dependent
variable can be manipulated.
 The effect of more than one independent variable can be examined.
 The effect of specific extraneous variable can be controlled.
Included in this category are the following designs:
(i) Completely Randomized Design: This design is used when a researcher
is investigating the effect of one independent variable on the dependent
variable. The independent variable is required to be measured in nominal
scale i.e. it should have a number of categories. Each of the categories of
the independent variable is considered as the treatment. The basic assumption
of this design is that there are no differences in the test units. All the test units
are treated alike and randomly assigned to the test groups. This means that
there are no extraneous variables that could influence the outcome.
Suppose we know that the sales of a product is influenced by the price
level. In this case, sales are a dependent variable and the price is the
independent variable. Let there be three levels of price, namely, low, medium
and high. We wish to determine the most effective price level i.e. at which
price level the sale is highest. Here the test units are the stores which are
randomly assigned to the three treatment level. The average sales for each
price level is computed and examined to see whether there is any significant
difference in the sale at various price levels. The statistical technique to test
for such a difference is called ANalysis Of VAriance (ANOVA).
This design suffers from the main limitation that it does not take into account
the effect of extraneous variables on the dependent variable. The possible
extraneous variables in the present example could be the size of the store,
the competitor’s price and price of the substitute product in question. This
design assumes that all the extraneous factors have the same influence on all

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 the test units which may not be true in reality. This design is very simple and Experimental Research

inexpensive to conduct.
(ii) Randomized Block Design: As discussed, the main limitation of the complete
randomized design is that all extraneous variables were assumed to be
NOTES
constant over all the treatment groups. This may not be true. There may be
extraneous variables influencing the dependent variable. In the randomized
block design it is possible to separate the influence of one extraneous variable
on a particular dependent variable, thereby providing a clear picture of the
impact of treatment on test units.
In the example considered in the completely randomized design, the price
level (low, medium and high) was considered as an independent variable
and all the test units (stores) were assumed to be more or less equal.
However, all stores may not be of the same size and, therefore, can be
classified as small, medium and large size stores. In this design, the extraneous
variable, like the size of the store could be treated as different blocks. Now
the treatments are randomly assigned to the blocks in such a way so that
each treatment appears in each block at least once. The purpose of forming
these blocks is that it is hoped that the scores of the test units within each
block would be more or less homogeneous when the treatment is absent.
What is assumed here is that block (size of the store) is correlated with the
dependent variable (sales). It may be noted that blocking is done prior to
the application of the treatment.
In this experiment one might randomly assign 12 small-sized stores to three
price levels in such a way that there are four stores for each of the three
price levels. Similarly, 12 medium-sized stores and 12 large-sized stores
may be randomly assigned to three price levels. Now the technique of analysis
of variance could be employed to analyse the effect of treatment on the
dependent variable and to separate out the influence of extraneous variable
(size of store) from the experiment.
(iii) Latin Square Design: This design is employed when the researcher is
interested in separating out the influence of two extraneous variables.
Suppose the interest is to study the influence of price (treatment) on sales.
Let there be three levels of price categorizes, namely, low (X1), medium
(X2) and high (X3). The sales could be influenced by two extraneous
variables, namely, store size and type of packaging. For the application of
the Latin square design, the number of categories of two extraneous variables
should be equal to the number of levels of treatments. This is a necessary
condition for the use of Latin square design. The store could be of size –
small (1), medium (2) and large (3) and type of packaging could be I, II and
III. The Table 8.1 below presents the layout of the Latin square design.

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Experimental Research Table 8.1 Latin Square Design for Various Levels of Price

Store Size Packaging

I II III
NOTES 1 (Small) X1 X2 X3
2 (Medium) X2 X3 X1
3 (Large) X3 X1 X2

It may be noted that the rows and columns represent those extraneous
variables whose effect is to be controlled and measured. There are three
categories of row variable (size of store) and three categories of column
variable (type of packaging). This would result in 3 × 3 Latin square.
One point that has to be kept in mind is that the treatment should be assigned
randomly to cells in such a way that each treatment occurs once and only
once in each row and in each column. The treatments exhibited in Table 8.2
satisfy this condition.
Use of this design helps to measure statistically the effect of a treatment on
the dependent variable and also the measurement of an error resulting from
two extraneous variables. This design, indeed has a very complex setup
and is quite expensive to execute.
(iv) Factorial Design: A factorial design may be employed to measure the
effect of two or more independent variables at various levels. The factorial
designs allow for interaction between the variables. An interaction is said to
take place when the simultaneous effect of two or more variables is different
from the sum of their individual effects. An individual may have a high
preference for mangoes and may also like ice-cream, which does not mean
that he would like mango ice cream, leading to an interaction.
The sales of a product may be influenced by two factors, namely, price
level and store size. There may be three levels of price—low (A1), medium
(A2) and high (A3). The store size could be categorized into small (B1) and
big (B2). This could be conceptualized as a two-factor design with
information reported in the form of a table. In the table, each level of one
factor may be presented as a row and each level of another variable would
be presented as a column. This example could be summarized in the form
of a table having three rows and two columns. This would require 3 × 2 =
6 cells. Therefore, six different level of treatment combinations would be
produced each with a specific level of price and store size. The respondents
would be randomly selected and randomly assigned to the six cells. The
tabular presentation of 3 × 2 factorial design is given in Table 8.2.

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 Table 8.2 3 × 2 Factorial Design for Price Level and Store Size Experimental Research

Price Store
Small (B1) Big (B2)
Low Level (A1) A1B1 A1B2 NOTES
Medium Level (A2) A2B1 A2B2
High Level (A3) A3B1 A3B2

Respondents in each cell receive a specified treatment combination. For

example, respondents in the upper left hand corner cell would face small
level of price and small store. Similarly, the respondents in the lower right
hand corner cell will be subjected to both high price level and big store.
The main advantages of factorial design are:
 It is possible to measure the main effects and interaction effect of two or
more independent variables at various levels.
 It allows a saving of time and effort because all observations are
employed to study the effects of each factor.
 The conclusion reached using factorial design has broader applications
as each factor is studied with different combinations of other factors.
The limitation of this design is that the number of combinations (number of
cells) increases with increased number of factors and levels. However, a fractional
factorial design could be used if interest is in studying only a few of the interactions
or main effects.
 Internal validity is concerned with examining the absence of all the causal
factors except the one whose influence is being examined on the dependent
variable. External validity, on the other hand, refers to the generalization of
the results of the experiment. There are various factors affecting the internal
validity of the experiment. These are history, maturation, testing,
instrumentation, statistical regression, selection bias and test units’ mortality.
Similarly, there are factors influencing the external validity of an experiment.
Some of the factors may be common to both the internal and the external
validity of the experiment. The methods of controlling the effects of extraneous
variables are also discussed.
 Experimental designs are classified into pre-experimental, quasi-
experimental, true-experimental and statistical design. Under pre-
experimental design are included (i) one-shot case study, (ii) one-group
pre-test post-test design and (iii) static group comparison. The pre-
experimental designs do not make use of randomization procedure in order
to control the extraneous variables. Therefore, the internal validity of such
experiments remains doubtful. Under quasi-experimental design are
discussed (i) time series design and (ii) multiple time series design. In these

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Experimental Research designs the researcher has control over when the measurements are to be
taken and on whom they are taken. However, the design lacks complete
control of scheduling of treatment and also lacks ability to randomize test
units exposure to treatments. Included in the category of true-experimental
NOTES design are (i) pre-test–post-test control group, (ii) post-test–only control
group and (iii) Solomon four-group design. In these designs, the researcher
can randomly assign test units and treatments to experimental groups. The
researcher is able to eliminate the effect of extraneous variables from both
control and experimental groups. The statistical designs covered here are
(i) completely randomized design, (ii) randomized block design, (iii) Latin
square design, and (iv) factorial design. The statistical designs help to
(i) study the effect of more than one level of independent variables on the
dependent variable; (ii) study the effect of more than one independent
variable and (iii) the effect of specific extraneous variables.
Independent and Repeated Measures designs
In the independent measure design, different set of participants are used for each
condition of research. The advantage of this type of research design is that the
problem of order of conditions, where participants behave differently based on
the order is eliminated. The disadvantage is that the individual differences of groups
may create error in the research. This type of research design is called between
groups.
In repeated measures design, the same group of individuals are tested for
different conditions. The advantage is that the problem of individual difference
between groups is eliminated. The disadvantage is that a fewer group is required
for this type of research, there may be a problem of order effects and the range of
use is limited as participants are repeated. This type of research design is also
called within group design.
Nested and Single-subject designs

Nesting design
Nested design is a research design in which levels of one factor are hierarchically
subsumed under or nested within levels of another factor.
Crossed design is a research design that has at least two factors that are
crossed, i.e. every category of one factor co-occurs in the design with every
category of the other factor
Single subject design
In design of experiments, single-subject design or single-case research design is
a research design most often used in applied fields of psychology, education, and
human behaviour in which the subject serves as his/her own control, rather than
using another individual/group.
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The following are the requirements of single-subject designs: Experimental Research

 Continuous assessment: The behaviour of the individual is observed

repeatedly over the course of the intervention. This ensures that any treatment
effects are observed long enough to convince the scientist that the treatment
NOTES
produces a lasting effect.
 Baseline assessment: Before the treatment is implemented, the researcher
is to look for behavioral trends. If a treatment reverses a baseline trend
(e.g., things were getting worse as time went on in the baseline but the
treatment reversed this trend) then this is powerful evidence suggesting
(though not proving) a treatment effect.
 Variability in data: Because behaviour is assessed repeatedly, the single-
subject design allows the researcher to see how consistently the treatment
changes behaviour over time. Large-group statistical designs do not typically
provide this information because repeated assessments are not usually taken
and the behaviour of individuals in the groups are not scrutinized; instead,
group means are reported.

Check Your Progress

1. Name the pre-experimental design in which the exposure as well as the
experimental treatment is not under the control of the researcher.
2. State the major drawback of time series design.
3. Mention the other names for Solomon Four-Group Design.
4. When is the Latin Square Design employed by the researcher?

8.3 INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL EXPERIMENTAL

VALIDITY

In this section, you will learn about the concept of internal and external experimental
validity and how to control extraneous and intervening variables.
Internal Validity
Internal validity is considered as a property of scientific studies which indicates the
extent to which an underlying conclusion based on a study is warranted. This type
of warrant is constituted by the extent to which a study minimizes systematic error
or ‘bias’. If a causal relation between two variables is properly demonstrated then
the inferences are said to possess internal validity. A fundamental inference may be
based on a relation when the following three criteria are satisfied:
1. The ‘cause’ precedes the ‘effect’ in time (temporal precedence).
2. The ‘cause’ and the ‘effect’ are related (covariation).

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Experimental Research 3. There are no plausible alternative explanations for the observed covariation
(non-spuriousness).
Internal validity refers to the ability of a research design for providing an adequate
test of an hypothesis and the ability to rule out all plausible explanations for the
NOTES
results but the explanation being tested. For example, let us consider that a
researcher decides that a particular medication prevents the development of heart
disease because he found that research participants who took the medication
developed lower rates of heart disease than those who never took the medication.
This interpretation of the study’s results is likely to be correct, however, only if the
study has high internal validity. In order to have high internal validity, the research
design must have controlled the directionality and third-variable problems, as well
as for the effects of other extraneous variables. In short, the researcher would
have needed to perform an experimental study in which:
 Participants were randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups.
 Participants did not know whether they were taking the medication.
The most internally valid studies are experimental studies because they are
better than correlational and case studies at controlling for the directionality and
third-variable problems, as well as for the effects of other extraneous variables.
Threats to Internal Validity
The following are the various threats to internal validity:
Ambiguous Temporal Precedence: Lack of precision about the occurrence of
variable, i.e., which variable occurred first, may yield confusion that which variable
is the cause and which is the effect.
Confounding: Confounding is a major threat to the validity of fundamental
inferences. Changes in the dependent variable may rather be attributed to the
existence or variations in the degree of a third variable which is related to the
manipulated variable. Rival hypotheses to the original fundamental inference
hypothesis of the researcher may be developed where spurious relationships cannot
be ruled out.
Selection Bias: It refers to the problem that, at pre-test, differences between the
existing groups that may interact with the independent variable and thus be
‘responsible’ for the observed outcome. Researchers and participants bring to the
experiment a myriad of characteristics, some learned and others inherent. For
example, sex, weight, hair, eye, and skin color, personality, mental capabilities and
physical abilities, etc. Attitudes like motivation or willingness to participate can
also be involved. If an unequal number of test subjects have similar subject-related
variables during the selection step of the research study, then there is a threat to
the internal validity.
Repeated Testing: It is also referred to as testing effects. Repeatedly measuring
or testing the participants may lead to bias. Participants of the testing may remember
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Repeatedly performing the same or similar intelligence tests usually leads to score Experimental Research

gains instead of concluding that the underlying skills have changed for good. This
type of threat to internal validity provides good rival hypotheses.
Regression toward the Mean: When subjects are selected on the basis of
NOTES
extreme scores (one far away from the mean) during a test then this type of threat
occurs. For example, in a testing when children with the bad reading scores are
selected for participating in a reading course, improvements in the reading at the
end of the course might be due to regression toward the mean and not the course’s
effectiveness actually. If the children had been tested again before the course started,
they would likely have obtained better scores anyway.
External Validity
External validity is considered as the validity of generalized (causal or fundamental)
inferences in scientific studies. It is typically based on experiments as experimental
[Link] other words, it is the degree to which the outcomes of a study can be
generalized to other situations and people.
If inferences about cause and effect relationships which are based on a
particular scientific study may be generalized from the unique and characteristics
settings, procedures and participants to other populations and conditions then
they are said to possess external validity. Causal inferences possessing high degrees
of external validity can reasonably be expected to apply:
 To the target population of the study, i.e., from which the sample was drawn.
It is also referred to as population validity.
 To the universe of other populations, i.e., across time and space.
An experiment using human participants often employ small samples which
are obtained from a single geographic location or with characteristics features is
considered as the most common threat to external validity. Due to this reason, one
cannot be certain that the conclusions drawn about cause and effect relationships
do actually apply to people in other geographic locations or without these particular
features.
External validity refers to the ability of a research design for providing
outcomes that can be generalized to other situations, especially to real-life situations.
For instance, if the researcher in the hypothetical heart disease medication study
found that the medication, under controlled conditions, prevented the development
of heart disease in research participants, he would want to generalize these findings
to state that the medication will prevent heart disease in the general population.
However, let us consider that the research design required the elimination of many
potential participants, such as people who abuse alcohol or other drugs, suffer
from diabetes, weigh more than average for their height, and have never suffered
from a mood or anxiety disorder. These are common risk factors for heart disease
and, by eliminating these factors; the outcomes of the study would provide little
evidence that the medication will be effective for people with these risk factors. In
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Experimental Research other words, the study would have low external validity and, hence, its outcomes
to the general population could not be generalized.
This commonly happens in tests of antidepressant medications. Because researchers
want to make sure that the antidepressant effects of the medications being tested
NOTES
are not hidden by the effects of extraneous variables, they often have excluded
potential participants with one or more of the following characteristics:
 People who are addicted to alcohol or illicit drugs.
 People who take various medications.
 People who have anxiety disorders (such as, phobic disorders).
 People who suffer from depression with psychosis.
 People with mild depression (because they would show only a small
response to the medication).
If a study excluded people with these characteristic features, then most of
the participants suffering from depression would be excluded from the final pool
of participants. The outcomes of the study, therefore, would provide little information
about how most depressed people will respond to the medication.
Threats to External Validity
A threat to external validity is an explanation of how you might be wrong in making
a generalization. Usually, generalization is limited when the cause, i.e., independent
variable depends on other factors; therefore, all threats to external validity interact
with the independent variable.
 Aptitude-Treatment Interaction: The sample may have specific
characteristic features that may interact with the independent variable, limiting
generalization. For example, inferences based on comparative psychotherapy
studies often employ specific samples (e.g., volunteers, highly depressed,
no comorbidity). If psychotherapy is found effective for these sample
patients, will it also be effective for non-volunteers or the mildly depressed
or patients with concurrent other disorders?
 Situation: All situational features, such as treatment conditions, time,
location, lighting, noise, treatment administration, investigator, timing, scope
and extent of measurement, etc. of a study potentially limit generalization.
 Pre-Test Effects: If cause and effect relationships can only be found when
pre-tests are carried out, then this also limits the generality of the findings.
 Post-Test Effects: If cause and effect relationships can only be found
when post-tests are carried out, then this also limits the generality of the
findings.
 Reactivity (Placebo, Novelty and Hawthorne Effects): If cause and
effect relationships are found they might not be generalized to other situations
if the effects found only occurred as an effect of studying the situation.
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  Rosenthal Effects: Inferences about cause-consequence relationships may Experimental Research

not be able to generalize to other investigators or researchers.

Check Your Progress

NOTES
5. When are inferences said to possess internal validity?
6. Which type of variable interacts with all threats to external validity?
7. List some of the situational features which potentially limit generalization.

8.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. Static group comparison is the pre-experimental design in which the

exposure as well as the experimental treatment is not under the control of
the researcher.
2. The major drawback of time series design is the inability of the researcher
to control the effect of history.
3. Solomon Four-Group Design is also called four-group six study design.
This design is also referred to as ‘ideal controlled experiment.’
4. Latin Square Design is employed when the researcher is interested in
separating out the influence of two extraneous variables.
5. If a casual relation between two variables is properly demonstrated then
the inferences are said to possess internal validity.
6. All threats to external validity interact with the independent variable.
7. All situational features such as treatment conditions, time, location, lighting,
noise, treatment administration, investigator, timing, scope and extent of
measurement, etc., of a study potentially limit generalization.

8.5 SUMMARY

 Pre-experimental designs do not make use of any randomization procedures

to control the extraneous variables. Therefore, the internal validity of such
designs is questionable.
 In quasi-experimental design the researcher can control when measurements
are taken and on whom they are taken. However, this design lacks complete
control of scheduling of treatment and also lacks the ability to randomize
test units’ exposure to treatments. As the experimental control is lacking,
the possibility of getting confounded results is very high. Therefore, the
researchers should be aware of what variables are not controlled and the
effects of such variables should be incorporated into the findings.
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Experimental Research  In true experimental designs, researchers can randomly assign test units
and treatments to an experimental group. Here, the researcher is able to
eliminate the effect of extraneous variables from both the experimental and
control group. Randomization procedure allows the researcher the use of
NOTES statistical techniques for analysing the experimental results.
 Statistical designs allow for statistical control and analysis of external
variables.
 A factorial design may be employed to measure the effect of two or more
independent variables at various levels. The factorial designs allow for
interaction between the variables.
 Internal validity is concerned with examining the absence of all the causal
factors except the one whose influence is being examined on the dependent
variable.
 External validity, on the other hand, refers to the generalization of the results
of the experiment. There are various factors affecting the internal validity of
the experiment. These are history, maturation, testing, instrumentation,
statistical regression, selection bias and test units’ mortality.
 Similarly, there are factors influencing the external validity of an experiment.
Some of the factors may be common to both the internal and the external
validity of the experiment.
 The methods of controlling the effects of extraneous variables are also
discussed.
 Experimental designs are classified into pre-experimental, quasi-
experimental, true-experimental and statistical design.
 Under pre-experimental design are included (i) one-shot case study,
(ii) one-group pre-test post-test design and (iii) static group comparison.
 The pre-experimental designs do not make use of randomization procedure
in order to control the extraneous variables. Therefore, the internal validity
of such experiments remains doubtful.
 Under quasi-experimental design are discussed (i) time series design and
(ii) multiple time series design. In these designs the researcher has control
over when the measurements are to be taken and on whom they are taken.
However, the design lacks complete control of scheduling of treatment and
also lacks ability to randomize test units exposure to treatments.
 Included in the category of true-experimental design are (i) pre-test–post-
test control group, (ii) post-test–only control group and (iii) Solomon
four-group design. In these designs, the researcher can randomly assign
test units and treatments to experimental groups. The researcher is able to
eliminate the effect of extraneous variables from both control and
experimental groups.
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  The statistical designs covered here are (i) completely randomized design, Experimental Research

(ii) randomized block design, (iii) Latin square design, and (iv) factorial
design.
 The statistical designs help to (i) study the effect of more than one level of
NOTES
independent variables on the dependent variable; (ii) study the effect of
more than one independent variable and (iii) the effect of specific extraneous
variables.
 Internal validity is considered as a property of scientific studies which indicates
the extent to which an underlying conclusion based on a study is warranted.
This type of warrant is constituted by the extent to which a study minimizes
systematic error or ‘bias’.
 External validity is considered as the validity of generalized (causal or
fundamental) inferences in scientific studies. It is typically based on
experiments as experimental [Link] other words, it is the degree to which
the outcomes of a study can be generalized to other situations and people.

8.6 KEY WORDS

 Pre-experimental design: These research designs do not make use of

any randomization procedures to control extraneous variables.
 Quasi-experimental design: It refers to the research design in which the
researcher can control when measurements are taken and on whom they
are taken.
 True experimental design: It refers to the research design where
researchers can randomly assign test units and treatments to an experimental
group.
 Extraneous variables: It refers to all the variables other than independent
variable which can affect a change on the dependent variable.
 Intervening variables: It refers to the mediating variable or hypothetical
variable which explains the relationship between two other variables usually
the independent variable.

8.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. Write short notes on the types of quasi-experimental designs.
2. Briefly describe the true experimental designs.
3. List the advantages of statistical designs.
4. What are the criteria that must be satisfied for a fundamental inference? Self-Instructional
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Experimental Research Long Answer Questions
1. Explain the different types of pre-experimental designs.
2. Describe the types of statistical designs.
NOTES 3. Discuss the concept of internal validity and threats to it.
4. Examine the concept and threats of external validity.

8.8 FURTHER READINGS

Best, J.W. and J.V. Kahn. 1989. Research in Education. New Delhi: Prentice
Hall.
Buch, M. B. 1974. A Survey of Research in Education. Baroda: CASE, M. S.
University.
Fox, D. J. 1969. The Research Process in Education. New York: Rhinehart and
Winston, Inc.
Garrett. H. E. 1988. Statistics in Psychology and Education. Bombay: Vikils,
Feiffer & Semen’s Ltd.
Guilford, J.P. and B. Fruchter. 1974. Fundamental Statistics in Psychology &
Education. New York: McGraw Hill.

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 Data Analysis
BLOCK - III
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

NOTES
UNIT 9 DATA ANALYSIS
Structure
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Types of Measurement Scales
9.3 Descriptive and Inferential Data Analysis
9.3.1 Tools of Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
9.3.2 Quantitative, Qualitative, Parametric and Non-Parametric Analysis
9.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
9.5 Summary
9.6 Key Words
9.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
9.8 Further Readings

9.0 INTRODUCTION

In the research methodology, one of the major and significant tasks involved is
data analysis. This comes after the collection of data. Data analysis simply refers
to the process of interpreting the information collected, attaching significance to
the values and arriving at results. Data analysis in a sense is the stage where sense
is made of the data collected. Data analysis helps in giving explanation to the data
collected, allows comparison between different sets of data, assists in identification
of data outliers and helps in making predictions for the future. Data analysis requires
certain prerequisites to make it a smooth and consistent process. This requires the
selection of measurement scales, the type and method of analysis as well as the
classification of tests to be used for interpretation. All of these concepts will be
introduced in this unit.

9.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Discuss the types of measurement scales
 Explain the concept of descriptive and inferential analysis
 Describe quantitative and qualitative data analysis
 Explain parametric and non-parametric tests

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Data Analysis
9.2 TYPES OF MEASUREMENT SCALES

There are four types of measurement scales—nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio
NOTES scales. We will discuss each one of them in detail. The choice of the measurement
scale has implications for the statistical technique to be used for data analysis.
Nominal scale: This is the lowest level of measurement. Here, numbers
are assigned for the purpose of identification of the objects. Any object which is
assigned a higher number is in no way superior to the one which is assigned a
lower number. In the nominal scale there is a strict one-to-one correspondence
between the numbers and the objects. Each number is assigned to only one object
and each object has only one number assigned to it. It may be noted that the
objects are divided into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive categories.
Examples of nominal scale:
 What is your religion?
(a) Hinduism
(b) Sikhism
(c) Christianity
(d) Islam
(e) Any other, (please specify)
A Hindu may be assigned a number 1, a Sikh may be assigned a number 2,
a Christian may be assigned a number 3 and so on. Any religion which is assigned
a higher number is in no way superior to the one which is assigned a lower number.
The assignment of numbers is only for the purpose of identification. We also note
that all respondents have been divided into mutually exclusive and collectively
exhaustive categories. For example:
 Are you married?
(a) Yes
(b) No
If a person is married, he or she may be assigned a number 101 and an
unmarried person may be assigned a number 102.
 In which of the following departments do you work?
(a) Marketing
(b) HR
(c) Information Technology
(d) Operations
(e) Finance and Accounting
(f) Any other, (please specify)

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 Here also, a person working for the marketing department may be assigned Data Analysis

a number 1, the one working for HR may be assigned a number 2 and so on.
Nominal scale measurements are used for identifying food habits (vegetarian
or non-vegetarian), gender (male/female), caste, respondents, brands, attributes, NOTES
stores, the players of a hockey team and so on.
The assigned numbers cannot be added, subtracted, multiplied or divided.
The only arithmetic operations that can be carried out are the count of each category.
Therefore, a frequency distribution table can be prepared for the nominal scale
variables and mode of the distribution can be worked out. One can also use chi-
square test and compute contingency coefficient using nominal scale variables.
Ordinal scale: This is the next higher level of measurement than the nominal
scale measurement. One of the limitations of the nominal scale measurements is
that we cannot say whether the assigned number to an object is higher or lower
than the one assigned to another option. The ordinal scale measurement takes
care of this limitation. An ordinal scale measurement tells whether an object has
more or less of characteristics than some other objects. However, it cannot answer
how much more or how much less. An ordinal scale tells us the relative positions
of the objects and not the difference between the magnitudes of the objects.
Suppose Shashi scores the highest marks in marketing and is ranked no. 1; Mohan
scores the second highest marks and is ranked no. 2; and Krishna scores third
highest marks and is ranked no. 3. However, from this statement we cannot say
whether the difference in the marks scored by Shashi and Mohan is the same as
between Mohan and Krishna. The only statement which can be made under ordinal
scale is that Shashi has scored higher than Mohan and Mohan has scored higher
than Krishna. The difference between the ranks does not have any meaningful
interpretation in the sense that it cannot tell the difference in absolute marks between
the three candidates. Another example of the ordinal scale could be the CAT
score given in percentile form. Suppose a candidate’s score is 95 percentile in the
CAT exam. What it means is that 95 per cent of the candidates that appeared in
the CAT examination have a score below this candidate, whereas only 5 per cent
have scored more than him. The actual score is how much less or more cannot be
known from this statement. Examples of the ordinal scale include quality ranking,
rankings of the teams in a tournament, ranking of preference for colours, soft
drinks, socio-economic class and occupational status, to mention a few. Some of
the examples of ordinal scales are listed below:
• Rank the following attributes while choosing a restaurant for dinner. The
most important attribute may be ranked one, the next important may be
assigned a rank of 2 and so on.

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Data Analysis

NOTES

 Rank the following by placing a 1 beside the attribute you think is the most
important, a 2 beside the attribute you think is the second most important
and so on while purchasing a two-wheeler.

In the ordinal scale, the assigned ranks cannot be added, multiplied,

subtracted or divided. One can compute median, percentiles and quartiles of the
distribution. The other major statistical analysis which can be carried out is the
rank order correlation coefficient, sign test. As the ordinal scale measurement is
higher than the nominal scale measurement, all the statistical techniques which are
applicable in the case of nominal scale measurement can also be used for the
ordinal scale measurement. However, the reverse is not true. This is because ordinal
scale data can be converted into nominal scale data but not the other way round.
Interval scale: The interval scale measurement is the next higher level of
measurement. It takes care of the limitation of the ordinal scale measurement where
the difference between the score on the ordinal scale does not have any meaningful
interpretation. In the interval scale the difference of the score on the scale has
meaningful interpretation. It is assumed that the respondent is able to answer the
questions on a continuum scale. The mathematical form of the data on the interval
scale may be written as

The interval scale data has an arbitrary origin (non-zero origin). The most
common example of the interval scale data is the relationship between Celsius and
Farenheit temperature. It is known that:

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 Data Analysis

NOTES
This is of the form and b = /5/__/9/
and hence it represents the interval scale measurement. In the interval scale, the
difference in score has a meaningful interpretation while the ratio of the score on
this scale does not have a meaningful interpretation. This can be seen from the
following interval scale question:
 How likely are you to buy a new designer carpet in the next six months?

Suppose a respondent ticks the response category ‘likely’ and another

respondent ticks the category ‘unlikely’. If we use any of the scales A, B or C, we
note that the difference between the scores in each case is 2. Whereas, when the
ratio of the scores is taken, it is 2, 3 and –1 for the scales A, B and C respectively.
Therefore, the ratio of the scores on the scale does not have a meaningful
interpretation. The following are some examples of interval scale data.
• How important is price to you while buying a car?

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Data Analysis

NOTES

The numbers on this scale can be added, subtracted, multiplied or divided.

One can compute arithmetic mean, standard deviation, correlation coefficient and
conduct a t-test, Z-test, regression analysis and factor analysis. As the interval
scale data can be converted into the ordinal and the nominal scale data, therefore
all the techniques applicable for the ordinal and the nominal scale data can also be
used for interval scale data.
Ratio scale: This is the highest level of measurement and takes care of the
limitations of the interval scale measurement, where the ratio of the measurements
on the scale does not have a meaningful interpretation. The ratio scale measurement
can be converted into interval, ordinal and nominal scale. But the other way round
is not possible. The mathematical form of the ratio scale data is given by Y = bX.
In this case, there is a natural zero (origin), whereas in the interval scale we had an
arbitrary zero. Examples of the ratio scale data are weight, distance travelled,
income and sales of a company, to mention a few. Consider the following examples
for ratio scale measurements:
 How many chemist shops are there in your locality?
 How many students are there in the MBA programme at IIFT?
 How much distance do you need to travel from your residence to reach the
railway station?
All the mathematical operations can be carried out using the ratio scale
data. In addition to the statistical analysis mentioned in the interval, the ordinal and
the nominal scale data, one can compute coefficient of variation, geometric mean
and harmonic mean using the ratio scale measurement. The basic characteristics,
examples and the statistical techniques applicable under each of the four scales
are summarized in Table 9.1.
Attitude
An attitude is viewed as an enduring disposition to respond consistently in a given
manner to various aspects of the world, including persons, events and objects. A
company is able to sell its products or services when its customers have a favourable
attitude towards its products/services. In the reverse scenario, the company will
not be able to sustain itself for long. It, therefore, becomes very important to
measure the attitude of the customers towards the company’s products/services.
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Unfortunately, attitude cannot be measured directly. There are many variables Data Analysis

which the researcher wishes to investigate as psychological variables and these

cannot be directly observed. For example, we may have a favourable attitude
towards a particular brand of toothpaste, but this attitude cannot be observed
directly. In order to measure an attitude, we make an inference based on the NOTES
perceptions the customers have about the product/services. The attitude is derived
from the perceptions. If the consumers have a favourable perception towards the
products/services, the attitude will be favourable. Therefore, the attitudes are
indirectly observed.
Table 9.1 Types of Scale, Characteristics, Examples, Permissible Statistical Techniques

Check Your Progress

1. State the limitation of nominal scale which is taken care of by the ordinal
scale.
2. Give an example of interval scale data.
3. Mention the highest level of measurement.

9.3 DESCRIPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL DATA

ANALYSIS

As the name suggests, descriptive statistics merely describe the data and consist
of methods and techniques used in collection, organization, presentation and analysis
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Data Analysis of data in order to describe the various features and characteristics of such data.
These methods can either be graphical or computational. Thus data can be
presented in the form of a chart or a table in order to show certain trends,
proportions, maximum and minimum values and so on. For example, if we simply
NOTES describe the number of workers in different types of industries in America, then
that would constitute descriptive statistics. In addition to the organization of data,
the field of descriptive statistics is concerned with the analysis of data so that the
data can be easily understood. Averages, proportions and other measures that
describe the spread of data around the average are also some of the measures
used to describe the data. By using these measures, we summarize the data and
even though we may lose the detail, we gain clarity and compactness. For example,
the following statistics, in their most summarized presentation describe in some
way the characteristics of the population from which they were drawn.
 The ages of students in my statistics class range from 19 to 45 years.
 The average IQ of students at our college is 140.
 20 per cent of the students in my class are married.
All these examples simply summarize and describe the data. Not much can
be inferred from them, nor can definite decisions be made or conclusions drawn.
For a proper appreciation of the various descriptive statistics involved, it is
necessary to note that most of the statistical distribution have some common
features. Though the size of the variables varies from item to item, most of the
items are distributed in such a manner that if we move from the lowest value to the
highest value of the variable, the number of items at each successive stage increases
with a certain amount of regularity till we reach a maximum; and then as we proceed
further, they decrease with the similar regularity. If we plot the percentage frequency
density, i.e., the percentage of cases in an interval of unit variable width, we get
frequency curves of the type shown in Figure 9.1 (Note that the area under each
curve should be equal to 100, the total percentage points).
There are various ‘gross’ ways in which frequency curves can differ from
one another. Even when the ‘general’ shapes of the curves are the same (the area
under them already made equal by the strategy of plotting the percent density), the
details of the shape may change. Thus the curve B has a smaller spread than A, the
curve C is more peaky and curve E is less symmetrical. Even when the curves
have almost the same shape (i.e., same spread, peakiness, symmetry, etc.) as in
curves A and D, the two may differ in location along the variable axis. Thus the
items of distribution D are generally larger than those of A. So are those of B
compared to A. Thus, a kind of an ‘average’ location of the distribution along the
variable axis is an important descriptive statistics. These statistics are collectively
known as measures of location or of central tendency.

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 Data Analysis

NOTES

Fig. 9.1 Representation of Measures of Central Tendency

Inferential Statistics
Inferential statistics can be defined as those methods that are used to estimate a
characteristic of a population or making of a decision concerning a population on
the basis of the results obtained from a sample taken from the same population.
The measured characteristics of the sample are known as sample statistics, while
the measured characteristics of the population are known as population parameters.
A major portion of statistics deals with making decisions, inferences, predictions
and forecasts about the population based on the results obtained from samples
taken from such populations.
The need for inferential statistical methods derives from the need for sampling.
As the population becomes large, it is usually too costly, too time consuming and
too cumbersome to take the entire population into consideration in order to obtain
our information of interest. Of course, the results obtained from the entire population
are the most accurate and if the population indeed is small, then it is advisable to
consider the entire population. However, when the population is large, sometimes
considered infinite, then sampling method is used.
The question is: How do these sample statistics relate to population
parameters? Can we state that the conclusions drawn from the analysis of the
sample are exactly the same as the conclusions that would be drawn from the
entire population from which the representative sample was taken? The answer is
unlikely. How close is the sample characteristics to the population characteristics
would depend upon the randomness of the sample as well as the size of the sample.
The more random the sample is and larger the sample is, the more closely its
characteristics would be with the population characteristics. This link, in terms of
the degree of closeness is provided by probability theory. Probability theory provides
the link by ascertaining the likelihood that the results from the sample reflect the
results from the population.
Our interest is not in finding the characteristics of a sample but our to find
the characteristics of the population. Sampling is simply a means to the end. For
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Data Analysis example, if we want to know the salary of university professors, we mean the
salary of all university professors and not simply of the sample we have taken.
Only then can observations and decisions be made in this regard. Similarly, if we
want to know what percentage of eligible voters will vote for Congress in the next
NOTES general elections in India, a sample in itself would not indicate that, and we cannot
ask the entire population. Our decisions and projections would be based on the
inclination of the entire population. A sample in itself would not mean much, if any
thing. How ever, if the sample truly represents the population, then we can draw
conclusions about the population on the basis of sample results. Appended to
these conclusions will be a probability statement specifying the likelihood or
confidence that the results from the sample reflect the voting behaviour of
the population. Usually, the margin of error is stated as plus or minus three to five
per cent.
Statistical inference deals with methods of inferring or drawing conclusions
about the characteristics of the population based upon the results of the sample
taken from the same population. The measured characteristics of the sample are
called sample statistics and the measured characteristics of the population are
known as population parameters. The question is: How do these sample statistics
relate to population parameters? Can we state that the conclusions drawn from
the analysis of the sample are exactly the same as the conclusions that would be
drawn from the entire population from which the representative sample was taken?
Following are some of the situations that the field of inferential statistics deals with.
Examples:
(a) Between 35 per cent and 40 per cent of graduate students in the universities
are married. These statistics refer to the entire population of graduate
students. It would be reasonable to assume that these percentages were
calculated on the basis of samples taken from the population of all graduate
students. The students in these samples were asked in order to know as to
how many of these students were married. The answers formed the basis
for drawing conclusions about the entire population of the graduate students.
(b) There is a definitive association between smoking and lung cancer.
This statement is the result of endless research on many samples taken and
studied in order to find out if there was any correlation between smoking
and lung cancer and based upon the results thus obtained from sample
studies, a valid statement about the association of smoking with lung cancer
in the whole population can be made.
(c) 30 per cent of all television viewers watched the show 20/20 last night. This
statement can be compared with the following statement: 30 per cent of those
who were interviewed watched the show 20/20 last night. The latter statement
is descriptive statistics since it is only presenting the data in a summarized
form. However, if we infer from the second statement to reach at the first
statement, then the first statement is an example of statistical inference.
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 (d) Suppose that the Chancellor of Punjab University wanted to conduct a Data Analysis

survey to learn about student perceptions concerning the quality of life on

campus. The population will be all the students enrolled in the university,
while a sample will consist of only the students who have been randomly
selected to be included in the sample to participate in the survey. The goal is NOTES
to determine various attitudes and characteristics of interest relating to quality
of student life in the entire university using the sample statistics to draw
conclusions about the similar population characteristics.
(e) Between 35% and 40% of graduate students in the universities are married.
These statistics refer to the entire population of graduate students. It would
be reasonable to presume that these percentages were calculated on the
basis of samples taken from the population of all graduate students. The
students in these samples were asked in order to know how many of these
students were married. The answers formed the basis for drawing conclusions
about the entire population of graduate students.
(f) There is a definite association between smoking and lung cancer. This
statement is the result of endless research on many samples taken and studied
in order to find out if there was any correlation between smoking and lung
cancer and based upon the results thus obtained from these sample studies,
a valid statement about the association of smoking with lung cancer in the
whole population could be made.
9.3.1 Tools of Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
Let us analyse the tools of descriptive and inferential statistics.
Descriptive Statistics
According to Smith, descriptive statistics is the formulation of rules and procedures
where data can be placed in a useful and significant order. The foundation of
applicability of descriptive statistics is the need for complete data presentation.
The most important and general methods used in descriptive statistics are as follows:
 Ratios: This indicates the relative frequency of the various variables to one
another.
 Percentages: Percentages (%) can be derived by multiplying a ratio with
100. It is thus a ratio representing a standard unit of 100.
 Frequency table: It is a means to tabulate the rate of recurrence of data.
Data arranged in such a manner is known as ‘distribution’. In case of a
large distribution tendency, larger class intervals are used. This facilitates
the researcher to acquire a more orderly system.
 Histogram: It is the graphical representation of a frequency distribution
table. The main advantage of graphical representation of data in the form of
histogram is that data can be interpreted immediately.
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Data Analysis  Frequency polygon: It is used for the representation of data in the form of
a polygon. In this method, a dot that represents the highest score is placed
in the middle of the class interval. A frequency polygon is derived by linking
these dots. An additional class is sometimes added in the end of the line
NOTES with the purpose of creating an anchor.
 Cumulative frequency curve: The procedure of frequency involves adding
frequency by starting from the bottom of the class interval, and adding class
by class. This facilitates the representation of the number of persons that
perform below the class interval. The researcher can derive a curve from
the cumulative frequency tables with the purpose of reflecting data in a
graphical manner.
Inferential Statistics
Inferential statistics enable researchers to explore unknown data. Researchers
can make deductions or statements using inferential statistics with regard to the
broad population from which samples of known data has been drawn. These
methods are called ‘inferential or inductive statistics’. These methods include the
following common techniques:
 Estimation: It is the calculated approximation of a result, which is usable,
even if the input data may be incomplete or uncertain. It involves deriving
the approximate calculation of a quantity or a degree or worth. For example,
drawing an estimate of cost of a project or deriving a rough idea of how
long the project would take.
 Prediction: It is a statement or claim that a particular event will surely
occur in future. It is based on observation, experience and scientific reasoning
of what will happen in given circumstances or situations.
 Hypothesis testing: Hypothesis is a proposed explanation, whose validity
can be tested. Hypothesis testing attempts to validate or disprove pre-
conceived ideas. In creating hypothesis, one thinks of a possible explanation
for a remarked behaviour. The hypothesis dictates the data selected to be
analysed for further interpretations.
There are also two chief statistical methods based on the tendency of data
to cluster or scatter. These methods are known as measures of central tendency
and measures of dispersion.
9.3.2 Quantitative, Qualitative, Parametric and Non-parametric
Analysis
Quantitative data analysis is the interpretation of data which involves numbers or
where numerical data is analysed. There are different statistical techniques used
for quantitative analysis including mean, standard deviation and frequency
distribution. It is crucial to note that quantitative data analysis uses highly structured

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and rigid techniques of data collection. These are based on pre-formulated questions Data Analysis

and their responses. The outcomes of quantitative analysis are mostly broad based,
reliable and general in nature, and serves as the foundation for future action. The
limitations include its restrictive use due to statistics involved and struggles with
newer undiscovered phenomenon. NOTES
Qualitative data analysis refers to the process where descriptions are used
instead of numbers and values to interpret and present data. This type of data
analysis brings in to use rather flexible yet methodological methods of data collection
and interpretation. It seeks to identify the underlying reasons for a phenomenon
and the results obtained through this process is often used as hypothesis for
quantitative data analysis. The methods of data collection in qualitative data analysis
elicits unlimited and varied responses. There are many different methods of
collecting qualitative data including techniques like documents, observations,
interviews, etc. The outcomes of qualitative data analysis is mostly exploratory or
investigation and not conclusive in nature. The limitations of this analysis are that
the results cannot be applied to general population, it struggles with application of
statistics and its effectiveness due to the instruments used may suffer.
Parametric vs Non-Parametric Tests and Conditions for Satisfaction
Simply defined, it refers to the tests which makes assumptions about the parameters
of the population. Parametric tests are used for data with normal distribution. It
uses the measures of for ratio or interval data. The mean is mostly the central
measure. The information about the population is entirely known and specific
assumptions are made about the population. It is used in quantitative data analysis.
The parametric tests are applicable for variables only. These are considered more
powerful in comparison when the assumptions are met. Examples include paired
and unpaired t-tests, Pearson Correlation, Analysis of Variance, etc.
Non-parametric tests are used for data of any distribution. It uses measures
of ordinal or nominal data. The central measure is usually the median. There is no
information available about the population and this test is assumption free. It is
used for quantitative, qualitative and ranked data. The non-parametric tests apply
both to variables and attributes. It is easier to calculate. There are many examples
including Wilcoxon Rank Sum test, Mann-Whitney U test, Spearman Correlation,
Kruskal Wallis test among others.

Check Your Progress

4. Averages and proportions are examples of which type of statistics?
5. What are population parameters and sample statistics?
6. Give examples of parametric tests.

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Data Analysis
9.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS

NOTES 1. One limitation of the nominal scale measurement is that we cannot say
whether the assigned number to an object is higher of lower than the one
assigned to another option. The ordinal scale measurement takes care of
this limitation.
2. The most common example of interval scale data is the relationship between
Celsius and Farenheit temperature.
3. Ration scale is the highest level of measurement and takes care of the
limitations of the interval scale measurement.
4. Averages and proportions are examples of descriptive statistics.
5. The measured characteristics of the sample are known as sample statistics,
while the measured characteristics of the population are known as population
parameters.
6. Examples of parametric tests include paired and unpaired t-tests, Pearson
Correlation, Analysis of Variance, etc.

9.5 SUMMARY

 There are four types of measurement scales—nominal, ordinal, interval and

ratio scales.
 Nominal scale: This is the lowest level of measurement. Here, numbers are
assigned for the purpose of identification of the objects. Any object which
is assigned a higher number is in no way superior to the one which is assigned
a lower number.
 Ordinal scale: This is the next higher level of measurement than the nominal
scale measurement. One of the limitations of the nominal scale measurements
is that we cannot say whether the assigned number to an object is higher or
lower than the one assigned to another option.
 The interval scale measurement is the next higher level of measurement. It
takes care of the limitation of the ordinal scale measurement where the
difference between the score on the ordinal scale does not have any
meaningful interpretation.
 Ratio scale: This is the highest level of measurement and takes care of the
limitations of the interval scale measurement, where the ratio of the
measurements on the scale does not have a meaningful interpretation. The
ratio scale measurement can be converted into interval, ordinal and nominal
scale. But the other way round is not possible.

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  An attitude is viewed as an enduring disposition to respond consistently in a Data Analysis

given manner to various aspects of the world, including persons, events and
objects. A company is able to sell its products or services when its customers
have a favourable attitude towards its products/services. In the reverse
scenario, the company will not be able to sustain itself for long. It, therefore, NOTES
becomes very important to measure the attitude of the customers towards
the company’s products/services.
 As the name suggests, descriptive statistics merely describe the data and
consist of methods and techniques used in collection, organization,
presentation and analysis of data in order to describe the various features
and characteristics of such data. These methods can either be graphical or
computational. Thus data can be presented in the form of a chart or a table
in order to show certain trends, proportions, maximum and minimum values
and so on.
 Inferential statistics can be defined as those methods that are used to estimate
a characteristic of a population or making of a decision concerning a
population on the basis of the results obtained from a sample taken from the
same population.
 Quantitative data analysis is the interpretation of data which involves numbers
or where numerical data is analysed.
 Qualitative data analysis refers to the process where descriptions are used
instead of numbers and values to interpret and present data.
 Simply defined, it refers to the tests which makes assumptions about the
parameters of the population. Parametric tests are used for data with normal
distribution
 Non-parametric tests are used for data of any distribution. It uses measures
of ordinal or nominal data.

9.6 KEY WORDS

 Measurement scales: Scales of measurement refer to ways in which

variables/numbers are defined and categorized.
 Descriptive statistics: It is statistics which describes the data and consist
of methods and techniques used in collection, organization, presentation
and analysis of data in order to describe the various features and
characteristics of such data.
 Inferential statistics: It refers to those methods of statistics which are
used to estimate a characteristics of a population or making of a decision
concerning a population on the basis of the results obtained from a sample
taken from the same population.

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Data Analysis
9.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
EXERCISES

NOTES Short Answer Questions

1. Give some examples of ordinal scale.
2. Write a short note on attitude.
3. List the tools for descriptive and inferential data analysis.
4. Write short notes on quantitative and qualitative data analysis.
Long Answer Questions
1. Explain the different scales of measurement.
2. Discuss descriptive and inferential statistics in detail.
3. Explain the parametric and non-parametric tests.

9.8 FURTHER READINGS

Best, J.W. and J.V. Kahn. 1989. Research in Education. New Delhi: Prentice
Hall.
Buch, M. B. 1974. A Survey of Research in Education. Baroda: CASE, M. S.
University.
Fox, D. J. 1969. The Research Process in Education. New York: Rhinehart and
Winston, Inc.
Garrett. H. E. 1988. Statistics in Psychology and Education. Bombay: Vikils,
Feiffer & Semen’s Ltd.
Guilford, J.P. and B. Fruchter. 1974. Fundamental Statistics in Psychology &
Education. New York: McGraw Hill.

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 Qualitative Data Analysis

UNIT 10 QUALITATIVE DATA

ANALYSIS
NOTES
Structure
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Data Reduction and Classification
10.2.1 Analytical Induction and Constant Comparison
10.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
10.4 Summary
10.5 Key Words
10.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
10.7 Further Readings

10.0 INTRODUCTION

You were introduced to the qualitative method of data analysis in the previous unit.
In comparison to quantitative data, qualitative data analysis makes use of words
and symbols instead of numbers to make an analysis. This aspect of making sense
of subjective rather worded data makes the process seem less stringent. But even
then, qualitative analysis does follow a discipline of making assumptions of large
set of data to make an empirical analysis. And even though, compared to quantitative
analysis, qualitative analysis looks less linear and more iterative. In this unit, you
will learn certain important aspects or tools crucial to qualitative analysis of data.

10.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Describe the concept of data reduction
 Explain the idea of analytical induction
 Discuss the concept of constant comparison

10.2 DATA REDUCTION AND CLASSIFICATION

When an investigator uses open ended questionnaire, observation and unstructured

interview and rating scale etc. they provide verbal information and qualitative data.
These qualitative data provide depth or detail about the phenomenon. Though
these are not systematic yet they help the researcher to understand problems.
These collected data by statistical investigator is initially a complex and unorganised
mass of figures. Such data are voluminous for location of facts and the researchers
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Qualitative Data Analysis at the beginning find it difficult to analyse and interpret the problem under study
and therefore in order to make the data capable of analysing these are reduced.
To reduce these data are classified into different groups after that data are arranged
in a tabular form which is an effective means to present the data. In other words,
NOTES after collection, the data has to be processed and analysed in accordance with the
outline laid down for the purpose at the time of developing the research plan.
Processing implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation of collected data
so that they are amenable to analyse.
Editing: Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data to
detect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible. As a matter of
fact, editing involves a careful scrutiny of the completed questionnaires/schedules.
Editing is done to assure that the data are accurate, consistent with other facts
gathered uniformly entered as completed as possible and have been arranged to
facilitate coding and tabulation.
Coding: Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and through it the several
replies may be reduced to small number of classes which contain the critical
information required for analysis Coding refers to the process of assigning numeral
or other symbols to answers so that responses can be put into a limited number or
categories or classes. Such classes should be appropriate to the research problem
under consideration. Coding decisions should usually be taken at the time of
designing stage of the questionnaire. This makes it possible to pre-code the
questionnaire choice and which in turn is helpful for computer tabulation. But in
case of hand coding some standard method may be used. One such standard
method is to code in the margin with a coloured pencil. The other method can be
to transcribe the data from questionnaire to a coding sheet. Whatever method is
adopted one should see that coding errors are altogether eliminated or reduced to
minimum level.
Classification: Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data
which must be reduced into homogeneous groups if we are to get meaningful
relationships. Classification is the process of arranging date into sequences and
groups according to their common characteristics or separating them into different
but related parts. In other words “Classification of data is the process of arranging
data in a groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics.” Data having
a common characteristic are placed in one class and in this way entire data arrange
into a number of groups or classes.
Objectives of Classification
 The chief objective of classification is to present complex data in a simple
form.
 Classification prepares the basis for tabulation.
 Classification facilitates comparisons between the data.
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  Classification point out the similarities and dissimilarities of the data so that Qualitative Data Analysis

they can be easily grasped

 Classification enables us to understand the cause and effect relationship of
data. NOTES
Essentials of Classification: Following are the main essentials of classification:
 Classification should be suitable.
 Data must not overlap.
 Classification should be elastic so that new facts and figures may be adjusted
easily.
 Classification must conform to the objects of investigation.
 All the items constituting a group must be homogeneous.
 Classification must be exhaustive so that every unit of the distribution may
find place in one group or another.
Method of Classification: Following are the main methods of classification of
data:
 Geographical Classification: Geographical classification is based on
locational differences of the data Punjab, Haryana, U.P., M.P. (State or
district or different schools or colleges).
City No. of schools No. of Colleges
Meerut 30 20
Ghaziabad 25 32
sharanpur 15 09

 Chronological Classification: Chronological classification of date refers

to the classification of data on the basis of time, for instance:

years Number of students

(registered)
2010 3500
2011 4000
2012 5200

 Classification according to attributes: As stated above, data are classified

on the basis of common characteristics which can either be descriptive (such
as literacy, sex honesty) or numerical (such as weight, height, income,
consumption etc.) Descriptive characteristics refer to qualitative phenomenon
which cannot measured quantitatively; only their presence or absence in an
individual item can be noticed. Data obtained this way on the basis of certain
attributes are known as statistics of attributes and their classification to be
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Qualitative Data Analysis classification according to attributes. Such classification can be simple or
manifold classification
i. Simple Classification: In a simple classification we consider only
one attribute and divide the universe into two classes – one class
NOTES
consisting of items possessing the given attribute and the other class
consisting of items which do not possess the given attribute. In simple
words, when data are classified by the presence and absence of an
attribute it is known as simple classification. For example attribute
under study is population. One can only find out how many people
are living in rural area and how many in urban area. therefore one
attribute is studies two classes are formed one possessing the attribute
and other lacking the attribute.
Population

Rural Urban

ii. Manifold Classification: In manifold classification we consider two or

more attributes simultaneously and divided that data into a number of classes.
For example we may first divide the population into males and females on
the attribute of sex. Further these classes may be sub-divided into literate
or illiterate

Population

Males Females

illiterate literate illiterate literate

Classification according to class-intervals: Unlike descriptive

characteristics, the numerical characteristics refer to quantitative phenomenon which
can be measured through some statistical units. Such data are known as statistics
of variables and are classified on the basis of class intervals. For example- persons
whose incomes are within ` 2001 to ` 4000 can form one group, those whose
incomes are within 4001 to ` 6000 can form another groups and so on. In this
way entire data may be divided into a number of groups or classes or what are
usually called class-interval. Each group of class interval thus has an upper limit as
well as lower limit which are known class limit. The difference between two class

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limits is known as class magnitudes. Class limits may be generally be stated in any Qualitative Data Analysis

of the following forms:

 Exclusive type class intervals
 Inclusive type class intervals NOTES
Exclusive type class intervals: In case of exclusive class intervals the
upper limit of a class interval is the lower limit of the succeeding class interval.
Exclusive class interval usually stated as follows:
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
The above intervals should be read as under:
10 and under 20
20 and under 30
30 and under 40
40 and under 50
Thus under the exclusive type class intervals the item whose values are
equal to the upper limit of a class are grouped in the next higher class. In simple
words we can say that under exclusive class intervals the upper limit of a class
interval is excluded and items with value less than the upper limit are put in the
given class interval.
Inclusive type class intervals: Unlike exclusive method under the inclusive
method the upper limit of a class interval does not go the next higher class. Inclusive
class interval usually stated as follows:
11-20
21-30
31-40
41-50
In inclusive class intervals the upper limit of a class interval is not also included
in the concerning class interval. Thus an item whose value is 20 will be put in 11-
20 class interval that stated upper limit of the class interval 11-20 is 20 but the real
limit is 20.9999 and as such 11-20 class interval really means 11 and under 21.
How to determine the frequency of each class: This can be done either
by tally sheets or by mechanical aids. Under the technique of tally sheet, the class
groups are written on a sheep of a paper(commonly known as tally sheet) and for
each item a stroke (usually a small vertical line) is marked against the class group
in which it falls. The general practice is that after every four stroke the fifth line for
the item falling in the same group is indicated as horizontal line through the said
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Qualitative Data Analysis four lines and resulting flower represents five items. All this facilitates the counting
of item in each one of the class group. An illustrative tally sheet can be shown as
under

NOTES Income Group Tally Marks Number of families

Below 4000 IIII IIII III 13

4000-6000 IIII IIII IIII IIII 20

6000-8000 IIII IIII II 12

8000-10000 IIII IIII IIII III 18

10000 and above IIII III 7

Alternative, class frequency can be determined, especially in case of large

inquiries and surveys, by mechanical aids with the help of machines viz., sorting
machines that are available for the purpose. Some machines are hand operated
whereas other work with electricity. There are machines which can sort out cards
as a speed of something like 20000 cards per hour. This method is fast but
expensive.
Tabulation: When mass of data has been assembled, it become necessary
for the researcher to arrange the same in some kind of concise and logical order.
This procedure is referred to as tabulation. Thus, tabulation is the process of
summarizing raw data and displaying the same in compact for further analysis. In a
broader sense, tabulation is systematic arrangement of data in column and rows.
Tabulation is essential because of the following reasons:
 It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a
minimum.
 It facilitates the process of comparison
 It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions
 It provides a basis for various statistical computations
Tabulation can be done by hand or by mechanical or electronic devices.
The choice depends on the size and type of study cost consideration time pressures
and the availability of tabulation machine or computer.
Tabulation may also be classified as simple and complex tabulation. simple
tabulation provides information about one or more groups of independent questions
whereas the complex type of tabulation shown the division of data in two or more
categories and as such is designed to give information concerning one or more
sets of inter-related questions. Simple tabulation generally results in one-way tables
which supply answer to questions about characteristics of only one data. Complex
tabulation usually results in two-way tables, three way tables or still higher order

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tables also known as manifold tables which give information about several Qualitative Data Analysis

interrelated features of data.

10.2.1 Analytical Induction and Constant Comparison
Analytical induction can be defined as the method of collecting, organizing and NOTES
presenting data mostly used in qualitative analysis. It basically includes progressive
redefinition of the concept to be explained and the factors of explanation so that a
perfect or universal harmony is maintained. It begins with association between
common factors to point towards a result and further on, when the research is
progressed and new data is collected or observed, the initial assumptions and
relationships are redefined so as to form a revised or new explanatory phenomenon.
It uses the interative process in which hypotheses series are formed on examination
of data and these are modified when new cases are examined. These hypotheses
may be then either validated or rejected.
The advantages of analytical induction are that it is induction rather than
deduction process. It allows the exclusion of exceptions and their redefinition. It is
considered to be better since it allows revision of hypotheses. It is very well suited
to ethnographic and other qualitative research areas. The disadvantages include
that it prohibits universalization at the initial stage and that it requires tests to be
made provisionally and is focussed on causation leading to constant testing of data
against the hypotheses.
Constant Comparison
It is a data analysis method generally used in qualitative analysis, in which each
finding from the data collected is compared to the existing findings. It is normally
associated with grounded theory. In this method of data reduction, the data collected
is broken down into specific units or incidences and coded into different categories.
The basis for coding is both on the responses received and the researcher’s initial
coding as per the objective of the study. The coded data then may be said to be
categorized as per descriptions as well as explanations. The categories transform
as per the constant comparison and categorization and understanding of
relationships between new incidents and units. Therefore, it can be said that in this
method, the data coding and analysis is done simultaneously to arrive at concepts
through constantly comparing incidents of the data. The aim being the identification
of properties and relationship for the formulation of a coherent relationship model.

Check Your Progress

1. Mention some methods used in hand coding.
2. What is the type of classification in which data are classified by the presence
and absence of an attribute?
3. What are exclusive class intervals?
4. What is constant comparison normally associated with?
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Qualitative Data Analysis
10.3 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS

NOTES 1. In case of hand coding some standard method may be used. One such
standard method is to code in the margin with a coloured pencil. The other
method can be to transcribe the data from questionnaire to a coding sheet.
Whatever method is adopted one should see that coding errors are altogether
eliminated or reduced to minimum level.
2. When data are classified by the presence and absence of an attribute it is
known as simple classification.
3. In case of exclusive class intervals the upper limit of a class interval is the
lower limit of the succeeding class interval.
4. Constant comparison is normally associated with grounded theory.

10.4 SUMMARY

 After collection, the data has to be processed and analysed in accordance

with the outline laid down for the purpose at the time of developing the
research plan. Processing implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation
of collected data so that they are amenable to analyse.
 Editing is done to assure that the data are accurate, consistent with other
facts gathered uniformly entered as completed as possible and have been
arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.
 Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and through it the several replies
may be reduced to small number of classes which contain the critical
information required for analysis Coding refers to the process of assigning
numeral or other symbols to answers so that responses can be put into a
limited number or categories or classes.
 Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must be
reduced into homogeneous groups if we are to get meaningful relationships.
Classification is the process of arranging date into sequences and groups
according to their common characteristics or separating them into different
but related parts.
 Method of classification include Geographical Classification, Chronological
Classification, Classification according to attributes and Classification
according to class-intervals.
 When mass of data has been assembled, it become necessary for the
researcher to arrange the same in some kind of concise and logical order.
This procedure is referred to as tabulation. Thus, tabulation is the process

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 of summarizing raw data and displaying the same in compact for further Qualitative Data Analysis

analysis. In a broader sense, tabulation is systematic arrangement of data in

column and rows.
 Analytical induction can be defined as the method of collecting, organizing
NOTES
and presenting data mostly used in qualitative analysis. It basically includes
progressive redefinition of the concept to be explained and the factors of
explanation so that a perfect or universal harmony is maintained. It begins
with association between common factors to point towards a result and
further on, when the research is progressed and new data is collected or
observed, the initial assumptions and relationships are redefined so as to
form a revised or new explanatory phenomenon.
 Constant comparison is a data analysis method generally used in qualitative
analysis, in which each finding from the data collected is compared to the
existing findings. It is normally associated with grounded theory. In this method
of data reduction, the data collected is broken down into specific units or
incidences and coded into different categories. The basis for coding is both
on the responses received and the researcher’s initial coding as per the
objective of the study. The coded data then may be said to be categorized
as per descriptions as well as explanations. The categories transform as per
the constant comparison and categorization and understanding of
relationships between new incidents and units.

10.5 KEY WORDS

 Coding: It refers to the process of assigning numeral or other symbols to

answers so that responses can be put into a limited number or categories or
classes.
 Classification: It is the process of arranging date into sequences and groups
according to their common characteristics or separating them into different
but related parts.

10.6 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. Why is data reduction needed?
2. What is data editing?
3. Briefly explain the concept of data coding.
4. Write a short note on analytical induction and constant comparison.

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Qualitative Data Analysis Long Answer Questions
1. Explain the objectives and essentials of classification of data.
2. Discuss in detail the methods of classification of data.
NOTES 3. Describe the essentials of tabulation.

10.7 FURTHER READINGS

Best, J.W. and J.V. Kahn. 1989. Research in Education. New Delhi: Prentice
Hall.
Buch, M. B. 1974. A Survey of Research in Education. Baroda: CASE, M. S.
University.
Fox, D. J. 1969. The Research Process in Education. New York: Rhinehart and
Winston, Inc.
Garrett. H. E. 1988. Statistics in Psychology and Education. Bombay: Vikils,
Feiffer & Semen’s Ltd.
Guilford, J. P. and B. Fruchter. 1974. Fundamental Statistics in Psychology &
Education. New York: McGraw Hill.

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 Analysis and Interpretation

UNIT 11 ANALYSIS AND of Data

INTERPRETATION
NOTES
OF DATA
Structure
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Concept of Parameter and Statistics
11.2.1 Levels of Confidence
11.2.2 Degrees of Freedom
11.2.3 Standard Error of Mean
11.2.4 Two-Tailed and One-Tailed Tests of Significance
11.2.5 t-Test (Independent and Correlated Samples)
11.2.6 ANOVA: Assumptions
11.2.7 Correlations
11.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
11.4 Summary
11.5 Key Words
11.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
11.7 Further Readings

11.0 INTRODUCTION

Statistics has become an integral part of our daily lives. Every day, we are confronted
with some form of statistical information through newspapers, magazines and other
forms of communication. Such statistical information has become highly influential
in our lives. Indeed, the famous science fiction writer H.G. Wells had predicted
nearly a century ago that statistical thinking will one day be as necessary for efficient
citizenship as the ability to read and write. Thus, the subject of statistics in itself,
has gained considerable importance in affecting the processes of our thinking and
decision-making.
In this unit, you will learn about the concept of parameter and statistics
which includes the levels of confidence, degrees of freedom, standard error of
mean and the tests of significance.

11.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Discuss the simple parameters of statistics
 Explain the parameters of distribution for parametric tests
 Describe the levels of confidence and standard error Self-Instructional
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Analysis and Interpretation
of Data 11.2 CONCEPT OF PARAMETER AND STATISTICS

Let us study the various parametric statistics as discussed below:

NOTES 11.2.1 Levels of Confidence
Confidence interval refers to the range of values so defined that there is a specified
probability that the value of parameter lies within it. When we draw a large random
sample from the population to obtain measures of a variable and compute the
mean for the sample, we can use the ‘central limit theorem’ and ‘normal probability
curve’ to have an estimate of the population mean. We can say that M has a 95
per cent chance of being within 1.96 standard error units of MPop. In other words,
a mean for a random sample has a chance of 95 per cent of being within 1.96 M
units from MPop. It may also be said that there is a 99 per cent chance that the
sample mean lies within 2.58 M units of M Pop. To be more specific, it may be
stated that there is a 95 per cent probability that the limits M ± 1.96 M enclose
the population mean and the limits M ± 2.58 M enclose the population mean with
99 per cent probability. Such limits enclosing the population mean are known as
the ‘confidence intervals’.
These limits help us to adopt particularly two levels of confidence. One is
known as 5 per cent level or 0.05 levels and the other is known as 1 per cent level
or 0.01 level. The 0.05 level of confidence indicates that the probability MPop. that
lies within the interval M±1.96 M is 0.95 and that it falls outside of these limits is
0.05. By saying that probability is 0.99, it is meant that MPop. lies within the interval
M± 2.58 M and that the probability of its falling outside of these limits is 0.01.
To illustrate, let us apply the concept to the previous problem. Taking as
our limits M± 1.96 M, we have 25 ±1.960 × 0.5 0 or a confidence interval
marked off by the limits 24.02 and 25.98. Our confidence that this interval contains
MPop. is expressed by a probability of 0.95. If we want a higher degree of
confidence, we can take the 0.99 level of confidence for which the limits are
M±2.58 M or a confidence interval given by the limits 23.71 and 26.29. We may
be quite confident that MPop, is not lower than 23.71 nor higher than 26.29, i.e.,
the chances are 99 in 100 that the MPop, lies between 23.71 and 26.19.
Small Samples
When the number of cases in the sample is less than 30, we may estimate the value
of M by the following formula:
S
SE M  (11.1)
N
Where,
S = Standard deviation of the small sample.
N = The number of cases in the sample.
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 The formula for computing S is as follows: Analysis and Interpretation
of Data
 x2
S (11.2)
N 1
Where, NOTES

 x 2 = Sum of the squares of deviations of individual scores from the

sample mean.
N = The number of cases in the sample.
The concept of small size was developed by William Sealy Gosset, a
consulting statistician for Guinness Breweries of Dublin (Ireland) 1908. The principle
is that we should not assume that the sampling distribution of means of small samples
is normally distributed. He found that the distribution curves of small sample means
were somewhat different from the normal curve. When the size of the sample is
small then the t-distribution lies under the normal curve, but the tails or ends of the
curve are higher than the corresponding parts of the normal curve.
11.2.2 Degrees of Freedom
The number of independent constraints determines the number of degrees of
freedom (or df). If there are 10 frequency classes and there is one independent
constraint, then there are (10 – 1) = 9 degrees of freedom. Thus, if n is the
number of groups and one constraint is placed by making the totals of observed
and expected frequencies equal, df = (n – 1); when two constraints are placed
by making the totals as well as the arithmetic means equal then df = (n – 2), and
so on. In the case of a contingency table (i.e., a table with two columns and more
than two rows or table with two rows but more than two columns or a table with
more than two rows and more than two columns) or in the case of a 2 × 2 table
the degrees of freedom is worked out as follows:
df = (c – 1)(r – 1)
Where, c = Number of columns
r = Number of rows
11.2.3 Standard Error of Mean
Standard Error of the Mean (–×)
Standard error of the mean (–×)is a measure of dispersion of the distribution of
sample means and is similar to the standard deviation in a frequency distribution
and it measures the likely deviation of a sample mean from the grand mean of the
sampling distribution.
If all sample means are given, then (–×) can be calculated as follows:

 ( –   )
 
N
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Analysis and Interpretation Example 11.1: Suppose a babysitter has 5 children under her supervision with
of Data
average age of 6 years. However, individually, the age of each child be as follows:
X1 = 2
NOTES X2 = 4
X3 = 6
X4 = 8
X 5 = 10
Now these 5 children would constitute our entire population, so that N = 5.
Solution:
X
The population mean μ 
N

2  4  6  8  10
=  30 / 5  6
5
and the standard deviation is given by the formula:

 (  μ) 2
σ
N

Now, let us calculate the standard deviation.

X  (X–)2
2 6 16
4 6 4
6 6 0
8 6 4
10 6 16

Total =  ( X – )2 = 40
Then,
40
σ  8  2.83
5

Now, let us assume the sample size, n = 2, and take all the possible samples of
size 2, from this population. There are 10 such possible samples. These are as
follows, along with their means.
X1, X 2 (2, 4) X1 = 3
X1, X 3 (2, 6) X2 = 4
X1, X 4 (2, 8) X3 = 5
X1, X 5 (2,10) X4 = 6

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 Analysis and Interpretation
X 2, X 3 (4, 6) X5 = 5 of Data
X 2, X 4 (4, 8) X6 = 6
X 2, X 5 (4, 10) X7 = 7
X 3, X 4 (6, 8) X8 = 7 NOTES

X 3, X 5 (6, 10) X9 = 8
X 4, X 5 (8, 10) X 10 = 9
Now, if only the first sample was taken, the average of the sample would be
3. Similarly, the average of the last sample would be 9. Both of these samples are
totally unrepresentative of the population. However, if a grand mean X of the
distribution of these sample means is taken, then,
10

X
i 1
i
X 
10
34 56567 7 89
 60 / 10  6
10
This grand mean has the same value as the mean of the population. Let us
organize this distribution of sample means into a frequency distribution and
probability distribution.
Sample Mean Freq. [Link]. Prob.
3 1 1/10 .1
4 1 1/10 .1
5 2 2/10 .2
6 2 2/10 .2
7 2 2/10 .2
8 1 1/10 .1
9 1 1/10 .1
1.00

This probability distribution of the sample means is referred to as ‘sampling

distribution of the mean.’
Sampling Distribution of the Mean
The sampling distribution of the mean can thus be defined as, ‘A probability
distribution of all possible sample means of a given size, selected from a population’.
Accordingly, the sampling distribution of the means of the ages of children as
tabulated in Example 1, has 3 predictable patterns. These are as follows:
(i) The mean of the sampling distribution and the mean of the population are
equal. This can be shown as follows:

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Analysis and Interpretation Sample mean ( X ) Prob. P( X )
of Data
3 .1
4 .1
NOTES 5 .2
6 .2
7 .2
8 .1
9 .1
1.00
Then,
   XP( X ) = (3 × .l) + (4 × .l) + (5×.2) + (6 × .2) + (7 × .2) + (8 × .l)
+ 9 ×.l) = 6
This value is the same as the mean of the original population.
(ii) The spread of the sample means in the distribution is smaller than in the
population values. For example, the spread in the distribution of sample
means above is from 3 to 9, while the spread in the population was from
2 to 10.
(iii) The shape of the sampling distribution of the means tends to be, ‘Bell-
shaped’ and approximates the normal probability distribution, even when
the population is not normally distributed. This last property leads us to
the ‘Central Limit Theorem’.
Thus we can calculate –× for Example 11.1 of the sampling distribution of
the ages of 5 children as follows:
X (μ  ) ( X  μ  )2
3 6 9
4 6 4
5 6 1
6 6 0
7 6 1
8 6 4
9 6 9
 ( X  μ  ) 2 = 28
Then,
 ( –   )
 
N

28

7
 42
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 However, since it is not possible to take all possible samples from the Analysis and Interpretation
of Data
population, we must use alternate methods to compute –× .
The standard error of the mean can be computed from the following formula,
if the population is finite and we know the population mean. Hence,
NOTES
σ ( N  n)
σ 
n ( N  1)

Where,
 = Population standard deviation
N = Population size
n = Sample size
This formula can be made simpler to use by the fact that we generally deal
with very large populations, which can be considered infinite, so that if the population
size A’ is very large and sample size n is small, as for example in the case of items
tested from assembly line operations, then,
( N – n)
would approach 1.
( N –1)

Hence,

 
n
( N – n)
The factor ( N – n)
is also known as the ‘finite correction factor’, and should be
used when the population size is finite.
As this formula suggests, –× decreases as the sample size (w) increases,
meaning that the general dispersion among the sample means decreases, meaning
further that any single sample mean will become closer to the population mean, as
the value of (–×) decreases. Additionally, since according to the property of the
normal curve, there is a 68.26 per cent chance of the population mean being
within one –× of the sample mean, a smaller value of –× will make this range
shorter; thus making the population mean closer to the sample mean (refer Example
11.2).
Example 11.2: The IQ scores of college students are normally distributed with
the mean of 120 and standard deviation of 10.
(a) What is the probability that the IQ score of any one student chosen at
random is between 120 and 125?
(b) If a random sample of 25 students is taken, what is the probability that the
mean of this sample will be between 120 and 125.

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Analysis and Interpretation Solution:
of Data
(a) Using the standardized normal distribution formula,

NOTES

125
 = 120
 = 10

( X – )
Z


125 –120
Z  5 / 10  .5
10
The area for Z = .5 is 19.15.
This means that there is a 19.15 per cent chance that a student picked up at
random will have an IQ score between 120 and 125.
11.2.4 Two-Tailed and One-Tailed Tests of Significance
Suppose a null hypothesis were set up that there was no difference other than a
sampling error difference between the mean height of two groups, A and B. We
would be concerned only with the difference and not with the superiority or inferiority
in height of either group. To test this hypothesis, we apply two-tailed test as the
difference between the obtained means of height of two groups may be as often in
one direction (plus) as in the other (minus) from the true difference of zero. Moreover,
for determining probability, we take both tails of sampling distribution.
For a large sample two-tailed test, we make use of a normal distribution
curve. The 5 per cent area of rejection is divided equally between the upper and
the lower tails of this curve and we have to go out to ±1.96 on the base line of the
curve to reach the area of rejection as shown in the Figure 11.1.

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 Analysis and Interpretation
of Data

NOTES
Rejection Area Acceptance Area
2.5% 47.50% 47.50% 2.5%

1 .96 True Difference = 0 1.96

- - - - - - - - - -- - -95%- - - - - - - - - - - - -

Fig. 11.1 A Two-Tailed Test at 0.05 Levels (2.5 Per Cent at Each Level)

Similarly, if we have 0.5 per cent area at each end of the normal curve
where 1 per cent area of rejection is to be divided equally between its upper and
lower tails, it is necessary to go out to ± 2.58 on the base line to reach the area of
rejection as shown in the Figure 11.2.

Acceptance Area
49.50% 49.50%

-2.58 True Difference = 0 +2.58

Fig. 11.2 A Two-Tailed Test at 0.01 level (0.5 Per Cent at Each Level)

In the case of the above example, a null hypothesis was set up where there
was no difference other than a sampling error difference between the mean creative
thinking [Link]. score of males and females. Thus, we were concerned, with a
difference and not in superiority or inferiority of either group in the creative thinking
ability. To test this hypothesis, we applied ‘two-tailed test’ as the difference between
the two means might have been in one direction (plus) or in the other (minus) from
the true difference of zero and we took both tails of sampling distribution in
determining probabilities.

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Analysis and Interpretation As is evident from the above example, we make use of a normal distribution
of Data
curve in the case of a large sample ‘two-tailed test’. The 5 per cent area of rejection
is equally divided between the upper and lower tails of the curve and we have to
go out to ±1.96 on the base line of the curve to reach the area of rejection.
NOTES
Similarly, we have 0.5 per cent area at each end of the normal curve when
1 per cent of rejection is to be divided equally between its upper and lower tails
and it is necessary to go out to ± 2.58 on the base line to reach the area of
rejection.
In the above problem, if we change the null hypothesis as: male group of
[Link]. have significantly higher creative thinking than that of the female group; or
male group have significantly lower creative thinking than the female group of
[Link]. course, then each of these hypotheses indicates a direction of difference. In
such situations, the use of ‘one-tailed test’ is made. For such a test, the 5 per cent
area or 1 per cent area of rejection is either at the upper tail or at the lower tail of
the curve, to be read from 0.10 column (instead of 0.05) and 0.02 column (instead
of 0.0l).
Application of t-Test for Testing the Significance of Difference
Between Two Independent Small Samples
The frequency distribution of small sample means drawn from the same population
forms a t-distribution, and it is reasonable to expect that the sampling distribution
of the difference between the means computed from two different populations will
also fall under the category of t-distribution. Fisher provided the formula for testing
the difference between the means computed from independent small samples as
follows.

M1  M 2
t
 x12   x22  N  N 
1 2 (11.3)
 
N1  N 2  2  N1  N 2 

Where,
M1 and M2 = Means of two samples.
2 2
x1 and x2 = Sums of squares of the deviations from the means in the
two samples.
N1 and N2 = Number of cases in the two samples.
df = Degrees of freedom = N1 + N2 – 2.
To illustrate the use of the Formula (5), let us test the significance of the
difference between mean scores of 7 boys and 10 girls in an intelligence test as
illustrated in Table 11.1.

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 Table 11.1 Scores of 7 Boys and 10 Girls in an Intelligence Test Analysis and Interpretation
of Data
(N1 = 7) (N2 = 10)
2
Boys x1 x1 Girls x2 x22
X1 X2 NOTES
13 0 0 10 –4 16
14 1 1 16 2 4
11 –2 4 12 –2 4
12 –1 1 13 –1 1
15 2 4 18 4 16
13 0 0 13 –1 1
13 0 0 19 5 25
14 0 0
13 –1 1
12 –2 4
X1 = 91 X12 = 10 X2 = 140 X22 = 72

91
M1   13
7
140
M2   14
10
df = N1 + N2 – 2 = 7 + 10 – 2 = 15
Using Formula (5) we compute t as follows:
14  13
t
 10  72  7  10 
  
 7  10  2  7  10 
1

 82  17 
  
 15  10 
1

9.29
 0.33
To test the significance of difference between the two means by making use
of the ‘two-tailed test’ (null hypothesis, i.e., no differences between the two groups),
we look for the t-critical values for rejection of null hypothesis for (7 + 10 – 2) or
15 df. These t-values are 2.13 at 0.05 and 2.95 at 0.01 levels of significance.
Since the obtained t-value 0.33 is less than the table value necessary for the rejection
of the null hypothesis at 0.05 levels for ‘df’ 15, the null hypothesis is accepted and
it may be concluded that there is no significant difference in the mean intelligence
scores of males and females. If we change the null hypothesis as: boys will have
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Analysis and Interpretation higher intelligence scores than girls or males will have lower intelligence scores
of Data
than females, then each of these hypotheses indicates a direction of difference
rather than simply the existence of the difference. So, we make use of ‘one-tailed
test’. For given degrees of freedom, i.e., 15, the 0.05 level is read from the 0.10
NOTES column ( p/2 = 0.05) and the 0.01 level from 0.02 column( p/2 = 0.01) of the ‘t’
table. In the one-tailed test, for 15 ‘df’ t-critical values at 0.05 and 0.01 levels, as
read from the 0.10 and the 0.02 columns are 1.75 and 2.60, respectively. Since
the computed t-value of 0.33 does not reach the table value at 0.05 levels (i.e.,
1.75 for 0.l0), we may conclude that the difference in two groups is present merely
because of chance factors.
11.2.5 t-Test (Independent and Correlated Samples)
Sir William S. Gosset (pen name Student) developed a significance test and through
it made a significant contribution to the theory of sampling applicable in case of
small samples. When population variance is not known, the test is commonly known
as Student’s t-test and is based on the t distribution.
Like normal distribution, t distribution is also symmetrical but happens to be
flatter than normal distribution. Moreover, there is a different t distribution for
every possible sample size. As the sample size gets larger, the shape of the t
distribution loses its flatness and becomes approximately equal to the normal
distribution. In fact, for sample sizes of more than 30, the t distribution is so close
to the normal distribution that we will use the normal to approximate the t distribution.
Thus, when n is small, the t distribution is far from normal, but when n is infinite, it
is identical to normal distribution.
For applying t-test in context of small samples, the t value is calculated
first of all and then the calculated value is compared with the table value of t
at certain level of significance for given degrees of freedom. If the calculated
value of t exceeds the table value (say t0.05), we infer that the difference is
significant at 5 per cent level but if calculated value is t0 is less than its concerning
table value, the difference is not treated as significant.
The t-test is used when two conditions are fullfiled,
(a) The sample size is less than 30, i.e., when n  30..
(b) The population standard deviation (p) must be unknown.
In using the t-test, we assume the following:
(a) That the population is normal or approximately normal.
(b) That the observations are independent and the samples are randomly drawn
samples.
(c) That there is no measurement error.
(d) That in the case of two samples, population variances are regarded as equal
if equality of the two population means is to be tested.
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216 Material
The following formulae are commonly used to calculate the t value: Analysis and Interpretation
of Data
(a) To Test the Significance of the Mean of a Random Sample

| X |
t NOTES
S | SEx X

Where, X = Mean of the sample

µ = Mean of the universe
SE X = S.E. of mean in case of small sample and is worked out as follows:

( X i  X )2
 n
SEX  s 
n n
and the degrees of freedom = (n – 1).
The above stated formula for t can as well be stated as under:
| X | | X  | | X |
t  =  n
SE X ( X  X ) 2
( X  X )2
n 1 n 1
n
If we want to work out the probable or fiducial limits of population mean
(µ) in case of small samples, we can use either of the following:
(a) Probable limits with 95 per cent confidence level:
  X  SE X (t0.05 )

(b) Probable limits with 99 per cent confidence level:

  X  SE X (t0.01 )

At other confidence levels, the limits can be worked out in a similar manner,
taking the concerning table value of t just as we have taken t0.05 in (a) and t0.01 in
(b) above.
(b) To Test the Difference between the Means of the Two Samples
| X1  X 2 |
t
SE X 1  X 2

Where, X 1 = Mean of the Sample 1.

X 2 = Mean of the Sample 2.

SEX1  X2 = Standard Error of difference between two sample means and is

worked out as follows:
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Material 217
Analysis and Interpretation 2
of Data ( X 1i  X 1 )2   ( X 2 i  X 2 )
SEX1  X 2 
n1  n2  2
1 1
NOTES  
n1 n2

and the degrees of freedom = (n1 +n2 – 2).

When the actual means are in fraction, then use of assumed means is
convenient. In such a case, the standard deviation of difference, i.e.,
( X1i  X 1 )2 + ( X 2i  X 2 )2
n1  n2  2

can be worked out by the following short-cut formula:

( X1i  A1 ) 2  ( X 2i  A1 )2  n1 ( X1i  A2 )2  n2 ( X 2i  A2 )2

n1  n2  2

Where, A1 = Assumed mean of Sample 1.

A2 = Assumed mean of Sample 2.
X1 = True mean of Sample 1.
X2 = True mean of Sample 2.
(c) To Test the Significance of an Observed Correlation Coefficient
r
t  n2
1 r2
Here, t is based on (n – 2) degrees of freedom.
(d) To Test and Compare Sample Mean
The t-test can be used to compare a sample mean to an accepted value (of a
population mean) or it can be used to compare the means of two sample sets.
t-Test to Compare One Sample Mean to an Accepted Value
The formula for the calculation of the t-statistic for one sample mean is as follows:
x  μ0
t
s/ n
Here, s is the standard deviation of the sample and not the population standard
deviation.
t-Test to Compare Two Sample Means
The method for comparing two sample means is very similar. The only two
differences are the equation used to compute the t-statistic and the degrees of
freedom for choosing the tabulate t-value. The formula is given as follows:
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218 Material
 Analysis and Interpretation
x1  x2
t of Data
s12 s22

n1 n2
In this case, we require two separate sample means, standard deviations NOTES
and sample size. The formula for degrees of freedom (df) depends on the condition.
One-sample t-test: df = n – 1
2
 s12 s22 
  
 n1 n2 
2 2
 s2   s2 
Two-sample t-test: df =  1   2 
 n1    n2 
n1  1 n2  1
Example 11.3: A one sample t-test is conducted on H0: 81.6. The sample
has x = 84.1, s = 3.1 and n = 25. Find the t-test statistics.
Solution: The t-test statistics is obtained as follows:
x = 84.1
  81.6
s  3.1
n  25
x  μ0
t 
s/ n
 84.1 – 81.6 / (3.1 /  25)
= 2.5 / (3.1 / 5)
= 2.5 / 0.62

The value of t as per t-test statistics is 4.032.

Example 11.4: Two random samples have been selected and a two sample
t-test for the difference in population means is conducted with H0: 1 = 2 vs. Ha:
1 > 2. The results are s1 = 2.5, x1 = 9.7, n1 = 30, s2 = 2.9, x2 = 9.1 and n2 = 35.
What is the value of t-test?
Solution: The value of t-test is obtained as follows:
Here,
x1 = 9.7

x2 = 9.1
n1 = 30
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Material 219
Analysis and Interpretation n2 = 35
of Data
s1 = 2.5
s2 = 2.9
NOTES We know:
x1  x2
t 
s12 s22

n1 n 2
= 9.7 – 9.1 / (2.5)2/30 + (2.9)2 / 35
= 0.6 / 6.25/ 30 + 8.41/35
= 0.6  0.208 + 0.240
= 0.6 / 0.448
= 0.6 / 0.66
= 0.90
The value of t as per as per t-test statistics is 0.90.
t-Test for Independent and Dependent Group
Under this heading, you will learn about t-Test for independent and dependent
group.
Independent t-Test
The sampling distribution of the difference between the means of two independent
samples provides the basics for the testing of a mean difference hypothesis between
two groups.
A typical research in which one would use the independent t -test might
involve one group of employees receiving sales training and the second group of
employees not receiving any sales training. The number of sales for each group is
recorded and averaged. The null hypothesis would be stated when the average
sales for the two groups are equal. The alternative hypothesis would be stated
when the group receiving the sales training will on average have higher sales than
the group that did not receive any sales training. If the sample data for the two
groups were recorded for Sales Training where the mean = 40, standard deviation=
10, n = 100, then the independent t-test can be computed as follows:

X1  X 2
t
S X1  X 2

Thus, the independent t-test can be computed as follows:

0  40
t  7.09
1.41
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Dependent t-Test Analysis and Interpretation
of Data
The dependent t-test is sometimes referred to as the paired t-test because it uses
two sets of scores on the same individuals.
A typical research situation that uses the dependent t-test involves a reputed NOTES
measure design with one group. For example, a psychologist is studying the effect
of certain motion picture upon the attribute of violence. The psychologist
hypotheses that viewing the motion will cause the students attribute to be more
violent. A random sample of 10 students is given an attribute towards violence
inventory before viewing the motion picture. Next 10 students view the motion
picture which contains graphic violence portrayed as acceptable behavior. The
ten students are the given the attribute towards violence inventory after viewing
the motion picture. The average attribute toward violence score for students before
viewing the motion picture was 6.75, but after viewing the motion picture it is 73.
There are ten pairs of scores so ten score differences are squared and summed to
calculate the sum of square difference. The standard error of the dependent t-test
is the square root of the sum of square differences divide by N(N – 1).
The dependent t-test to investigate whether the student’s attribute towards
the violence changed after viewing the motion picture would be calculated as
follows:

D
t
SD
The numerator in the above formula is the average difference between the post
and pre means score on the attribute towards violence inventory which is 73 –
67.5 = 5.5.
The denominator is calculated as follows:
Student Pre Post D D2

D1  67.5 D2  73.0 D = 55 D2 = 725

Thus the dependent t-test is calculated as t = 5.5/ 2.17=2.53

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Analysis and Interpretation 11.2.6 ANOVA: Assumptions
of Data
In business decisions, we are often involved in determining if there are significant
differences among various sample means, from which conclusions can be drawn
NOTES about the differences among various population means. For example, we may be
interested to find out if there are any significant differences in the average sales
figures of 4 different salesman employed by the same company, or we may be
interested to find out if the average monthly expenditures of a family of 4 in 5
different localities are similar or not, or the telephone company may be interested
in checking, whether there are any significant differences in the average number of
requests for information received in a given day among the 5 areas of City (Under
Study), and so on. The methodology used for such types of determinations is
known as ANalysis Of VAriance or ANOVA. This technique is one of the most
powerful techniques in statistical analysis and was developed by R.A. Fisher. It is
also called the F-Test.
There are two types of classifications involved in the analysis of variance.
The one-way analysis of variance refers to the situations when only one fact or
variable is considered. For example, in testing for differences in sales for three
salesman, we are considering only one factor, which is the salesman’s selling ability.
In the second type of classification, the response variable of interest may be affected
by more than one factor. For example, the sales may be affected not only by the
salesman’s selling ability, but also by the price charged or the extent of advertising
in a given area.
The Basic Principle of ANOVA
The basic principle of ANOVA is to test for differences among the means of the
populations by examining the amount of variation within each of these samples,
relative to the amount of variation between the samples. In terms of variation
within the given population it is assumed that the values of (Xij) differ from the
mean of this population only because of random effects i.e., there are influences
on (Xij) which are unexplainable, whereas in examining differences between
populations we assume that the difference between the mean of the jth population
and the grand mean is attributable to what is called a ‘specific factor’ or what is
technically described as treatment effect. Thus, while using ANOVA, we assume
that each of the samples is drawn from a normal population and that each of these
populations has the same variance. We also assume that all factors other than the
one or more being tested are effectively controlled. This, in other words, means
that we assume the absence of many factors that might affect our conclusions
concerning the factor(s) to be studied.
Thus, a composite procedure for testing simultaneously the difference
between several sample means is known as the ANOVA. It helps us to know
whether any of the differences between the means of the given sample are significant.
If the answer is yes, we examine pairs (with the help of the t-test) to see just where
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the significant difference lie. If the answer is no, we do not proceed further.
222 Material
 In such a test, as the name implies, we usually deal with the analysis of the Analysis and Interpretation
of Data
variances. Variances are simply the arithmetic average of the squared deviation
from their means. In other words, it is the square of standard deviation (Variance
= Variance has a quality which makes it especially useful. It has an additive
property, which the standard deviation with its square root does not possess. NOTES
Variance on this account can be added up and broken down into components.
Hence, the term ‘analysis of variance’ deals with the task of analyzing of breaking
up the total variance of a large sample or a population consisting of a number of
equal groups or sub-samples into two components (two kinds of variances), given
as follows:
 ‘Within Groups’ Variance: This is the average variance of the members
of each group around their respective group means, i.e., the mean value of
the scores in a sample (as members of each group may vary among
themselves).
 ‘Between Groups’ Variance: This represents the variance of group means
around the total or grand mean of all groups, i.e., the best estimate of the
population mean (as the group means may vary considerably from each
other).
The technique of analysis of variance is applied to determine if any two of the
seven means differ significantly from each other by a single test, known as F-test,
rather than 21 t-tests. The F-test makes it possible to determine whether the sample
means differ from one another (between group variance) to a greater extent than the
test scores differ from their own sample means (within group variance) using the
ratio given below:
Variance between the groups
F
Variance within groups

Assumptions for the Analysis of Variance (F-Test)

Certain basic assumptions underlying the technique of analysing variance are as
follows:
 The population distribution should be normal. This assumption is, however,
not so important. The study of Norton (Guilford, 1965) also points out that
‘F’ is rather insensitive to variations in the shape of population distribution.
 All groups with a certain criterion or of the combination of more than one
criterion should be randomly chosen from the sub-population having the
same criterion or having the same combination of more than one criterion.
For example, if we wish to select two groups from two schools, one belonging
to a rural area school and the other to an urban area school, we must,
choose the groups randomly from the respective schools.
 The sub-groups under investigation must have the same variability. In other
words, there should be homogeneity of variance.

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Analysis and Interpretation One-Way ANOVA
of Data
One-way analysis of variance, also abbreviated as one-way ANOVA, is a
technique used to compare means of two or more samples using the F distribution.
NOTES This technique can be used only for numerical data.
Example 11.5: To illustrate the use of F-test, let us consider an example of 20
students who have been randomly assigned to four groups of five each, to be
taught by different methods, i.e., A, B, C and D. Their performance scores on an
achievement test, administered after the completion of experiment are given in
Table 11.2.
Table 11.2 Achievement Test Scores of the Four Groups Taught
through Four Different Methods

Methods or Groups
A B C D
(X1) (X2) (X3) (X4)
14 19 12 17
15 20 16 17
11 19 16 14
10 16 15 12
12 16 12 17
X 62 90 71 77 300
2
X 786 1634 1025 1207 4652

We may compute the analysis of variance using the following steps:

2 2
X 300
1. Correction =   4500
N 200
2. Total sum of squares (Total SS)
= X2 – Correction
= (786 + 1634 + 1025 + 1207) – 4500
= 4652 – 4500
= 152
3. Sum of squares between means of treatments (Methods) A, B, C and
D (between means):
2 2 2 2
 X1 X 2 X 3 X 4
=     Correction
N1 N2 N3 N4
2 2 2 2
62 90 71 77
=     4500
5 5 5 5
= 4582.8  4500
= 82.8
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 4. Sum of squares within treatments (Methods) A, B, C and D (SS within Analysis and Interpretation
of Data
means):
= Total SS – SS between means
= 152 – 82.8 NOTES
= 69.2
5. Calculation of variances from each SS and analysis of the total variance
into its components.
Each SS becomes a variance when divided by the degrees of freedom (df)
allotted to it. There are 20 scores in all in Table 6.1, and hence there are (N – 1)
or (20 – 1) = 19 ‘df’ in all. These 19 ‘df’ are allocated in the following ways:
If N = Number of scores in all and K = number of treatments or groups, we
have ‘df’ for total SS = N–1 = 20 – 1 = 19, ‘df’ for within treatments = N – K =
20 – 4 = 16; and ‘df’ for between the means of treatments = K – 1 = 4 – 1 = 3.
The variance among means of treatments is 82.8/3 or 27.60; and the variance
within means is 69.2/16 or 4.33.
The summary of the analysis of variance may be presented in tabular form
as shown in Table 11.3.
Table 11.3 Summary of Analysis of Variance

Source of Variance df Sum of Squares Mean Square

(SS) (Variance)
Between the means of treatment 3 82.8 27.60
Within treatment 16 69.2 4.33
Total 19 152.0

Using formula,
27.60
F  6.374
4.33
In the present problem, the null hypothesis asserts that four sets of scores
are in reality the scores of four random samples drawn from the same normally
distributed schools, and that the means of the four groups A, B, C, and D will
differ only through fluctuations of sampling. For testing this hypothesis, we divided
the ‘between means’ variance by the ‘within treatments’ variance and compared
the resulting variance ratio, called F, with the F-values. The F value of 6.374 in
the present case is to be checked for table value for ‘df’ 3 and 16 (the degrees of
freedom for numerator and denominator). The table values for 0.05 and 0.01
levels of significance are 3.24 and 5.29. Since the computed F-value of 6.374 is
greater than the table values, we reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the
means of the four groups differ significantly.

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Analysis and Interpretation Two-Way ANOVA
of Data
We have studied one way ANOVA involving four different methods of teaching.
In two-way analysis of variance classification, an estimate of population variance,
NOTES i.e., total variance is supposed to be broken up into (i) Variance due to adjustment,
(ii) Variance due to anxiety alone, and (iii) The residual variance called interaction
variance (Adj × Anx), where A = Adjustment and Anx = Anxiety.
Example 11.6: A study has been conducted on anxiety and adjustment with the
help of 2 × 2 factorial designs. It has four conditions and the score is given below
in the Table.
Table Score
Adjustment
High Low
High A B
Anxiety
Low C D

ABCD are four experimental conditions. Calculate:

(i) Is there any significant difference between the means of the two conditions
of adjustment?
(ii) Is there any significant difference between the means of the two conditions
of anxiety?
(iii)Is there any interaction between two independent variables (adjustment
and anxiety)?
Solution: We first construct the table as follows:
A B C D X12 X22 X32 X42
Condition Condition Condition Condition
X1 X2 X3 X4
6 4 6 6 136 16 36 36
6 3 8 6 36 09 64 36
6 6 5 6 36 36 25 36
6 6 8 6 36 36 64 36
5 4 6 4 25 16 36 16
6 3 6 5 36 09 36 25
6 4 6 6 36 16 36 36
5 3 6 6 25 09 36 36
6 5 6 6 36 25 36 36
6 4 6 5 36 16 36 25
ΣX1 = 58 ΣX2 = 42 ΣX3 = 63 ΣX4 = 56

X12 = 338 X22=188 X32=405 X42 = 318

N1 = 10 N2 = 10 N3 = 10 N4 = 10
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 2
Analysis and Interpretation
 X 1  X 2   X 3   X 4 of Data
C
N
2
58  42  63  56 47961
C  NOTES
40 40
 1199.02
Total SS = X1 2 + X2 2 + X3 2 + X4 2 + …. – Correction
= 338 + 188 + 405 + 318 – 1199.02
= 1249 – 1199.02 = 49.98
2 2 2 2
X 1 X 2 X 3 X 4
Among SS =     Correction
N1 N2 N3 N4
2 2 2 2
58 42 63 56
=      Correction
10 10 10 10
= 3364 + 1764 + 3969 + 3136/40 – Correction
= 336.4 + 176.4 + 396.9 + 313.6 – Correction
= 1223.3 – 1199.02 = 24.28
Within SS = Total SS – Among SS
= 49.98 – 24.28 = 25.70
SS between amount of first IV (Adjustment)
2 2
X 1  X 3 X 2  X 4
=   Correction
N1  N3 N2  N4
2 2
58  63 42  56
=   Correction
10  10 10  10
= 1212.25  1199.02
= 13.23
SS between amount of second IV (Anxiety)
2 2
X 1  X 2 X 3  X 4
=   Correction
N1  N 2 N3  N4
2 2
58  42 63  56
=   1199.0211
10  10 10  10
10000 14161
=   1199.0211
20 20
= 500 + 708.05 – 1192.02
= 1208.05 – 1192.02
= 9.03 Self-Instructional
Material 227
Analysis and Interpretation Interaction SS = Among SS – Between SS for first IV – Between second
of Data
IV = 24.28 – 13.23 – 9.03 = 2.02.
Summary: Analysis of Variance

NOTES Source of Variation Sum of df Mean F Result

Square Square
Between Adj 13.23 1 13.23 18.63 Significant
at 0.01 level
Between Anx 9.03 1 9.03 12.71 Significant
at 0.01 level
Intraction: Adj × Anx 2.02 1 2.02 2.84 NS
Within group error 25.70 36 00.71 – –
Total 49.98 39 – – –

Mean Square between group 2.02

F Ratio  
Mean Square with in group 0.71
 2.84
In this way we have calculated the rest F Ratio also.
Result: After seeing above Table we conclude that our first two hypotheses have
been accepted and that there is a significant difference whereas our third hypothesis
that there is interaction between the two independent variables (Adjustment and
Anxiety) is not true.
ANOVA Technique in Context of Two-Way Design when Repeated
Values are There
In case of a two-way design with repeated measurements for all the categories,
we can obtain a separate independent measure of inherent or smallest variations.
For this measure, we can calculate the sum of squares and degrees of freedom in
the same way as we have worked out the sum of squares for variance within
samples in the case of one-way ANOVA, SS total, SS between columns and SS
between rows can also be worked out as stated above. We then find left-over
sums of squares and left-over degrees of freedom which are used for what is
known as ‘interaction variation’. Interaction is the measure of inter-relationship
among the two different [Link] making all these computations, ANOVA
table can be set up for drawing inferences.
11.2.7 Correlations
Correlation measures the degree of association between two or more variables.
When we are dealing with two variables, we are talking in terms of simple correlation
and when more than two variables are involved, the subject matter of interest is
called multiple correlation. There are three types of correlation:
1. Positive correlation: When two variables X and Y move in the same direction,
the correlation between the two is positive. If one variable increases, the other
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variable also increases and if one variable decreases, the other variable also Analysis and Interpretation
of Data
decreases. The examples of positive correlation are a particular quantity supplied
of a commodity and the price of the commodity, the sales revenue and the advertising
expenditure, consumption expenditure and the disposable income. The scatter of
the points of the variables X and Y is clustered around a positively sloped line/ NOTES
curve in such a case as shown in Figure 11.3. In the figure, we note that the two
variables X and Y move in the same direction.

Fig. 11.3 Positive Correlation

Fig. 11.4 Negative Correlation

Fig. 11.5 Zero Correlation

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Material 229
Analysis and Interpretation 2. Negative correlation: When two variables X and Y move in the opposite
of Data
direction, the correlation is negative. If one variable increases, the other decreases
and vice versa. The examples of negative correlation are usually the quantity
demanded and the price of the commodity. The scatter of the points on the variables
NOTES X and Y is clustered around a negatively sloped straight line/curve in such a situation
as shown in Figure 11.4. In the figure, we find that the variables X and Y are
moving in the opposite direction.
3. Zero correlation: The correlation between two variables X and Y is zero
when the variables move in no connection with each other. If the variable X increases,
Y may increase or decrease in some situation. The scatter of the points of the
variables X and Y in case of zero correlation is given in Figure 11.5. Zero correlation
does not mean that the variables are not related. We are, here, dealing with a
linear correlation and there could be a non-linear relation between them.
Quantitative Estimate of a Linear Correlation
A quantitative estimate of a linear correlation between two variables X and Y is
given by Karl Pearson as:

(11.4)

which may be rewritten as

(11.5)

It may be noted that the above-mentioned formulae are for the linear
correlation coefficient. The linear correlation coefficient takes a value between –1
and +1 (both values inclusive). If the value of the correlation coefficient is equal to
1, the two variables are perfectly positively correlated and the scatter of the points
of the variables X and Y will lie on a positively sloped straight line. Similarly, if the
correlation coefficient between the two variables X and Y is –1, the scatter of the
points of these variables will lie on a negatively sloped straight line and such a
correlation will be called a perfectly negative correlation. It may be noted that the
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closer the scatter of points to the line, higher is the degree of correlation between Analysis and Interpretation
of Data
the variables.
Testing the Significance of the Correlation Coefficient
The statistical test for the significance of a correlation coefficient is conducted NOTES
using a t-statistic. The hypothesis to be tested is mentioned below:

Test statistic is given by,

(11.6)

where,  = Population correlation coefficient between the variables X and Y

r = Sample correlation coefficient between the variables X and Y
n – 2 = The degrees of freedom
Given the value of r and n, the value of the test statistic t could be computed.
Now for a given level of significance, if computed is greater than tabulated
with n – 2 degrees of freedom, the null hypothesis of no correlation between X
and Y is rejected.

Check Your Progress

1. What is standard error of mean?
2. Who developed the t-test?
3. What is another name for ANOVA technique?
4. Which statistic is used for testing the significance of correlation coefficient?

11.3 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. Standard error of mean is a measure of dispersion of the distribution of

sample means and is similar to the standard decision in a frequency
distribution and it measures the likely deviation of a sample mean from the
grand mean of the sampling distribution.
2. Sir William S Goset developed the t-test.
3. ANOVA technique is also known as F-test.
4. The statistical test for the significance of a correlation coefficient is conducted
using a t-statistic.

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Material 231
Analysis and Interpretation
of Data 11.4 SUMMARY

 Confidence interval refers to the range of values so defined that there is a

NOTES specified probability that the value of parameter lies within it.
 The number of independent constraints determines the number of degrees
of freedom2 (or df). If there are 10 frequency classes and there is one
independent constraint, then there are (10 – 1) = 9 degrees of freedom.
 Standard error of the mean (–×)is a measure of dispersion of the distribution
of sample means and is similar to the standard deviation in a frequency
distribution and it measures the likely deviation of a sample mean from the
grand mean of the sampling distribution.
 Suppose a null hypothesis were set up that there was no difference other
than a sampling error difference between the mean height of two groups, A
and B. We would be concerned only with the difference and not with the
superiority or inferiority in height of either group. To test this hypothesis, we
apply two-tailed test as the difference between the obtained means of height
of two groups may be as often in one direction (plus) as in the other (minus)
from the true difference of zero. Moreover, for determining probability, we
take both tails of sampling distribution.
 The frequency distribution of small sample means drawn from the same
population forms a t-distribution, and it is reasonable to expect that the
sampling distribution of the difference between the means computed from
two different populations will also fall under the category of t-distribution.
 Sir William S. Gosset (pen name Student) developed a significance test and
through it made a significant contribution to the theory of sampling applicable
in case of small samples. When population variance is not known, the test is
commonly known as Student’s t-test and is based on the t distribution.
 When n is small, the t distribution is far from normal, but when n is infinite,
it is identical to normal distribution.
 This technique is one of the most powerful techniques in statistical analysis
and was developed by R.A. Fisher. It is also called the F-Test.
 The basic principle of ANOVA is to test for differences among the means
of the populations by examining the amount of variation within each of these
samples, relative to the amount of variation between the samples.
 Correlation measures the degree of association between two or more
variables. When we are dealing with two variables, we are talking in terms
of simple correlation and when more than two variables are involved, the
subject matter of interest is called multiple correlation.

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 Analysis and Interpretation
11.5 KEY WORDS of Data

 Measure of dispersion: It may be defined as statistics signifying the extend

of the scatteredness of items around a measure of central tendency. NOTES
 Correlation: It measures the degree of association between two or more
variables.

11.6 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. Write short notes on levels of confidence, degrees of freedom and standard
error of mean.
2. What are one tailed and two tailed tests of significance?
3. Write a short note on the types of correlation.
Long Answer Questions
1. Examine the concept of t-tests for different types of samples.
2. Describe the concept of ANOVA.

11.7 FURTHER READINGS

Best, J.W. and J.V. Kahn. 1989. Research in Education. New Delhi: Prentice
Hall.
Buch, M. B. 1974. A Survey of Research in Education. Baroda: CASE, M. S.
University.
Fox, D. J. 1969. The Research Process in Education. New York: Rhinehart and
Winston, Inc.
Garrett. H. E. 1988. Statistics in Psychology and Education. Bombay: Vikils,
Feiffer & Semen’s Ltd.
Guilford, J.P. and B. Fruchter. 1974. Fundamental Statistics in Psychology &
Education. New York: McGraw Hill.

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Statistical Analysis
BLOCK - IV
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS, RESEARCH REPORT AND
COMPUTER IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
NOTES

UNIT 12 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Structure
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Non-parametric Statistics amd Simple Applications
12.2.1 Chi-square Tests
12.2.2 Run Test for Randomness
12.2.3 One and Two Sample Sign Tests
12.2.4 Mann-Whitney U Test for Independent Samples
12.2.5 Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test for Paired Samples
12.2.6 The Kruskal-Wallis Test
12.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
12.4 Summary
12.5 Key Words
12.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
12.7 Further Readings

12.0 INTRODUCTION

You were introduced to the concept of parametric and non-parametric tests in

Unit 9. To recapitulate, where parametric tests use certain assumptions regarding
the test, the non-parametric tests do not rely on any parameters for its tests. While
parametric tests use normal frequency of the population measured, non-parametric
tests do not have such criteria. You have already learnt the parameters and
parametric tests in the Unit 11. Therefore, in this unit, you will only learn about the
concept and simple statistical application of the non-parametric tests.

12.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of non-parametric tests
 Describe the simple statistical applications of non-parametric tests

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12.2 NON-PARAMETRIC STATISTICS AMD SIMPLE
APPLICATIONS

Non-parametric tests are not based on set parameters or assumptions for testing. NOTES
Advantages and Disadvantages of Non-Parametric Tests
There are many advantages of a non-parametric test. These are:
 They can be applied to many situations as they do not have the rigid
requirements of their parametric counterparts, like the sample having been
drawn from the population following a normal distribution. A researcher
can encounter an application where a numeric observation is difficult to
obtain but a rank value is not. For example, it is easy to obtain the rank data
on the preference of consumer for the various brands of toothpaste rather
than assigning a numerical value to them. By using ranks, it is possible to
relax the assumptions regarding the underlying populations.
 Non-parametric tests can often be applied to the nominal and ordinal data
that lack exact or comparable numerical values. For example, the
respondents may be asked a question on their religion—Hindu, Sikh,
Christian, or Muslim. This is a nominal scale data and can only be analysed
by non-parametric methods.
 Non-parametric tests involve very simple computations compared to the
corresponding parametric tests.
However, the methods are not without their own drawbacks and there are certain
disadvantages of non-parametric tests. These are:
 A lot of information is wasted because the exact numerical data is reduced
to a qualitative form. For example, in one of the non-parametric tests like
the sign test, the increase or the gain is denoted by a plus sign whereas a
decrease or loss is denoted by a negative sign. No consideration is given to
the quantity of the gain or loss. A gain of `1 or `1 lakh would both receive
a plus sign.
 Non-parametric methods are less powerful than parametric tests when the
basic assumptions of parametric tests are valid. Therefore, there is more
risk of accepting a false hypothesis and thus committing a type II error.
 Null hypothesis in a non-parametric test is loosely defined as compared to
the parametric tests. Therefore, whenever the null hypothesis is rejected, a
non-parametric test yields a less precise conclusion as compared to the
parametric test. For example, corresponding to the null hypothesis that the
means of the two populations are equal in the parametric test, the null
hypothesis in a non-parametric test is that the two populations have same
probability distributions.

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Statistical Analysis In such a situation, rejecting a null hypothesis under the parametric test
would imply that the means of the two populations are different whereas
under a non- parametric test, it means that the two population distributions
are different but the specific form of the difference between the two
NOTES populations is not clearly defined.
In this section, we will discuss non-parametric tests such as chi-square, run
test, sign test, the Mann-Whitney U test, the Wilcoxon matched-pair rank
test and the Kruskal–Wallis test. The differences between parametric and
non-parametric tests are summarized below.

12.2.1 Chi-square Tests

For the use of a chi-square test, the data is required in the form of frequencies.
The data expressed in percentages or proportion can also be used, provided it
could be converted into frequencies. The majority of the applications of chi-square
(2) are with the discrete data. The test could also be applied to continuous data,
provided it is reduced to certain categories and tabulated in such a way that the
chi-square may be applied.
Some of the important properties of the chi-square distribution are:
 Unlike the normal and t distribution, the chi-square distribution is not
symmetric (Figure 12.1).

Fig. 12.1 Shape of chi-square (2) distribution

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 Statistical Analysis

NOTES

Fig. 12.2 Shape of chi-square distribution with varying degrees of freedom

 The values of a chi-square are greater than or equal to zero.

 The shape of a chi-square distribution depends upon the degrees of freedom.
With the increase in degrees of freedom, the distribution tends to normal
(Figure 12.2).
Application of Chi-square
There are many applications of a chi-square test. Some of them are explained
below:
 A chi-square test for the goodness of fit.
 A chi-square test for the independence of variables.
 A chi-square test for the equality of more than two population proportions.
A chi-square test for the goodness of fit
As discussed before, the data in chi-square tests is often in terms of counts or
frequencies. The actual survey data may be on a nominal or higher scale of
measurement. If it is on a higher scale of measurement, it can always be converted
into categories. The real world situations in business allow for the collection of
count data, e.g., gender, marital status, job classification, age and income. Therefore,
a chi-square becomes a much sought after tool for analysis. The researcher has to
decide what statistical test is implied by the chi-square statistic in a particular
situation. Below are discussed common principles of all the chi-square tests. The
principles are summarized in the following steps:
 State the null and the alternative hypothesis about a population.
 Specify a level of significance.
 Compute the expected frequencies of the occurrence of certain events under
the assumption that the null hypothesis is true.

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Statistical Analysis  Make a note of the observed counts of the data points falling in different
cells
 Compute the chi-square value given by the formula.
NOTES

where,
Oi = Observed frequency of ith cell
Ei = Expected frequency of ith cell
k = Total number of cells
k–1 = Degrees of freedom
 Compare the sample value of the statistic as obtained in previous step with
the critical value at a given level of significance and make the decision.
A goodness of fit test is a statistical test of how well the observed data
supports the assumption about the distribution of a population. The test also
examines that how well an assumed distribution fits the data. Many a times, the
researcher assumes that the sample is drawn from a normal or any other distribution
of interest. A test of how normal or any other distribution fits a given data may be
of some interest.
Consider for example the case of the multinomial experiment which is the
extension of a binomial experiment. In the multinomial experiment, the number of
the categories k is greater than 2. Further, a data point can fall into one of the k
categories and the probability of the data point falling in the ith category is a constant
and is denoted by pi where i = 1, 2, 3, 4, ..., k. In summary, a multinomial experiment
has the following features:
 There are fixed number of trials.
 The trials are statistically independent.
 All the possible outcomes of a trial get classified into one of the several
categories.
 The probbilities for the different categories remain constant for each trial.
Consider as an example that a respondent can fall into any one of the four
non-overlapping income categories. Let the probabilities that the respondent will
fall into any of the four groups may be denoted by the four parameters p1, p2, p3,
and p4. Given these, the multinomial distribution with these parameters, and n the
number of people in a random sample, specifies the probabilities of any combination
of the cell counts.
Given such a situation, we may use a multinomial distribution to test how
well the data fits the assumption of k probability p1, p2, ..., pk of falling into the k
cells. The hypothesis to be tested is:
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 H0 : Probabilities of the occurrence of events E1, E2, ..., Ek are given by the Statistical Analysis

specified probabilities p1, p2, ..., pk

H1 : Probabilities of the k events are not the pi stated in the null hypothesis.
Such hypothesis could be tested using the chi-square statistics. Below are NOTES
given a set of illustrated examples.
Example 12.1: The manager of ABC icecream parlour has to take a decision
regarding how much of each flavour of icecream he should stock so that the
demands of the customers are satisfied. The icecream supplier claims that among
the four most popular flavors, 62 per cent customers prefer vanilla, 18 per cent
chocolate, 12 per cent strawberry and 8 per cent mango. A random sample of
200 customers produces the results below. At the  = 0.05 significance level, test
the claim that the percentages given by the supplies are correct.

Solution:
Let
pv : Proportion of customers preferring vanilla flavour.
pc : Proportion of customers preferring chocolate flavour.
ps : proportion of customers preferring strawberry flavour.
pm : proportion of customers preferring mango flavour.
H0 : pv = 0.62, pc = 0.18, ps = 0.12, pm = 0.08
H1 : Proportions are not that specified in the null hypothesis
The expected frequencies corresponding to the various flavors under the
assumption that the null hypothesis is true are:
Vanilla = 200 × 0.62 = 124
Chocolate = 200 × 0.18 = 36
Strawberry = 200 × 0.12 = 24
Mango = 200 × 0.08 = 16

The computations for

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Statistical Analysis The computed value of chi-square is 4.323.
Table (5 per cent) = 9.488 (see Annexure 3 at the end of the book.)

NOTES

As sample 2 lies in the acceptance region, accept H0. Therefore, the

customer preference rates are as stated. Using the p value approach, we find that
the sample 2 value lies as shown below:

It is seen that the sample 2 corresponds to a p value greater than 10 per

cent. Therefore, there is not enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis. This
means that the customer preference rates are as stated in the null hypothesis.
It may be worth pointing out that for the application of a chi-square test, the
expected frequency in each cell should be at least 5.0. In case it is found that one
or more cells have the expected frequency less than 5, one could still carry out the
chi-square analysis by combining them into meaningful cells so that the expected
number has a total of at least 5. Another point worth mentioning is that the degree
of freedom, usually denoted by df in such cases, is given by k – 1, where k
denotes the number of cells (categories).
It may be noted that in Example 12.1, the hypothesized probabilities were
not equal. There are situations where the hypothesized probabilities in each category
are equal or in other words, the interest is in investigating the uniformity of the
distribution. The following example would illustrate it.
Example 12.2: An insurance company provides auto insurance and is analysing
the data obtained from fatal crashes. A sample of the motor vehicle deaths is
randomly selected for a two-year period. The number of fatalities is listed below
for the different days of the week. At the 0.05 significance level, test the claim that
accidents occur on different days with equal frequency.

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Solution: Statistical Analysis

Let
p1 = Proportion of fatalities on Monday
p2 = Proportion of fatalities on Tuesday NOTES
p3 = Proportion of fatalities on Wednesday
p4 = Proportion of fatalities on Thursday
p5 = Proportion of fatalities on Friday
p6 = Proportion of fatalities on Saturday
p7 = Proportion of fatalities on Sunday

H0 : p1 = p2 = p3 = p4 = p5 = p6 = p7 =

H1 : At least one of these proportions is incorrect.

n = Total frequency = 31 + 20 + 20 + 22 + 22 + 29 + 36 =
180
The expected number of fatalities on each day of the week under the
assumption that the null hypothesis is true is given as under:

The computation of sample chi-square value is given in the following table:

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Statistical Analysis

NOTES
Since the sample chi-square value is less than the tabulated 2, there is not
enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis as shown in the figure below.

The problem can also be worked out using the p-value approach. The
sample value of 2 = 9.233 with 6 df is less than the critical value 10.645, which
corresponds to an area of 10 per cent. Therefore, the p value in this problem is
greater than 10 per cent, which is higher than the level of significance  = 0.05.
Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted. This means that the accidents occur on
different days with equal frequencies.
A chi-square test for independence of variables
The chi-square test can be used to test the independence of two variables each
having at least two categories. The test makes a use of contingency tables also
referred to as cross-tabs with the cells corresponding to a cross classification of
attributes or events. A contingency table with 3 rows and 4 columns (as an example)
is shown.
Assuming that there are r rows and c columns, the count in the cell
corresponding to the ith row and the jth column is denoted by Oij, where i = 1, 2,
..., r and j = 1, 2, ..., c. The total for row i is denoted by Ri whereas that
corresponding to column j is denoted by Cj. The total sample size is given by n,
which is also the sum of all the r row totals or the sum of all the c column totals.

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The hypothesis test for independence is: Statistical Analysis

H0 : Row and column variables are independent of each other.

H1 : Row and column variables are not independent.
The hypothesis is tested using a chi-square test statistic for independence NOTES
given by:

The degrees of freedom for the chi-square statistic are given by (r – 1) (c – 1).
For a given level of significance a, the sample value of the chi-square is
compared with the critical value for the degree of freedom (r – 1) (c – 1) to make
a decision.
The expected frequency in the cell corresponding to the ith row and the jth
column is given by:

where,
Ri = Total for the ith row,
Cj = Total for the jth column,
n= Total sample size.
Let us consider a few examples:
Example 12.3: A sample of 870 trainees was subjected to different types of
training classified as intensive, good and average and their performance was noted
as above average, average and poor. The resulting data is presented in the table
below. Use a 5 per cent level of significance to examine whether there is any
relationship between the type of training and performance.

Solution:
H0 : Attribute performance and the training are independent.
H1 : Attribute performance and the training are not independent.

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Statistical Analysis The expected frequencies corresponding the ith row and the jth column in the
contingency table are denoted by Eij, where i = 1, 2, 3 and j = 1, 2, 3.

NOTES

The table of the observed and expected frequencies corresponding to the

ith row and the jth column and the computation of the chi-square is given in the
table.

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 The critical value of the chi-square at 5 per cent level of significance with 4 Statistical Analysis

degrees of freedom is given by 9.49. The sample value of the chi-square falls in
the rejection region as shown in the figure on next page.
Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected and one can conclude that there is
NOTES
an association between the type of training and performance.
Using a p value approach, it can be seen that the computed value of chi-
square (107.39) with 4 df is higher than the critical value (13.28) at 1 per cent
level of significance. Therefore, the p value of this problem is less than 0.01 which
is far below the level of significance. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected.
This means that there is a relationship between the type of training and the
performance.

A chi-square test for the equality of more than two population proportions
In certain situations, the researchers may be interested to test whether the
proportion of a particular characteristic is the same in several populations. The
interest may lie in finding out whether the proportion of people liking a movie is the
same for the three age groups, 25 and under, over 25 and under 50, and 50 and
over. To take another example, the interest may be in determining whether in an
organization, the proportion of the satisfied employees in four categories—class I,
class II, class III, and class IV employees—is the same. In a sense, the question
of whether the proportions are equal is a question of whether the three age
populations of different categories are homogeneous with respect to the
characteristics being studied. Therefore, the tests for equality of proportions across
several populations are also called tests of homogeneity.
The analysis is carried out exactly in the same way as was done for the
other two cases. The formula for a chi-square analysis remains the same. However,
two important assumptions here are different.
(i) We identify our population (e.g., age groups or various class employees)
and the sample directly from these populations.
(ii) As we identify the populations of interest and the sample from them directly,
the sizes of the sample from different populations of interest are fixed. This
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Statistical Analysis is also called a chi-square analysis with fixed marginal totals. The hypothesis
to be tested is as under:
H0 : The proportion of people satisfying a particular characteristic is
the same in population.
NOTES
H1 : The proportion of people satisfying a particular characteristic is
not the same in all populations.
The expected frequency for each cell could also be obtained by using the
formula as explained earlier. There is an alternative way of computing the same,
which would give identical results. This is shown in the following example:
Example 12.4: An accountant wants to test the hypothesis that the proportion of
incorrect transactions at four client accounts is about the same. A random sample
of 80 transactions of one client reveals that 21 are incorrect; for the second client,
the number is 25 out of 100; for the third client, the number is 30 out of 90
sampled and for the fourth, 40 are incorrect out of a sample of 110. Conduct the
test at  = 0.05.
Solution:
Let p1 = Proportion of incorrect transaction for 1st client
p2 = Proportion of incorrect transaction for 2nd client
p3 = Proportion of incorrect transaction for 3rd client
p4 = Proportion of incorrect transaction for 4th client
Let H0 : p1 = p2 = p3 = p4
H1 : All proportions are not the same.
The observed data in the problem can be rewritten as:

An estimate of the combined proportion of the incorrect transactions under

the assumption that the null hypothesis is true:

Using the above, the expected frequencies corresponding to the various

cells are computed as shown below:

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 In fact, the sum of each row/column in both the observed and expected Statistical Analysis

frequency tables should be the same. Here, a bit of discrepancy is found because
of the rounding of the error. It can be easily verified that the expected frequencies
in each cell would be the same using the formula as already explained. NOTES
Now the value of the chi-square statistic can be calculated as:

Degrees of freedom (df) = (2 – 1) × (4 – 1) = 3

The critical value of the chi-square with 3 degrees of freedom at 5 per cent
level of significance equals 7.815. Since the sample value of c2 is less than the
critical value, there is not enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis. Therefore,
the null hypothesis is accepted. Therefore, there is no significant difference in the
proportion of incorrect transaction for the four clients.
Contingency coefficient: The contingency coefficient is computed when the
number of rows and the number of columns in a contingency table are equal. The
value of the contingency coefficient is given by:

In the present case n = 100, sample 2 = 10.282

Therefore,

We need to know the lower and upper limit of the contingency coefficient
(C) to determine how strong is the relationship between age and preference. The
lower limit of C equals zero when 2 is zero. The 2 will take a value of zero when
the variables are independent. The upper limit of C when the number of rows is
equal to the number of columns is given by the expression:

where, r = number of rows

Therefore, the upper limit of . Now, the computed value of the
contingency coefficient is 0.305 (Table 14.4) which is approximately midway

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Statistical Analysis between 0 and 0.707. This means that there is a moderate relationship between
the variables.
Phi coefficient (): There is another statistic called the phi-coefficient which can
be used to determine the strength of a relationship only in a 2 × 2 contingency
NOTES
table. The phi-coefficient like the correlation coefficient can assume any value
between –1 and 1.
Phi-coefficient (Æ) may be computed by using the following formula:

Cramer’s V statistic: When the number of rows is not equal to the number of
columns, we may use the statistic called Cramer’s V statistic given by:

where, f = Min (rows, columns)

In Question (ii), we prepared a 2 × 3 cross-table between the preference
for fast food and income. The hypothesis to be tested in this case is:
H0 : Preference is not related to income.
H1 : Preference is related to income.
12.2.2 Run Test for Randomness
One of the assumptions that are usually made by researchers is that a random
sample is drawn from the population. Most of the tests of significance based upon
the Z, t or F distribution make use of this assumption. Here, we will discuss a test
called the run test to examine the randomness of the sample. As the test on
randomness is based upon the concept of run, it is appropriate at this stage to
define a run.
Run: A run is defined as a sequence of like elements that are preceded and
followed by different elements or no elements at all. The concept of run to examine
the randomness of a sample is discussed in the following examples.
Example 12.5: To explain the concept of run, consider an example where the sex
of a customer entering a restaurant is noted. Suppose the following sequence is
obtained:
MMFMFFFMMMMFFFMMFFFMMMMMFFMMMF
FFMFFFFFMMFFFFF
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 where, M and F denote the male and female entrant respectively. The number Statistical Analysis

of runs (r) in the above sample of the 45 entrants of a restaurant is shown below:
MMFMFFFMMMMFFFMMFFFMMMMM FFMMMF
FFMFFFFFMMFFFFF
NOTES
The total number of runs is 16 as shown by the lines below the identical
symbols. In the above example:
n (Total size of the sample) = 45
n1 (Number of males in the sample) = 20
n2 (Number of females in the samples) = 25
r (Number of runs) = 16
Too many or too few runs in a sequence indicates a lack of randomness.
For large samples, either n1 > 20 or n2 > 20, the distribution of runs (r) is normally
distributed with mean:

mr =

and standard deviation:

The hypothesis is to be tested is:

H0 : The pattern of sequence is random.
H1 : The pattern of sequence is not random.
For a large sample, the test statistic is given by

The sample Z statistic could be computed as:

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Statistical Analysis Assuming a 5 per cent level of significance, the critical value of Z is given by
± 1.96. As the absolute Z value is greater than the absolute critical value of Z, the
null hypothesis is rejected. Therefore, the sequence of this observation is not
randomly generated.
NOTES
The example discussed above clearly fits into two categories (nominal
measurement). The test for randomness can also be applied to the interval or ratio
scale data. What is required is that the interval/ratio scale data should be converted
into a nominal scale measurement. To partition the data into two categories, one
could use the value of mean or median and randomness can be tested for the
numerical data above or below the median. For illustration purposes, consider the
following example.
Example 12.6: The data listed below is the lifetime of batteries in hours produced
by ZIDA company in a particular order.
270, 280, 248, 260, 220, 285, 270, 266, 269, 266, 272
225, 228, 290, 284, 282, 276, 269, 250, 249, 262, 273
277, 258, 264, 269, 276, 278, 249, 286, 282, 264, 201
215, 222, 238, 212, 242, 236, 247, 249, 248, 256, 271
282, 305, 217, 303, 305, 309, 320, 262, 244, 262, 267
Assuming a significance level of 5 per cent, determine whether the sample
lifetime of the batteries produced by ZIDA is random.
Solution:
H0 : Lifetime of batteries is random.
H1 : Lifetime of batteries is not random.
There are 55 observations. We will first compute the median of the
distribution by arranging the data in an ascending order of magnitude shown below:
201, 212, 215, 217, 220, 222, 225, 228, 236, 238, 242
244, 247, 248, 248, 249, 249, 249, 250, 256, 258, 260
262, 262, 262, 264, 264, 266, 266, 267, 269, 269, 269
270, 270, 271, 272, 273, 276, 276, 277, 278, 280, 282
282, 282, 284, 285, 286, 290, 303, 305, 305, 309, 320
As there are 55 observations, the value of the middle (28th) observation
when data is arranged in an ascending order of magnitude gives the median of
distribution. Please note that the 28th observation when the data is arranged in an
ascending order of magnitude is 266. There are two observations having a value
of 266. Therefore, these two are discarded and for further analysis we will have
53 observations. Now the original data will be divided into two categories—
above the median denoted by (A) and below the median denoted by (B). The
number of runs could be obtained as shown below:

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 AA B B B AAA B B AAAAA B B B AA B B AAA B AA Statistical Analysis

B B B B B B B B B B B B AAA B AAAA B B B A
The total number of runs (r) = 17
Number of observations above median (n1) = 26 NOTES
Number of observations below median (n2) = 27
Total number of observations (n) = 53
As both n1 and n2 are greater than 20, the distribution of runs (r) could be
approximated by normal distribution with mean:

and standard deviation:

The sample Z statistic can be computed as:

Assuming a 5 per cent level of significance, the critical value of Z is given by

± 1.96. As the absolute computed value of Z is greater than the absolute critical
value of Z, the null hypothesis is rejected. Therefore, the sequence of the
observations indicating the lifetime of batteries is not random.
12.2.3 One and Two Sample Sign Tests
Let us study one and two sample sign tests.
One-Sample Sign Test
The test discussed in Unit 11 is based upon the assumption that the samples are
drawn from a population having roughly the shape of a normal distribution. This
assumption gets violated, especially while using the non-metric data (ordinal or
nominal). In such situations, the standard tests can be replaced by a non-parametric
test. In this section, one such test, namely, the one-sample sign test would be
explained.
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Statistical Analysis Suppose the interest is in testing the null hypothesis H0 : µ = µ0 against a
suitable alternative hypothesis. Let n denote the size of sample for any problem.
To conduct a sign test, each sample observation greater than µ0 is replaced by a
plus sign, whereas each value less than µ0 is replaced by a minus sign. In case a
NOTES sample observation equals µ0, it is omitted and the size of the sample gets reduced
accordingly.
Testing the given null hypothesis is equivalent to testing that these plus and
minus signs are the values of a random variable having a binomial distribution with
p = ½.
For a small sample, the test is performed by computing the binomial
probabilities. For a large sample when both np and nq are at least 5, the normal
approximation to the binomial distribution is used. In such a situation, the Z score
corresponding to the value of the binomial variable X is given by:

where, µ = Mean of binomial distribution = np

 = Standard deviation of binomial distribution =
As the binomial distribution is a discrete one whereas the normal distribution
is a continuous distribution, a correction for continuity is to be made. For this, X is
decreased by 0.5 if X > np and increased by 0.5 if X < np. As under the null
hypothesis, p = ½, therefore .
Let us consider a few examples to illustrate the sign test.
Example 12.7: The interest is to test the hypothesis that the median value of a
distribution is 19 against the alternative hypothesis that it is greater than 19. A
sample of 24 observations is taken with the following results:
18, 24, 20, 26, 23, 17, 24, 21,
22, 20, 16, 27, 25, 25, 14, 20,
15, 18, 22, 21, 24, 26, 27, 29,
You may use a 5 per cent level of significance.
Solution:
H0 : p = ½
H1 : p > ½
Replacing each value greater than 19 by a plus sign and those with less than
19 by a minus sign, we get:
–+ + + + – + +
++ – + + + – +
–– + + + + + +
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 There are 18 plus and 6 minus signs. Since both np = 24 × ½ = 12 and nq Statistical Analysis

= 24 × ½ = 12 are greater than 5, a normal approximation to the binomial distribution

can be used.
Therefore, the test statistic is given by:
NOTES

The critical value of Z at 5 per cent level of significance equals 1.645. As the
sample value of Z is greater than the critical value, the null hypothesis is rejected
and the median of the distribution is greater than 19.
Example 12.8: A survey was conducted to understand the preference for fast
food by the inhabitants of a small town. A sample of 100 respondents indicated
that 54 do not prefer fast food whereas 46 have a preference for the fast food. By
using a sign test, examine the hypothesis that half of the inhabitants of the town
prefer fast food. Let the level of significance be 5 per cent.
Solution:
H0 : p = ½
H1 : p  ½
where, p = Proportion not preferring fast food.
Denote those not preferring fast food by a plus sign and those preferring
fast food by a minus sign. Therefore, there are 54 plus signs and 46 minus signs.
The test statistic in this case is:

The critical value of Z at 5 per cent level of significance is ± 1.96. As the

absolute sample value of Z is less than the critical value of Z, the null hypothesis is
accepted. Therefore, the proportion of inhabitants not preferring fast food is not
significantly different from the ones preferring fast food.
Two-Sample Sign Test
The two-sample sign test is a very simple non-parametric test to use. In Unit 11,
we discussed the dependent sample (paired sample) test based upon a t distribution.
The two-sample sign test is a non-parametric version of it. It is based upon the
sign of a pair of observations. Suppose a sample of respondents is selected and
their views on the image of a company are sought. After some time, these
respondents are shown an advertisement, and thereafter, the data is again collected
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Statistical Analysis on the image of the company. For those respondents, where the image has
improved, there is a positive and for those where the image has declined there is a
negative sign assigned and for the one where there is no change, the corresponding
observation is dropped from the analysis and the sample size reduced accordingly.
NOTES The key concept underlying the test is that if the advertisement is not effective in
improving the image of the company, the number of positive signs should be
approximately equal to the number of negative signs. For small samples, a binomial
distribution could be used, whereas for a large sample, the normal approximation
to the binomial distribution could be used, as already explained in the one-sample
sign test. Let us consider a few examples.
Example 12.9: Two psychology professors have developed their own version of
an IQ test. A psychologist administered them on 17 individuals. The results are
presented below. Using a 5 per cent level of significance, test the claim that there
is no significant difference between two versions.

Solution:
H0 :There is no significant difference between the two versions.
H1 :There is a significant difference between the two versions.
We note that there are 7 plus signs (score of Version 1 is more than that of
Version 2), 9 minus signs (score of Version 1 is less than that of Version 2). There
is one case with an identical score and therefore, this observation is dropped from
the analysis and accordingly the sample size is reduced to 16.
Now, the Z statistic may be applied to test the hypothesis. This is because
both np and nq are greater than 5 (16 × ½ = 8);

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 The critical value of Z at a 5 per cent level of significance is ± 1.96 (two- Statistical Analysis

tailed test). As the absolute sample value of Z is less than the absolute critical
value, there is not enough evidence to reject H0. Therefore, there is no statistical
difference between the IQ scores of the two versions. Therefore, it is safe to use
any of the versions for measuring IQ. NOTES

12.2.4 Mann-Whitney U Test for Independent Samples

This test was developed by H B Mann and R Whitney in the 1940s. The test is
used to examine whether two samples have been drawn from populations with
same locations (mean). This test is an alternative to a t test for testing the equality
of means of two independent samples discussed in Unit 11. The application of a t
test involves the assumption that the samples are drawn from the normal population.
If the normality assumption is violated, this test can be used as an alternative to a
t test. This is a very powerful non-parametric test as this can be used both for
qualitative and quantitative data. A two tailed hypothesis for a Mann-Whitney test
could be written as:
H0 : Two samples come from identical populations
or
Two populations have identical probability distribution.
H1 : Two samples come from different populations
or
Two populations differ in locations.
The procedure involved in the use of Mann-Whitney U test is very simple and is
described in the following steps:
(i) The two samples are combined (pooled) into one large sample and then we
determine the rank of each observation in the pooled sample. If two or
more sample values in the pooled samples are identical, i.e., if there are
ties, the sample values are each assigned a rank equal to the mean of the
ranks that would otherwise be assigned.
(ii) We determine the sum of the ranks of each sample. Let R1 and R2 represent
the sum of the ranks of the first and the second sample whereas n1 and n2
are the respective sample sizes of the first and the second sample. For
convenience, choose n1 as a small size if they are unequal so that n1 d” n2. A
significant difference between R1 and R2 implies a significant difference
between the samples.

(iii) Define

and

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Statistical Analysis Please note that the following expression will hold true:
U1 + U2 = n1n2
Mann-Whitney test for a large sample: If n1 or n2 is greater than 10, a
NOTES large sample approximation can be used for the distribution of the Mann-Whitney
U statistic. For this purpose, either of U1 or U2 could be used for testing a one-
tailed or a two-tailed test. In this test, U2 will be used for the purpose.
Under the assumption that the null hypothesis is true, the U2 statistic follows
an approximately normal distribution with mean:

and standard deviation:

The test statistic is:

Assuming the level of significance as equal to a, if the absolute sample value

of Z is greater than the absolute critical value of Z, i.e., Z/2, the null hypothesis is
rejected. A similar procedure is used for a one tailed test. For a one sided upper
tail test if the sample value of Z is greater than the critical Za, the null hypothesis is
rejected. For a one-sided lower tail test, the null hypothesis is rejected if the sample
Z is less than –Z.
Example 12.10: The table below represents the number of bounced cheques in
two banks—Bank A and Bank B—on randomly chosen 12 days for Bank A
and 15 days for Bank B. Use a Mann-Whitney U test to examine at a 5 per cent
level of significance whether Bank A has more bounced cheques as compared to
Bank B.

Solution:
H0 : Two populations have identical probability distributions.
H1 : Population A is shifted to the right of population B.

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 We pool both the samples and rank them. This is shown below: Statistical Analysis

NOTES

We consider the sample of Bank B as coming from the population B whereas

that of Bank A belonging to the population A.
R1 = Sum of ranks of Bank A = 249
R2 = Sum of ranks of Bank B = 129

= 180 + 120 – 129 = 300 – 129

= 171
The mean (µu2) and standard deviation (u2) of the U2 statistic are given as:

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Statistical Analysis The critical value of Z at a 5 per cent level of significance is given by 1.645.
The sample value of Z exceeds the critical value of Z and the null hypothesis is
rejected. Therefore, Bank A has a larger number of bounced cheques as compared
to Bank B.
NOTES
12.2.5 Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test for Paired Samples
The Mann-Whitney U test just discussed assumes that the two samples are
independent. However, there are instances when the sample data consists of paired
observations. Examples of paired samples include a study where husband and
wife are matched or where subjects are studied before and after experimentation
or observations are taken on a variable for brother and sister. The case of paired
sample (dependent sample) was discussed in Unit 11 using a t distribution. The
use of t distribution is based on the normality assumption. However, there are
instances when the normality assumption is not satisfied and one has to resort to a
non-parametric test. One such test earlier discussed was the two-sample sign test.
In this test, only the sign of the difference (positive or negative) was taken into
account and no weightage was assigned to the magnitude of the difference. The
Wilcoxon matched-pair signed rank test takes care of this limitation and attaches
a greater weightage to the matched pair with a larger difference. The test, therefore,
incorporates and makes use of more information than the sign test. This is, therefore,
a more powerful test than the sign test.
The test procedure is outlined in the following steps:
(i) Let di denote the difference in the score for the ith matched pair. Retain
signs, but discard any pair for which d = 0.
(ii) Ignoring the signs of difference, rank all the di’s from the lowest to highest.
In case the differences have the same numerical values, assign to them the
mean of the ranks involved in the tie.
(iii) To each rank, prefix the sign of the difference.
(iv) Compute the sum of the absolute value of the negative and the positive
ranks to be denoted as T– and T+ respectively.
(v) Let T be the smaller of the two sums found in step iv.
When the number of the pairs of observation (n) for which the difference is not
zero is greater than 15, the T statistic follows an approximate normal distribution
under the null hypothesis, that the population differences are centered at 0. The
mean µT and standard deviation T of T are given by:

The test statistic is given by:

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 For a given level of significance a, the absolute sample Z should be greater Statistical Analysis

than the absolute Z/2 to reject the null hypothesis. For a one-sided upper tail test,
the null hypothesis is rejected if the sample Z is greater than Z and for a one-
sided lower tail test, the null hypothesis is rejected if sample Z is less than – Z. Let
us consider an example to illustrate the Wilcoxon-Rank test for a paired sample. NOTES
Example 12.11: A sample of 16 salesmen was selected in an organization and
their score on performance appraisal was noted. The salesmen were sent for a
three-week training programme and in the next appraisal, their scores were noted
again. The appraisal scores before and after the training are given below:

Use a 5 per cent level of significance to test the hypothesis that the training
has not caused any change in the performance appraisal score.
Solution:
H0 : There is no difference in the appraisal score because of training.
H1 : There is a difference in the appraisal score because of training.
The value of the T statistic can be worked out as follows:

T+ = Sum of positive ranks = 84

T– = Sum of negative ranks = 52
T = Min (T–, T+) = 52

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Statistical Analysis

NOTES
The test statistic Z is written as:

The critical value of Z at 5 per cent level of significance is ± 1.96. As the

absolute computed value of Z is less than the absolute critical value, the null
hypothesis is accepted. Therefore, there is no change in the performance appraisal
score because of training.
12.2.6 The Kruskal-Wallis Test
When testing the equality of more than two population means, one-way ANOVA
technique was used in Unit 11. One of the assumptions used in ANOVA is that all
the involved populations from where the samples are taken are normally distributed.
If this assumption does not hold true, the F-statistic used in ANOVA becomes
invalid. The normality assumptions may not hold true when we are dealing with
ordinal data or when the size of the sample is very small.
The Kruskal-Wallis test comes to our rescue during such situations. This is,
in fact, a non-parametric counterpart to the one-way ANOVA. The test is an
extension of the Mann-Whitney U test discussed in this section. Both methods
require that the scale of the measurement of a sample value should be at least
ordinal.
The hypothesis to be tested in-Kruskal-Wallis test is:
H 0 : The k populations have identical probability distribution.
H1 : At least two of the populations differ in locations.
The procedure for the test is listed below:
(i) Obtain random samples of size n1, ..., nk from each of the k populations.
Therefore, the total sample size is n = n1 + n2 + ... + nk
(ii) Pool all the samples and rank them, with the lowest score receiving a rank
of 1. Ties are to be treated in the usual fashion by assigning an average rank
to the tied positions.
(iii) Let ri = the total of the ranks from the ith sample.
The Kruskal-Wallis test uses the 2 to test the null hypothesis. The test
statistic is given by:

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 which follows a 2 distribution with the k–1 degrees of freedom. Statistical Analysis

where, k = Number of samples

n = Total number of elements in k samples.
The null hypothesis is rejected, if the computed 2 is greater than the critical NOTES
value of 2 at the level of significance a. Let us take up a problem to illustrate the
test.
Example 12.12: Three machines are used in the packaging of 16 kg of wheat
flour. Each machine is designed so as to pack on an average 16 kg of flour per
bag. Samples of six bags were selected from each machine and the amount of
wheat packaged in each bag is shown below:

Use a 5 per cent level of significance to test the hypothesis that the amount
of wheat packaged by the three machines is the same.
Solution:
H0 : Amount of wheat packaged by the three machines is same.
H1 : Amount of wheat packaged by at least two machines is different.
Pool the elements of the different samples and rank them. These rankings
are shown below:

r1 (Total of ranks from machine 1) = 50.5

r2 (Total of ranks from machine 2) = 61
r3 (Total of ranks from machine 3) = 59.5

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Statistical Analysis Therefore,

NOTES

We know that H follows a 2 distribution with 2 degrees of freedom. The

sample value of 2 of 0.41 is to be compared with the critical value of 2, which in
the present case is 5.99. As sample 2 is less than the critical 2, the null hypothesis
is accepted. Therefore, there is no significant difference in the amount of wheat
packaged by the three machines.

Check Your Progress

1. Which type of test has more risk of committing a type II error?
2. What does rejecting a null hypothesis yield under parametric and non-
parametric tests?
3. Which type of distribution is discrete and which type is continuous?
4. State the alternative for testing the equality of means of two independent
samples in non-parametric tests.
5. Name the test which is an extension of Mann-Whitney U test and a non
parametric counterpart to one-way ANOVA.

12.3 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. Whenever the null hypothesis is rejected under a non-parametric test, it

yields a less precise conclusion as compared to a parametric test.
2. In Non-parametric tests, there is more risk of accepting a false hypothesis
and thus committing a type II error.
3. The binomial distribution is a discrete one whereas the normal distribution is
a continuous distribution.
4. Mann-Whitney U test for independent samples is the alternative for testing
the equality of means of two independent samples in non-parametric tests.
5. The Kruskal-Wallis Test is the alternative for testing the equality of means
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 Statistical Analysis
12.4 SUMMARY

 Non-parametric tests can often be applied to the nominal and ordinal data
that lack exact or comparable numerical values. NOTES
 Non-parametric tests involve very simple computations compared to the
corresponding parametric tests.
 Non-parametric methods are less powerful than parametric tests when the
basic assumptions of parametric tests are valid. Therefore, there is more
risk of accepting a false hypothesis and thus committing a type II error.
 For the use of a chi-square test, the data is required in the form of
frequencies. The data expressed in percentages or proportion can also be
used, provided it could be converted into frequencies. The majority of the
applications of chi-square (2) are with the discrete data. The test could
also be applied to continuous data, provided it is reduced to certain
categories and tabulated in such a way that the chi-square may be applied.
 There are many applications of a chi-square test. Some of them are explained
below:
o A chi-square test for the goodness of fit.
o A chi-square test for the independence of variables.
o A chi-square test for the equality of more than two population
proportions.
 One of the assumptions that are usually made by researchers is that a random
sample is drawn from the population. Most of the tests of significance based
upon the Z, t or F distribution make use of this assumption.
 A run is defined as a sequence of like elements that are preceded and
followed by different elements or no elements at all.
 The test discussed in Unit 11 is based upon the assumption that the samples
are drawn from a population having roughly the shape of a normal
distribution. This assumption gets violated, especially while using the non-
metric data (ordinal or nominal). In such situations, the standard tests can
be replaced by a non-parametric test.
 Two-sample sign test is a non-parametric version of it. It is based upon the
sign of a pair of observations.
 When testing the equality of more than two population means, one-way
ANOVA technique was used in Unit 11. One of the assumptions used in
ANOVA is that all the involved populations from where the samples are
taken are normally distributed. If this assumption does not hold true, the
F-statistic used in ANOVA becomes invalid. The normality assumptions
may not hold true when we are dealing with ordinal data or when the size of
the sample is very small.
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Statistical Analysis  The Kruskal-Wallis test comes to our rescue during such situations. This is,
in fact, a non-parametric counterpart to the one-way ANOVA.

NOTES
12.5 KEY WORDS

 Goodness of fit: It is a statistical test of how well the observed data supports
the assumption about the distribution of a population.
 Run: It is defined as a sequence of like elements that are preceded and
followed by different elements or no elements at all.
 ANOVA: It is the test used for testing differences among the means of the
populations by examining the amount of variation within each of these samples.

12.6 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of non-parametric tests?
2. Compare the assumptions and applications of parametric and non-parametric
tests.
3. Briefly explain the run test for randomness.
4. Write a short note on one-sample and two-sample sign test.
Long Answer Questions
1. Describe in detail the chi-square analysis.
2. Explain the computation of Mann-Whitney U, Wilcoxon Signed Rank and
Kruskal-Wallis tests.

12.7 FURTHER READINGS

Best, J.W. and J.V. Kahn. 1989. Research in Education. New Delhi: Prentice
Hall.
Buch, M. B. 1974. A Survey of Research in Education. Baroda: CASE, M. S.
University.
Fox, D. J. 1969. The Research Process in Education. New York: Rhinehart and
Winston, Inc.
Garrett. H. E. 1988. Statistics in Psychology and Education. Bombay: Vikils,
Feiffer & Semen’s Ltd.
Guilford, J.P. and B. Fruchter. 1974. Fundamental Statistics in Psychology &
Education. New York: McGraw Hill.
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 Research Reporting

UNIT 13 RESEARCH REPORTING

Structure NOTES
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Steps Involved in Writing a Research Report and Characteristics of a
Good Research Report
13.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
13.4 Summary
13.5 Key Words
13.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
13.7 Further Readings

13.0 INTRODUCTION

A research study is a tedious task and calls for an exhaustive investigation on the
part of the researcher. This quite often leads to accumulation of bulk data obtained
from the research study. Even if the concerned study results in brilliant hypotheses
or a generalized theory, it is the responsibility of the researcher to format this bulk
study into a pattern that is easy to understand. This is where report writing comes
into play.
In this unit, you will learn the concept of a research proposal. You will also
learn about written and oral reports. An effective written report is a creative activity
that requires a lot of imagination. It requires a lot of effort and patience in order to
write a report. It is impossible to think of the progress of an organization without
effective written reports, since most of the business activities require sending letters,
reports, etc. Effective oral report involves verbal communication of an idea to a
listener. An oral report saves time and builds a healthy atmosphere in an organization
by bringing the employees closer to each other.

13.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Discuss the steps involved in writing a report
 Explain the characteristics of a research report
 Examine the format, style and mechanics of report writing

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Research Reporting
13.2 STEPS INVOLVED IN WRITING A RESEARCH
REPORT AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A
GOOD RESEARCH REPORT
NOTES
A report can be defined as a written document, which presents information in a
specialized and concise manner. For example, a list of employees prepared by the
HR (Human Resource) department for salary distribution can be termed as a
report. In other words, a report is information presented in a logical and concise
manner.
There is a difference between report writing and other compositions because
a report is written in a very short and conventional form. A report should cover all
mandatory matters but nothing extra should be written. For writing a report, at
first the relevant data is collected and then it is presented in a concise and objective
manner. Then after successfully establishing the structure of the report, the formatting
features that improve the look and readability of the report are added.
Reports can be divided into different categories. The two main types of
reports are as follows:
 Informational report
 Interpretive report
Informational Report
The report that consists of a collection of data or facts and is written in an orderly
way is called an informational report. The main purpose of this type of report is to
present the information in its original form without any conclusion and
recommendation. Informational reports are further divided into four parts, which
are:
 Inspection report: The report which shows the outcome of a product or
equipment to assure its proper functioning or to describe its quality is called
an inspection report. This type of report is mainly used in manufacturing
organizations.
 Inventory report: The report which is made to keep the stock of various
things like furniture, equipment, stationery, utensils and other accessories is
called an inventory report.
 Assessment report: These reports are made to maintain the database of
the employees in an organization. Generally, these reports are useful for the
HR department.
 Performance report: The report which is made to measure the performance
of the employees in an organization for purposes like appraisal or promotion
are called performance reports.

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Interpretive Report Research Reporting

Interpretive reports are those reports which contain a collection of data with its
interpretation or any recommendation explicitly specified by the writer. This type
of report also includes data analysis and conclusions made by the report writer. NOTES
Writing interpretive reports is different from writing an informational report because
it contains different elements. The possible elements that can be used in the
interpretive reports are as follows:
 Cover
 Frontpiece
 Title page
 Copyright notice
 Forwarding letter
 Preface
 Acknowledgements
 Table of contents
 List of illustrations
 Abstract and summary
 Introduction
 Discussion
 Conclusions
 Recommendations
 Appendices
 List of references
 Bibliography
 Glossary
 Index
Characteristics of a Good Report
Reports are used for various purposes by various departments of an organization.
Industries, governments, businesses and scientific projects, all resort to report
writing to collect information and keep track of their performance and progress.
The most important aspect of a report is to convey the information in clear-cut
terms. It should provide facts in a direct, straightforward and accurate style. In this
light, the characteristics of a good report can be classified under four heads, which
are as follows:
 Language and style of the report
 Structure of the report
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Research Reporting  Presentation of the report
 References in the report
Each of these aspects of report writing needs to be given due attention, as
NOTES they are interrelated to each other. A report given with a lucid style but with very
less and hypothetical information is of no use to the reader. Similarly, the report
writer needs to avoid overcrowding of information that may make the reader feel
confused and lost in reading data, thereby losing its charm. A systematic scrutiny
of each of these aspects of a report is, therefore, necessary.
Language and style of report
A report must have a clear logical structure with clear indication of where the
ideas are leading. It should be able to make a good first impression. The presentation
of the report is very important. All reports must be written in good language, using
short sentences and correct grammar and spellings. The main points to be kept in
mind in this light are as follows:
 Context and style
o Appropriate, informative title for the content of report
o Crisp, specific, unbiased writing with minimal jargon
o Adequate analysis of prior relevant research
 Questions/hypotheses
o Clearly stated questions or hypotheses
o Thorough operational definitions of key concepts along with exact
wording or measurement of key variables
 Research procedures
o Full and clear description of the research design
o Demographic profile of the participants/subjects
o Specific data gathering procedures
 Data analysis
o Appropriate inferential statistics for sample or experimental data and
appropriate use of descriptive statistics
o Clear and reasonable interpretation of the statistical findings,
accompanied by effective tables and figures
 Summary
o Fair assessment of the implications and limitations of the findings
o Effective commentary on the overall implications of the findings for theory
and/or policy

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Structure of report Research Reporting

Before you write a report, you should define the high level structure of the report.
Defining a clear logical structure will make the report easier to write and to read.
There are two types of report structures, which are listed as follows: NOTES
 Report structure I: In general, the report writing structure comprises the
following sub-headings:
o Title Page
o Abstract
o Table of Contents
o Introduction
o Technical Detail and Results
o Discussion and Conclusions
o References
o Appendices
 Report structure II: There is also a specific structure of report writing
pertaining to technical or scientific reports which is as follows:
o Introduction
o Background and Context
o Technical Details
o Results
o Discussion and Conclusion
 Order of writing: The order of writing must be as follows:
o Start with the technical chapters/sections.
o Follow with the discussion.
o Finally, write the conclusions, introduction and abstract, if you are including
any.
 Appendix: The appendix should contain the following:
o Material that suits or goes well with the flow of the main report but
cannot be included in the main text of the report either because it is too
long or is not essential reading. For example, lists of parameter values,
etc.
o Bibliography, i.e., list of all the sources of material, you referred to in
your report.
Presentation of report
As stated earlier, mere data overloading or just a lucid style of writing may not be
a plus point to good report writing. Both the aspects need to be given due
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Research Reporting consideration, so that they interact to give a simple, easy-to-read and
comprehensive type of report. Same goes with the presentation of the contents
of the report. Printing mistakes, informal use of font size and style can distract
the attention of the reader. On the other hand, effective use of tables and figures
NOTES for better understanding of data and writing its conclusions facilitate easy
comprehension. The main points of focus, where due attention is required on part
of the report writer are as follows:
 Capitals: This requires taking care of the following aspects:
o Using capitals only for proper nouns, place names, organization names,
etc.
o Defining acronyms at the first point of usage. For example, Incorporated
(Inc).
o Using bold, italics or underlines for emphasis, instead of capitals.
 Headings: The basic points to be kept in mind for headings are as follows:
o Differentiate headings from the rest of the text using different fonts, bold,
italics or underlines.
o Maintain consistency in formatting headings using predefined styles.
o Avoid headings beyond three levels.
 Tables, figures and equations: In general, certain formatting standards
are pursued while giving tables and figures that are as follows:
o Descriptive labelling of all tables at the top with reference in the text.
o All figures must be labelled descriptively at the top and must be referenced
in the text.
o All equations must be numbered consecutively.
 General presentation: The presentation of research follows the following
general points:
o Sheets should be plain like white A4 size, printed in one side only.
o Text should be justified on both sides and leave a blank line between
paragraphs.
o A staple in the top right hand corner is sufficient for most of the reports.
 References in the report: Several report types like scientific, engineering,
technical and census reports contain either original writing or text adopted
from previous work. As such, a report writer should be careful and avoid
the violation of copyright laws and plagiarism. The necessary rule of thumb
in this regard can be stated as follows:
o Citations and referencing
– A citation is the acknowledgement in your writing of the work of other
authors and includes paraphrasing and making direct quotes.

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 – Unless citation is very necessary, you should write the material in your Research Reporting

own words. This shows that you understand what you have read and
know how to apply it, to your own context.
– Direct quotes should be used sparingly.
NOTES
o Direct quotes
– Short direct quotes: These need to be placed between quotation
marks. For example, Rosenfield defines a cluster as a ‘geographically
bounded concentration of similar, related or complementary businesses,
with active channels for business transactions, communications and
dialogue that share specialized infrastructure, common opportunities
and threats’. This shows clearly that the words being used are not
your own words.
– Longer direct quotes: There are occasions when it is useful to include
longer direct quotes. If you are quoting more than about 40 words,
you should again use quotation marks but also indent the text. For
example, the sustainability of higher value added industry is grounded
in the diminishing significance of cost structures. At the level of the
European Union, a weak capacity to innovate has been identified as
an innovation, in the sense of product, process, and organizational
innovation, accounts for a very large amount, perhaps 80–90 per cent
of the growth in productivity in advanced economies.
Mechanics of Writing a Report
There are several mechanics of writing a report, which are strictly followed for
preparing technical reports. The following points should be considered for writing
a technical report:
 Size and physical design: The manuscript, if handwritten, should be in
black or blue ink and on unruled paper of 8½" × 11" size. A margin of at
least one-and-half inches is set at the left side and half inch at the right side
of the paper. The top and bottom margins should be of one inch each. If the
manuscript is to be typed, then all typing should be double spaced and on
one side of the paper, except for the insertion of long quotations.
 Layout: According to the objective and nature of the research, the layout
of the report should be decided and followed in a proper manner.
 Quotations: Quotations should be punctuated with quotation marks and
double spaces, forming an immediate part of the text. However, if a quotation
is too lengthy, then it should be single spaced and indented at least half an
inch to the right of the normal text margin.
 Footnotes: Footnotes are meant for cross-references. They are placed at
the bottom of the page, separated from the textual material by a space of
half an inch as a line that is around one-and-a-half inches long. Footnotes
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Research Reporting are always typed in a single space, though they are divided from one another
by double space.
 Documentation style: The first footnote reference to any given work
should be complete, giving all essential facts about the edition used. Such
NOTES
footnotes follow a general sequence and order:
o In case of the single volume reference:
– Author’s name in normal order
– Title of work, underlined to indicate italics
– Place and date of publication
– Page number reference
For example:
John Gassner, Masters of the Drama. New York: Dover Publications,
Inc.1954, p.315.
o In case of a multi-volume reference:
– Author’s name in the normal order
– Title of work, underlined to indicate italics
– Place and date of publication
– Number of the volume
– Page number reference
For example:
George Birkbeck Hill, Life Of Johnson. Whitefish, June 2004, Volume
2, p.124.
o In case of works arranged alphabetically:
– For works arranged alphabetically such as encyclopaedias and
dictionaries, page reference is usually not needed. In such cases, order
is illustrated according to the names of the topics.
– Name of the encyclopaedia
– Number of editions
For example:
‘Salamanca’, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 14th Edition.
o In case of periodicals reference:
– Name of the author in normal order
– Title of article, in quotation marks
– Name of the periodical, underlined to indicate italics
– Volume number
– Date of issuance
– Pagination
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 For example: Research Reporting

P.V. Shahad, ‘Rajesh Jain’s Ecosystem’, in Business Today, Vol.14, 18

December 2005, p. 28.
o In case of multiple authorship: NOTES
If there are more than two authors or editors, then in the documentation
the name of only the first is given and the multiple authorship is indicated
by ‘et al’ or ‘and others’.
– Author’s name in normal order
– Title of work, underlined to indicate italics
– Place and date of publication
– Pagination
For example:
Alexandra K. Wigdor, Ability Testing: Uses Consequences and
Controversies, 1981, p.23.
Subsequent references to the same work need not be detailed. If the work
is cited again without any other work intervening, it may be indicated as
ibid, followed by a comma and the page number.
 Punctuations and abbreviations in footnotes: Punctuation concerning
the book and author names has already been discussed. They are general
rules to be strictly adhered. Some English and Latin abbreviations are often
used in bibliographies and footnotes to eliminate any repetition.
Table 13.1 shows the various English and Latin abbreviations used in
bibliographies and footnotes.
Table 13.1 English and Latin Abbreviations used in Bibliographies and Footnotes
Abbreviations Meaning
Anon., Anonymous
Ante., Before
Art., Article
Aug., Augmented
bk., Book
bull., Bulletin
cf., Compare
ch., Chapter
col., Column
diss., Dissertation
ed., editor, edition, edited
ed. cit., edition cited
e.g. exempli gratia: for example
eng., Enlarged
et al., and others
et seq., et sequens: and the following
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Research Reporting ex., Example
f.,ff., figure(s)
fn., Footnote
ibid.,ibidem in the same place
NOTES id.,idem., the same
ill.,illus., or
illust(s) illustrated, illustration(s)
Intro., intro., introduction
l., ll., line(s)
loc. cit., in the place cited; used as [Link].,
MS., MSS., Manuscript(s)
N.B. nota bene note well
n.d., no date
n.p., no place
no pub., no publisher
no(s) ., number(s)
o.p., out of print
[Link]: in the work cited
[Link] page(s)
passim: here and there
Post: After
rev., Revised
tr., trans., translator, translated, translation
vid or vide: see, refer to
viz., Namely
vol. Or vol(s) ., volume(s)
vs., versus., Against

 Use of statistics, charts and graphs: Statistics contribute to clarity and

simplicity in a report. They are usually presented in the form of tables, charts,
bars, line-graphs and pictograms.
 Final draft: It requires careful scrutiny with regard to grammatical errors,
logical sequence and coherence in the sentences of the report.
 Index: An index acts as a good guide to the reader. It can be prepared
both as subject index and author index giving names of subjects and names
of authors, respectively. The names are followed by the page numbers of
the report, where they have appeared or been discussed.
Research Report: An Overview
In simple terms, a research report means a written document, which describes the
findings of some individual or a group of individuals. It gives an account of something
seen, heard, done, etc. The findings may comprise such information like data,
surveys, resolutions or policies, on which the concerned individual or individuals
have to submit their reports about the proceedings along with the relevant
conclusions.
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 The preparation and presentation of a research report is the most important Research Reporting

part of the research process. No matter how well designed the research study is,
it is of little value, unless communicated effectively to others in the form of a research
report. Moreover, if the report is confusing or poorly written, then the time and
NOTES
effort spent on gathering and analysing data would be wasted. It is therefore,
essential to summarize and communicate the result to the management of an
organization with the help of an understandable and logical research report.
Research reports are helpful during the research study, in the sense that they
facilitate maintenance of vast data in a logical way. Thus, in case the researcher
experiences any difficulty during the course of the study, it becomes easier to refer
to the contents of the report to get the relevant data. Research report writing
essentially involves systematic arrangement of data. This helps in discovering flaws
in reasoning, which may have been missed earlier while conducting a research.
Format of Research Report
The layout of the research report is of utmost importance because the reader
should be able to grasp logically, what has been said and not feel lost in the bulk
findings mentioned in the research. This requires preparing a proper layout of the
report. Report layout means allotting the research findings in a comprehensible
format. The layout should contain the following points:
 Preliminary pages: In the preliminary pages, the report should carry a
‘title’ and a ‘date’, followed by acknowledgements in the form of ‘Preface’
or ‘Foreword’. The ‘Table of Contents’ should come next, followed by a
‘list of tables and illustrations’. This entails the reader to an easy reading
and quick location of the required information.
 Main text: The main text comprises the complete outline of the research
report with all the details. The title of the research study is repeated at the
top of the first page of the main text and then followed with the other details
on the pages numbered consecutively, beginning with the second page. The
main text can be classified into the following sections:
o Introduction: The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research
projects to the readers. It should clearly state the objectives of research,
i.e., it should make clear, why the problem was considered worth
investigating. A brief summary of other relevant research can be included
as well, to enable the reader to see the present study in that context.
o Methodology used for performing the study: The introduction should
contain answers to questions like how was the study carried out, what
was the basic design, what were the experimental directions, what
questions were asked in the questionnaires used, etc. Besides this, the
scope and limitations of the study must be marked out.

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Research Reporting o Statement of findings and recommendations: The research report
should comprise a statement of findings and recommendations in a non-
technical language so that it is easily comprehensible.

NOTES o Results: A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with

supporting data in tabular forms along with the validation of results,
should be given. This section should contain statistical summaries and
deductions of the data rather than the raw data. There should be a
logical sequence and sectional presentation of the results.
o Implications of the result: The researcher should write down his/
her results clearly and precisely, again at the end of the main text. The
implications derived from the results of the research study should be
stated in the research plan. The report should also mention the
conclusion drawn from the study, which should be clearly related to
the hypothesis stated in the introductory section.
o Summary: The next step is to conclude the report with a short summary,
mentioning in brief the research problem, the methodology, the major
findings and the major conclusions drawn from the research results.
o End matter: The end of the research report should consist of appendices,
listed in respect of all technical data such as questionnaires, sample
information and mathematical derivations. The bibliography of the referred
sources and an index should also be given.
Precautions for Writing Research Reports
A research report is the means of conveying the research study to a specific target
audience. The following precautions should be taken while preparing the research
report:
 It should be long enough to cover the subject and short enough to preserve
interest.
 It should not be dull and complicated.
 It should be simple, without the usage of abstract terms and technical jargons.
 It should offer ready availability of findings with the help of charts, tables
and graphs, as readers prefer quick knowledge of main findings.
 The layout of the report should be in accordance with the objective of the
research study.
 There should be no grammatical errors and writing should adhere to
techniques of report writing in case of quotations, footnotes and
documentations.
 It should be original, intellectual and contribute to the solution of a problem
or add knowledge to the concerned field.
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  Appendices should be listed with respect to all the technical data in the Research Reporting

report.
 It should be attractive, neat and clean, whether handwritten or typed.
 The report writer should be careful about the possessive form of the word NOTES
‘it is’ with ‘it’s’. The correct possessive form of ‘it’s’ is ‘its’. The use of ‘it is’
is the contractive form of ‘it is’.
 A report should not have contractions. Examples are ‘didn’t’ or ‘it’s’. In
report writing, it is best to use the non-contractive form. Hence, the examples
would be replaced by ‘did not’ and ‘it is’. Using ‘Figure’ instead of ‘Fig.’
and ‘Table’ instead of ‘Tab.’ will spare the reader of having to translate the
abbreviations, while reading. If abbreviations are used, use them consistently
throughout the report. For example, do not switch between ‘versus’ and
‘vs’.
 It is advisable to avoid using the word ‘very’ and other such words that try
to embellish a description. They do not add any extra meaning and, therefore,
should be dropped.
 Repetition hampers lucidity. The report writer must avoid repeating the same
word more than once within a sentence.
 When using the words ‘this’ or ‘these’, it must be clear to the reader as to
what is being referred to. This reduces ambiguity in the writing and helps to
tie sentences together.
 Do not use the word ‘they’ to refer to a singular person. You can either
rewrite the sentence to avoid needing such a reference or use the singular
‘he or she.’

Check Your Progress

1. State the main purpose of informational report.
2. What must be the order of writing followed for the structure of report?
3. Mention the last section of the preliminary pages.
4. What should an introduction clearly state?
5. What are the constituents of ‘end matter’ of a report?

13.3 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. The main purpose of an informational report is to present the information in

its original form without any conclusion and recommendation.

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Research Reporting 2. The order of writing must be as follows:
 Start with the technical chapters/sections
 Follow with the discussion
NOTES  Finally, write the conclusions, introduction and abstract, if you are including
any.
3. The ‘list of tables and illustrations’ are the last section of the preliminary
pages.
4. The introduction of a research should clearly state the objectives of research,
i.e., it should make clear, why the problem was considered worth
investigating. A brief summary of other relevant research can be included as
well, to enable the reader to see the present study in that context.
5. The end of the research report should consist of appendices, listed in respect
of all technical data such as questionnaires, sample information and
mathematical derivations. The bibliography of the referred sources and an
index should also be given.

13.4 SUMMARY

 A report can be defined as a written document, which presents information

in a specialized and concise manner. For example, a list of employees
prepared by the HR (Human Resource) department for salary distribution
can be termed as a report. In other words, a report is information presented
in a logical and concise manner.
 Reports can be divided into different categories. The two main types of
reports are as follows:
o Informational report
o Interpretive report
 It should provide facts in a direct, straightforward and accurate style. In this
light, the characteristics of a good report can be classified under four heads,
which are as follows:
o Language and style of the report
o Structure of the report
o Presentation of the report
o References in the report
 Before you write a report, you should define the high level structure of the
report. Defining a clear logical structure will make the report easier to write
and to read.
 There are several mechanics of writing a report, which are strictly followed
for preparing technical reports.
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  A research report means a written document, which describes the findings Research Reporting

of some individual or a group of individuals. It gives an account of something

seen, heard, done, etc. The findings may comprise such information like
data, surveys, resolutions or policies, on which the concerned individual or
NOTES
individuals have to submit their reports about the proceedings along with
the relevant conclusions.
 The layout of the research report is of utmost importance because the reader
should be able to grasp logically, what has been said and not feel lost in the
bulk findings mentioned in the research. This requires preparing a proper
layout of the report. Report layout means allotting the research findings in a
comprehensible format.

13.5 KEY WORDS

 Report: It is a written document, which presents information in a specialized

and concise manner.
 Citation: It is the acknowledgment in your writing of the work of other
authors and includes paraphrasing and making direct quotes

13.6 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. What are the different types of informational reports?
2. List the possible elements that can be used in the interpretive reports.
3. Write a short note on the format of research reports.
Long Answer Questions
1. Discuss the language, style and structure of report.
2. Explain the presentation of report.
3. Examine the mechanics of writing a report.
4. Describe the precautions for writing a research report.

13.7 FURTHER READINGS

Best, J.W. and J.V. Kahn. 1989. Research in Education. New Delhi: Prentice
Hall.
Buch, M. B. 1974. A Survey of Research in Education. Baroda: CASE, M. S.
University.
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Research Reporting Fox, D. J. 1969. The Research Process in Education. New York: Rhinehart and
Winston, Inc.
Garrett. H. E. 1988. Statistics in Psychology and Education. Bombay: Vikils,
Feiffer & Semen’s Ltd.
NOTES
Guilford, J.P. and B. Fruchter. 1974. Fundamental Statistics in Psychology &
Education. New York: McGraw Hill.

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 Applications of Computer

UNIT 14 APPLICATIONS OF in Educational Research

COMPUTER IN
NOTES
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
Structure
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Uses of Computer in Data Analysis
14.3 Application of MS-Office
14.4 Basics of MS-Word
14.5 MS-Excel
14.6 MS-PowerPoint
14.7 Application of these Softwares for Documentation and Making Reports
14.8 Use of SPSS and Other Statistical Softwares
14.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
14.10 Summary
14.11 Key Words
14.12 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
14.13 Further Readings

14.0 INTRODUCTION

With the changing times, computers and information technology is gaining

prominence in many different fields. In the field of research, specifically educational
research too, computers are being used to make the research process simpler,
faster and more efficient. In terms of its use, computers are used for a wide variety
of functions in research right from the data analysis stage, to the application of
statistical techniques and software as well as presentation of data in the form of
reports. In this unit, you will learn the major elements involved in the application of
computer in educational research.

14.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Explain the use of computer in data analysis
 Describe the basics of MS Office, MS Excel, MS Word, and MS
PowerPoint
 Explain the application of these software for documentation and making
reports
 Discuss the use of SPSS and other statistical software
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Applications of Computer
in Educational Research 14.2 USES OF COMPUTER IN DATA ANALYSIS

Computers are useful in various ways. With the increasing availability of more
NOTES complex and dynamic operating systems, the primary use of a computer is only
limited to the imagination and technical know-how of the user. Everything from
your cell phone, DVD player, to your TV has some sort of microprocessor in it,
giving it computer-like abilities. Computers have the ability to help the society by
various means. They have a number of applications in science as well. In space
aeronautics, computers are used in space shuttles for data collection as well as
control of flights. In the medical industry, computers are being used in conjunction
with robotics to create a new breed of machines that can perform operations on a
minimally invasive scale, thereby, increasing the patient’s survival rate and reducing
the healing time. Computers are also used in agriculture for controlling complex
irrigation systems and sensors that detect soil pH among others things, to give the
crops a higher yield and faster grow times.
The various applications of computers are as follows:
 Word processing: Word Processing software automatically corrects spelling
and grammar mistakes. If you want some content of your document to be
repeated, you do not have to type it each time. You can use the copy and
paste features. Images can also be added to your document.
 Internet: It is a network of almost all the computers in the world. You can
browse through much more information than you could do in a library. That
is because computers can store enormous amounts of information. You can
also have very fast and convenient access to information. Through e-mail,
you can communicate with a person sitting thousands of miles away in
seconds. The chat software enables you to chat with another person on a
real-time basis. Videoconferencing tools are becoming readily available to
the common man.
 Digital video or audio composition: Audio or video composition and
editing have been made much easier by computers. It no longer costs
thousands of dollars of equipment to compose music or make a film. Graphics
engineers can use computers to generate short or full-length films or even
create three-dimensional models. Anybody owning a computer can now
enter the field of media production. Special effects in science fiction and
action movies are created using computers.
 Desktop publishing: Page layouts for books can also be created on your
personal computer.
 Medicine and health care: Software is used in magnetic resonance imaging
to examine the internal organs of the human body and also used for
performing surgery. Computers are used to store patient data.
 Mathematical calculations: Computers have computing speeds of over
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 a million calculations per second, using which we can perform various Applications of Computer
in Educational Research
mathematical calculations.
 Banks: All financial transactions these days are done by computer software.
They provide security, speed and convenience.
NOTES
 Travel: One can book air tickets or railway tickets and make hotel
reservations online.
 Communication: Software is widely used in this field through which you
can interact with people around the world.
 Military: There is software embedded in almost every weapon. Military
software is used for controlling flights and for marking target in ballistic
missiles. Software is used to control access to atomic bombs.
 E-learning: For a student, it is easier to learn from e-learning software
instead of a book.
 Examinations: You can give online exams and get instant results.
 Certificates: Different types of certificates can be generated and it is very
easy to create and change layouts.
 ATM machines: The computer software authenticates the user and
dispenses cash for banks.
 Marriage: There are matrimonial sites through which one can search for a
suitable groom or bride.
 News: There are many websites through which you can read the latest or
old news.
 Planning and management: Software can be used to store contact
information, generate plans and schedule appointments and deadlines.
 Plagiarism: Software can examine content for plagiarism.
 Sports: It is used for making umpiring decisions. There are simulation
software using which a sportsperson can practice his skills. Computers are
also to identify flaws in technique.
 Airplanes: Pilots train on software, which simulates flying.
 Weather analysis: Supercomputers are used to analyse and predict
weather.
 Research: Computers are widely used for research purposes in various
fields such as follows:
o Network-attached storage (Linux distribution named FreeNAS)
o Media Server (Hewlett-Packard makes a dedicated version)
o Graphics design (Adobe is the forefront in design software)
o Architectural design (AutoCAD/CAM)
o Online banking (savings, loans, insurance, credit, mutual funds, etc.)
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Applications of Computer o Gaming (computer 3D games, etc.)
in Educational Research
o Social networking (Myspace, Facebook, Twitter)
o Knowledge sharing (WikiAnswers, Wikipedia, Lifehacker, Gizmodo,
NOTES etc.).
Computers are not being used extensively for data analysis. It helps in
the following actions:
 Locating segments of data in the form of words or phrases
 Storing, annotating and retrieving texts
 Labeling or naming data
 Organizing and Sorting the data
 Drawing figures, maps, tables or charts
When it comes to quantitative data, computers now have different software
which helps in the input of data and its calculation the computers which eliminates
the efforts of calculation and such tasks. In the succeeding sections, you will learn
about the application of different software for documentation and report making.

14.3 APPLICATION OF MS-OFFICE

Microsoft Office is packed with many features. It has components such as

Excel (Spreadsheet), Word (Word processor), OneNote and PowerPoint (for
making presentations). Microsoft gives these four programs in Home and Student
Edition.
New Features at a Glance: There are number of features that Office contains.
It is much improved in comparison to its earlier versions. New GUI (Graphical
User Interface) has been introduced that is known as Fluent User Interface. This
has replaced menus and toolbars and has tabbed tool bars and is known as Ribbon.
These menus and tool bars that were continuing in earlier versions of Office were
dropped. It is the last version Office suite on Windows XP Professional 64-bit
Edition. This has also incorporated Office SharePoint Server 2007 which is thought
as a major revision for the server platform using Office applications. This provides
support for ‘Excel Services’ having C/S (Client/Server) architecture that supports
Excel workbooks, shared in real time mode between many computers.
User Interface: New UI (User Interface) in Office 2007 is now known officially
as Fluent User Interface. This interface got implemented in Excel, Word, Access
and PowerPoint that form the core Office applications. In the item inspector these
are used for creating or editing individual items in MS Outlook.
Office Button: The Office button in 2007 is situated at the top-left corner of the
window and it has replaced File menu. This provides access to functions common
found common in all Office applications such as opening a file, printing file, saving

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as well as sharing a file. This is also used for closing applications. A color schemes Applications of Computer
in Educational Research
can also be chosen by users for the interface.
Ribbon: Ribbon is a panel that houses a fixed arrangement of few icons and
command buttons. This creates organizations for commands that form a set of
NOTES
tabs that group every relevant command. This can not be customized. Every
application contains a different set of tabs that tells about its functions.
Contextual Tabs: There are certain tabs that show appearance only after making
selection of certain objects. These tabs are known as Contextual Tabs. Such
tabs focus on functions specific to the selected objects only. If you select a picture
then Pictures tab is shown and this gives all options to work with pictures.
Mini Toolbar: This is a new inclusion in Office 2007. It appears automatically as
a context menu when you select a text. This design provides easy access to
formatting commands that are used repeatedly without making use of right button
of the mouse as is done in older versions.
Super Tool Tips: Super tool tips are also known as screen tips. This is capable
of housing formatted text as well as images. These show detailed descriptions
about most buttons and their functions.
Quick Access Toolbar: This tool bar is inside the title bar and is a repository of
functions that are most commonly used. This toolbar can be customized. Any
command can be included to this toolbar and this also includes commands that are
not available in Ribbon and macro.

Check Your Progress

1. What are the major components of the MS Office?
2. What is ribbon in MS Office?

14.4 BASICS OF MS-WORD

Microsoft Office Word 2007 enables you to create formal documents by providing
a broad set of tools for crafting and formatting your documents in a new interface.
Rich productive review, remarking content with comments and comparison
capabilities help you to manage feedback from colleagues. Significant sources of
business information stay connected by advanced and improved data integration.
Working in Compatibility Mode
When you open Word 97-2003 document in Microsoft Office Word 2007,
Compatibility Mode is turned on and you see Compatibility Mode in the title bar
of the document window. In Compatibility Mode, you can open, edit and save
Word 97-2003 documents but you will not be able to use any of the new Office
MS Word 2007 features.
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Applications of Computer Compatibility Checker
in Educational Research
The Compatibility Checker lists elements in your document that are not supported
or will work differently in Word 97-2003 format. In the Compatibility Checker,
NOTES you can review a summary of elements that behave differently in previous versions
of Word and then either click Continue to save the document in Word 97-2003
format or click Cancel. Some of these features will be permanently changed and
will not be converted to Microsoft MS Office Word 2007 elements if you convert
the document to Office Word 2007 format.
 Citations and Bibliographies: Citations and bibliographies will be
converted to static text.
 Content Controls: Content controls will be converted to static content.
 Embedded Objects: An embedded object in this document was created
in Microsoft Office Excel 2007. You will not be able to edit the object in
earlier versions of Word.
 Equations: Equations will be converted to images. You will not be able to
edit the equations until the document is converted to a new file format.
 SmartArt Graphics: SmartArt graphics will be converted into a single
object that cannot be edited in previous versions of Word.
 Tabs: Alignment tabs will be converted to traditional tabs.
 Text Boxes: Some text box positioning will change.
 Tracked Moves: Tracked moves will be converted.
Creating and Editing Document in Microsoft Word 2007
The Start button in the lower-left corner of your screen gives you access to all the
programs on your PC and also to MS Word 2007. To start Microsoft Word
2007, click on the Start button and select All Programs. To open this window,
you will need to perform the following steps:

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 Select Microsoft Office Word 2007.
The user interface of Microsoft Word 2007 is shown in the screen below.
NOTES

Menus
When you explore Microsoft Word 2007, you will notice the new look of the
menu bar. Three new features help you to work with MS Word 2007, namely the
Microsoft Office Button, the Quick Access Toolbar and the Ribbon which contain
various functions.
The Microsoft Office Button
The Microsoft Office button is located in the upper-left corner of the MS Word
2007 window. A menu appears when you click on this button. This menu helps in
creating a new document or file, opening an existing document or file, saving a
document or file, printing a document or file, sending the document or file via fax
or e-mail, etc.

The Quick Access Toolbar

The Quick Access Toolbar is right next to the Microsoft Office button. This toolbar
helps you to access the frequently used commands. The default commands which
appear on this toolbar are Save, Undo and Redo. These commands help you to
Save a document or file, Undo an action and Redo an action.

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You can customize this toolbar as per your requirements by clicking on the
NOTES
expansion button as shown below.

More items can be added to the quick access toolbar by right clicking on
the item which you want to add in the Office Button or the Ribbon and then
clicking on Add to Quick Access Toolbar as shown below:

The Ribbon
The Ribbon is positioned at the top of the screen of the Word window. It includes
seven tabs, namely Home, Insert, Page Layout, References, Mailings,
Review, View and Add-Ins as shown in screen below. Each tab contains various
new and advanced features of Word.

Each tab specifically contains certain tools as follows:

 Home: Clipboard, Font, Paragraph, Styles and Editing
 Insert: Pages, Tables, Illustrations, Links, Header & Footer, Text and
Symbols
 Page Layout: Themes, Page Setup, Page Background, Paragraph and
Arrange
 References: Table of Contents, Footnotes, Citations & Bibliography,
Captions, Index and Table of Authorities

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and Finish
 Review: Proofing, Comments, Tracking, Changes, Compare and Protect
 View: Document Views, Show/Hide, Zoom, Window and Macros NOTES
 Add-Ins: PDF Transformer or any new Add-In program
The Title Bar
The Title bar is next to the Quick Access Toolbar. It displays the title of the current
document which is in use. The first new document in Word is named as ‘Document1’
as shown below. When you open more new documents, Word automatically names
them as Document2, Document3, Document4, etc. sequentially. The document
can be saved by giving it a proper file name as per the user’s choice.

Word provides various ways through which a user can create a new document,
open an existing document and save a document in Word. To create a new document,
click on the Microsoft Office Button and then click on New or press CTRL+N
on the keyboard.

You will see that when you click on the Microsoft Office Button and then
click on New, Word provides number of choices about the types of documents
you can create. Select and click on Blank from the list if you want to create a
blank document.
You can create a document using the option Installed Templates. Select
any one of the templates as per your requirement. You can also browse other
options through the list of choices that appear on the left.
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NOTES

Saving a Document
To save a document, the following are the options available to opt from according
to the user’s choice:
 Click on the Microsoft Office Button and click on the Save option.
 The alternate option is to press CTRL+S.
 Another option is to click on the File icon in the Quick Access Toolbar and
click on the Save.

Saving a Document using Save As

To save a document using the Save As option, click on the Microsoft Office Button
and click on Save As. The Save As option helps you to save a document as a
Word Documents, Word Template, Word 97-2003 Document (earlier versions), Other
Formats, etc.
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NOTES

Renaming a Document
To rename an existing document, you need to perform the following steps:

 Click on the Office Button and locate the document you want to
rename.
 Click on the Save As option and then right click on the document name
with the mouse and select Rename from the shortcut menu.
 Type the new name for the document and press the ENTER key.
Working on Multiple Documents
Multiple documents can be simultaneously opened when you need to type or edit
multiple documents at once. All the documents as opened will be listed in the View tab
of the Ribbon when you will click on Switch Windows. The current document has a
checkmark beside the file name. You can select a different document as opened by
simply clicking on the tab.
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NOTES

Opening an Existing Document

To open an existing document, the following steps need to be performed:
 Click on the Microsoft Office Button and then click on Open.

 The alternate option is to press CTRL+O on the keyboard.

 For recently used document, you can click on the Microsoft Office Button
and then click on the name of the document in the Recent Documents
window.

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To close a document, the following steps need to be performed:

NOTES

 Click on the Office Button.

 Click on Close.
Quitting from MS Word 2007
When you work with Word processing, you can either quit or minimize the Word
document. If do not expect to return to it anytime soon, you may just want to quit
the program. If you want to stop work on one document to work on another, you
can close the document and then open another. You can use the Minimize button
to hide Word while you are off doing other things. Following steps are required to
perform quit from Word:

 Choose Exit Word from the Office Button menu.

 Save any files when Word prompts you to do so.
 Click Yes to save your file. You may be asked to give the file a name, if you
have not yet done so.
 Click Cancel to quit Exit Word command and return to Word.
If you select quit, Word closes its Window. Then, you can return to Windows
or some other program.
Text Editing
The process of editing a document involves the following steps:
Typing and Inserting Text
To enter text, just type the text in the Word window. The text will appear at the
location of the blinking cursor. You can move the cursor using the arrow keys on
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shortcuts used for this purpose are as follows:
Move Action Keystroke
NOTES Beginning of the line HOME
End of the line END
Top of the document CTRL+HOME
End of the document CTRL+END
To change the current attributes of the text as typed, it needs to be highlighted
first. Select the text by dragging the mouse over the text to be modified while
holding down the left mouse button. An alternate way is to hold down the SHIFT
key on the keyboard and use the arrow buttons to highlight the text. Following are
the shortcuts that are used to select a specific portion of the text:
Selection Technique
Whole word Double click within the word.
Whole paragraph Triple click within the paragraph.
Several words or lines Drag the mouse over the words or hold down the
SHIFT key while using the arrow keys.
Entire document Choose Editing  Select  Select All from the
Ribbon or simply press CTRL+A.

Moving and Copying Text

Moving and copying data are common commands used in many computer programs.
These commands allow us to take information from one document or location and
place them in another without retyping everything. When you move data, you are
actually taking it from the location in which it is currently placed and relocating it to
another area in the document. When you copy data, the original data remains intact
and in addition a copy of that data is placed in another area in the document as
shown in the following screen:

In MS Word 2007, the commands you need to carry out any move or copy
operation are located on the Home tab within the Clipboard. Following are the
keyboard shortcuts that are also helpful when moving through the text of a
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Beginning of the line HOME
End of the line END
Top of the document CTRL+HOME NOTES
End of the document CTRL+END

Using Drag and Drop Technique

Text can be inserted in a document at any point using any of the following methods:
 Type Text: Put your cursor where you want to add/insert the text and
begin typing.
 Copy and Paste Text: Highlight the text you wish to copy and right click
to view options. Now click on Copy option. Put your cursor where you
want the text to be inserted in the document and right click to view options.
Select Paste to paste the copied text.
 Cut and Paste Text: Highlight the text you wish to cut and right click to
view options. Now click on Cut option. Put your cursor where you want
the text to be inserted in the document and right click to view the options.
Select Paste to paste the cut text.
 Drag Text: Highlight the text you wish to move. Click on it and drag it to
the place where you want the text to be inserted in the document.
Using Cut, Copy and Paste Options
To work with Cut, Copy and Paste operations in MS Word 2007, you need to
first select the text which you want to copy and paste as shown in the following
screen. Press right mouse button to get the shortcut key.

Copy the selected text. Select Paste option and place the mouse pointer
where you want to paste the selected material. Click on Paste option. The copied
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screen.

NOTES

For cut operation, you need to select the text. Click on Cut option in shortcut
key. Place the mouse pointer where you want to paste the cut text. Click on Paste
option in shortcut key.
Finding and Replacing Text
The Find and Replace option can be accessed either by selecting CTRL+F or
CTRL+H menu by pressing key combinations for Find and Replace. After
choosing the Find or Replace option, you will get the following screen:

The special drop-down list drops a variety of options as follows:

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lowercase. For example, if you check on Match case box and type the word in
capital as ‘TOP’, a dialog box appears with a message ‘The search item was
not found’.
NOTES

If you remove the check box, the found word is replaced by defined word
as follows:

You can also search the items by using wild card (*) as shown in screen
below:

Insert/Delete Text
In Microsoft Word 2007, you can create documents by typing them, for example,
if you want to create a report, you open Microsoft Word 2007 and then start to
type. You do not have to do anything when your text reaches the end of a line and
you want to move to a new line, Microsoft Word 2007 automatically moves your
text to a new line. If you want to start a new paragraph press ENTER key.
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To capitalize, hold down the SHIFT key while typing the letter you want to
capitalize. If you make a mistake, you can delete what you typed and then type
your correction. You can use the Backspace key to delete. Each time you press
NOTES the Backspace key, Microsoft Word 2007 deletes the character that precedes
the insertion point. The insertion point is the point at which your mouse pointer is
located. You can also delete text by using the Delete [DEL] key. First, you select
the text you want to delete and then you press the Delete key.
Creating Template
A Microsoft Office Word 2007 template contains sample content, formatting or
objects that can be used to quickly and easily create a new document. To create
a template, create a normal document and save it by selecting from the Office
button  Save As  Word Template as shown below. The file extension
assigned will be either .dotx if the template has no macros or code or .dotm if the
template contains macros or code.
The templates contain the formatting and layout for the documents to be
created quickly and easily. Whenever you create a new document using a template
the predefined settings will be automatically added to it. To create and save a
template, follow the given steps:

 Open the document that you want to save as a template or create a new
document.
 Click on the Microsoft Office button and then click on Save As.
 In ‘Save a copy of the document’ dialog box select Word Template.
 Browse to the location where you want to save the template and then type
a file name for the template.
 Click on Save.
To open a document based on the new template, browse to the location where
the template is saved and then double-click the file name. You can save a document
as a template at any time and also update or modify the template as per your
requirements. You can protect the template from other users if you do not want it
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“read-write” by following the given steps:
 Browse to the location where the template is saved.
 Right-click the template file name and then click on Properties. NOTES
 The Property window will appear. On the General tab next to Attributes,
select the Read-only check box and then click on OK.
Creating Tables
Tables are used to display the data in a tabular format.

Create a Table
To create a table, follow the given steps:
 Place the cursor on the page where you want the new table
 Click on the Insert Tab of the Ribbon
 Click on the Tables Button on the Tables Group. You can create a table
using any one of the following four ways:
 Highlight the number of row and columns
 Click on Insert Table and enter the number of rows and columns
 Click on the Draw Table, create your table by clicking and entering the
rows and columns
 Click on Quick Tables and select a table
Inserting Rows/Columns
Add a row above or below: Follow the given steps to add a row:
 Click in a cell above or below where you want to add a row.
 Under Table Tools on the Layout tab to add a row above the cell click on
Insert Above in the Rows and Columns group.
 Under Table Tools on the Layout tab to add a row below the cell click on
Insert Below in the Rows and Columns group.
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 Click in a cell to the left or right of where you want to add a column.
 Under Table Tools on the Layout tab to add a column to the left of the
NOTES cell click on Insert Left in the Rows and Columns group.
 Under Table Tools on the Layout tab to add a column to the right of the
cell click on Insert Right in the Rows and Columns group.
Merging Rows/Columns
You can combine two or more cells in the same row or column into a single cell.
For example, you can merge several cells horizontally to create a table heading
that spans several columns.
 Select the cells you want to merge.
 On the Table menu click on Merge Cells.
Moving a Table
Word 2007 allows you to use the mouse to move entire table within your document.
You can do this by using techniques similar to those you use to move graphics
around in a document. Position the mouse over your table. At the upper-left corner
of the table appears a small icon. This icon looks like a square with a four-headed
arrow inside it. Click and drag this icon where you want to move the table. When
you release the mouse button the table is repositioned where you dragged the
mouse.
Entering Data in a Table: To enter data in a table, place the cursor in the
cell where you want to enter the data or information. Start typing to enter the data.
Inserting Symbols and Special Characters
Word 2007 permits you to insert special characters, symbols, pictures, illustrations,
etc. Special characters are punctuation, spacing or typographical characters that
are not generally available on the standard keyboard. To insert symbols and special
characters, follow the given steps:
 Place your cursor in the document where you want the symbol
 Click on the Insert Tab on the Ribbon
 Click on the Symbol button on the Symbols Group
 Select the proper symbol.

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dialog box displaying list of various symbols in various fonts.

NOTES

Equations
Word 2007 also permits you to insert mathematical equations. To use the
mathematical equations tool, follow the given steps:
 Place your cursor in the document where you want the equation
 Click on the Insert Tab on the Ribbon

 Click on the on Equation Button on the Symbols Group

 Select the proper equation and structure or click on Insert New Equation
 To edit the equation click on the equation and the Design Tab in Ribbon
will help you to edit it.

14.5 MS-EXCEL

MS Excel 2007 files are referred as spreadsheets. This is a generic term, which
sometimes means a workbook (file) and sometimes means a worksheet (a page
within the file). Data files created with MS Excel 2007 are called workbooks. MS
Excel 2007 files by default contain three blank worksheets. This gives you the
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worksheets can be added and unwanted worksheets can be deleted as per the
user requirement. Thus, MS Excel 2007 is a powerful and most extensively used
tool as spreadsheet application which allows you to store, organize and analyse
NOTES numerical, graphic and text data. Spreadsheets allow information to be organized
in rows and tables, and can be analysed using various mathematical, trigonometric,
text, logical, date and time functions. The number of rows is now 1,048,576 (220)
and columns is 16,384 (214). Microsoft Excel 2007 has the basic features of all
spreadsheets, using a grid of cells arranged in numbered rows and letter named
columns to organize data manipulations. Further with Microsoft Excel 2007 you
can analyse, manage and share information quickly and easily to formulate more
knowledgeable decisions. With the new user interface, rich data visualization and
PivotTable views, professional looking charts can be created easily.
The advanced features in Microsoft Excel 2007 include Office themes, more
styles, rich conditional formatting, easy formula writing, Sort & Filter, data validation,
worksheet and workbook protection, Goal Seek, Scenario, PivotTable and
PivotChart. Goal Seek and Scenario are part of What-If Analysis tools. MS Excel
2007 supports charts, graphs or histograms generated from specified groups of
cells. The generated graphic component can either be embedded within the current
sheet or added as a separate object. OLE or Object Linking and Embedding
allow a Windows application to format or calculate data. This may acquire the
form of ‘embedding’ where an application uses another to handle the task, for
example a MS PowerPoint presentation can be embedded in an MS Excel 2007
spreadsheet or vice versa.
You can create a spreadsheet using various formatting and editing features
given in the Ribbon panel. Thus, you can perform calculations using the functions
given in MS Excel 2007 and can sort and filter data as per your requirement. You
can create graphs in the worksheet, insert illustrations, Clip Art, SmartArt, Shapes
and pictures to enhance your worksheet. You can freeze and unfreeze rows and
columns and can also hide and unhide any worksheet.
Worksheet, Workbook and Workspace
A Microsoft Excel 2007 file in which you can enter and store related data is
known as a workbook. A workbook is also identified as a spreadsheet that is a
group of cells on a single sheet where you in fact keep and operate data. Every
worksheet consists of columns and rows. The columns are lettered A to Z and
then continue with AA, AB, AC, and so on. The rows are numbered from1 to
1,048,576. The number of rows and columns that you can hold in your worksheet
is restricted by computer memory and your system resource.

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NOTES

Cell address is the combination of a column letter and a row number. For
example, if a cell is located in the upper left corner of the worksheet, which is A1,
this means that it is located in column A and row 1. Similarly, cell E10 is situated in
column E on row 10. The data can be entered into the cells present on the worksheet.
N-number of worksheets can be present in a workbook. To work with workspace
you have to perform the following steps:
 Click the Office button. Click Open.

 Click the Files of type: list arrow. Click Workspace.

 Select the workspace file. Click Open.

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NOTES

Getting Started
As soon as you start MS Excel 2007, you will see that its features are similar to
the previous versions. You will also see that there are many additional features
which help you to work with special effects. Three new features that are included
in MS Excel 2007 are the Microsoft Office Button, the Quick Access Toolbar
and the Ribbon.
Microsoft Office Button
The Microsoft Office Button performs various functions that were found in the
File menu of older versions of MS Excel 2007. This button permits you to create
a new workbook, open an existing workbook, save a workbook using Save and
Save As, Print, Send or Close a workbook.

Ribbon
The Ribbon is the panel at the top portion of the spreadsheet. It includes seven
tabs namely, Home, Insert, Page Layout, Formulas, Data, Review and View.
Add-ins is another option which is automatically displayed on the Ribbon when
you add any new application to the program. Each tab is a collection of features
designed to perform specific functions that you require while creating or editing
MS Excel 2007 spreadsheets.

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 The frequently used features are displayed on the Ribbon. To view additional Applications of Computer
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features of each group, click on the arrow at the bottom right corner of each
group.

NOTES

 Home: Clipboard, Fonts, Alignment, Number, Styles, Cells, Editing.

 Insert: Tables, Illustrations, Charts, Links, Text.
 Page Layouts: Themes, Page Setup, Scale to Fit, Sheet Options, Arrange.
 Formulas: Function Library, Defined Names, Formula Auditing,
Calculation.
 Data: Get External Data, Connections, Sort & Filter, Data Tools, Outline.
 Review: Proofing, Comments, Changes.
 View: Workbook Views, Show/Hide, Zoom, Window, Macros.
Quick Access Toolbar
The Quick Access Toolbar can be customized as per the user need and contains
commands that you use most frequently. You can place the Quick Access Toolbar
above or below the Ribbon. To change the location of the Quick Access Toolbar,
click on the arrow at the end of the toolbar and click Show Below the Ribbon.

You can also add more items to the Quick Access toolbar. To do this, right
click on any item in the Office Button or the Ribbon and then click on Add to
Quick Access Toolbar. A shortcut will be added there.

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Mini Toolbar is a new feature in Microsoft Office 2007. This is a floating toolbar
and is displayed when you select text or right click any text. It displays the common
NOTES formatting tools, such as Bold, Italic, Fonts, Font Size and Font Color.

MS Excel 2007 Options

MS Excel 2007 provides a wide range of customizable options that help you to
create an MS Excel 2007 workbook of required specifications. To access these
customizable options, follow the given steps:
 Click on the Office Button.

 Click on MS Excel 2007 Options which you will get from Quick Access
Toolbar.
Popular
The Popular features helps you to personalize your work environment using the
Mini Toolbar, Color schemes, default options when creating new workbooks and
creating lists for sort and fill sequences. It also helps you to access the Live Preview
feature to preview how a feature affects the document as you hover over different
choices. The choices provide new font size, table style or cell style which can be
applied on a workbook as per requirement.

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NOTES

Formulas
The Formulas feature permits you to modify the calculation options, to work with
formulas, error checking and error checking rules. Working with formulas provide
four check boxes which are R1C1 reference style, Formula AutoComplete, Use
table names in formulas and Use GetPivotData functions for PivotTable references
as shown in the given screen.

Proofing
The Proofing feature permits you to personalize the options for correcting words
and formats of your text. You will get AutoCorrect option in Proofing feature. You
can customize auto correction settings so that it will ignore certain words or errors
in a document via the Custom Dictionaries...

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NOTES

Save
The Save feature permits you to personalize your workbook when saved. You
can also specify how often you want auto save to run and where to save the
workbooks.

Advanced
The Advanced feature permits you to specify the options for editing, copying,
pasting, printing as well as displaying formulas, calculations and other general
settings.

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NOTES

Customize
Customize permits you to add specific features to the Quick Access Toolbar. It
adds the tools which you frequently use.

Opening MS Excel 2007 Application

To open MS Excel 2007 application, following steps are required:
 Click the Office Button, then press right to select Customize Quick Access
Toolbar which provides MS Excel 2007 Options tab.

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Applications of Computer  Click the Advanced category and scroll down up to the General section.
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 In the box for ‘At startup, open all files in’, you might see the name of a
folder and its path. Clear the folder information from that box or go to that
folder and remove the unwanted files. Click OK to close the MS Excel
NOTES
2007 Options dialog box.
Entering Information in a Worksheet
To enter information in a worksheet, you need to open an empty workbook and
enter the data as shown in the screen, below:

Moving Around Worksheet and Workbook

The arrow keys give you the option to move around your worksheet. With the
help of down arrow key you can move downward one cell at a time. Similarly, the
up arrow key can be used to move upward one cell at a time. You can even move
across the page to the right, one cell at a time by using the Tab key. By holding
hold the SHIFT key and then pressing the Tab key, you can move to the left, one
cell at a time. You even have the right and left arrow keys available by which you
can also move right and left respectively, one cell at a time. The Page Up (Pg Up)
and Page Down (Pg Dn) keys move up and down one page at a time. By pressing
down the CTRL key and simultaneously pressing the Home key, you can move to
the beginning of the worksheet.
It is convenient to either move or copy the whole worksheet. The term
worksheet refers to the main document that you use in MS Excel 2007 to store
and work with data. There might be a chance that calculations or charts that are
based on worksheet data might turn out to be inaccurate if you shift the worksheet.
You can move or copy worksheet by inserting between sheets that are referred by
a 3-D reference. This reference refers to a range that spans two or more worksheets
in a workbook. Data on that worksheet might be unexpectedly included in the

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screen below.

NOTES

To move to the next or previous sheet tab, you can also press CTRL + Pg
Up or CTRL + Pg Dn. On the Home tab, in the Cells group, click Format and
then under Organize Sheets, click Move or Copy Sheet.
You can also right click a selected sheet tab and then click Move or Copy. In the
Move or Copy dialog box, in the Before sheet list, do one of the following:
 Click the sheet before which you want to insert the moved or copied sheets.
 Click move to end to insert the moved or copied sheets after the last
sheet in the workbook and before the Insert Worksheet tab.

To copy the sheets instead of moving them, in the Move or Copy dialog
box, select the Create a copy check box.
Saving a Workbook
To save a workbook, you have two options, Save and Save As. To save a
document, follow the given steps:
 Click on the Microsoft Office Button.
 Click on Save.

You can also use the Save As feature to save the workbook with a different
name or to save it as earlier versions of MS Excel 2007. The older versions of
MS Excel 2007 cannot be opened in an MS Excel 2007 worksheet unless you

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given steps:
 Click on the Microsoft Office button.
 Click on Save As.
NOTES
 Give a name for the workbook.
 In the Save as Type box, select Excel 97-2003 workbook.

Closing a Workbook File

To close a workbook file, you need to press CTRL+F4 key combination. You
can close all open workbooks wihout closing MS Excel 2007. For this, you need
to open file menu and select Close All option.
Opening an Existing Workbook File
To open an existing workbook, follow the given steps:
 Click on the Microsoft Office button.
 Click on Open.
 Browse to the workbook.
 Click on the title of the workbook.
 Click on Open.

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To quit from MS Excel 2007, click on Microsoft Office Button and then select
Exit MS Excel 2007 button.
You will quit from MS Excel 2007. NOTES

Check Your Progress

3. On which toolbar are the options of the default commands like Save,
Undo and Redo available on MS Word?
4. Give the alternative key command for opening an existing document on
MS Word.

14.6 MS-POWERPOINT

PowerPoint helps in using charts, diagrams, pictures and animations for the purpose
of creating effective presentation slides. The main feature that separates
PowerPoint 2007 from PowerPoint 2003 is that in PowerPoint 2007 file is saved
with a .ppt and .pptx extension. When the PowerPoint slides are saved as .pptx,
Windows 2003 is unable to open the file.

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Applications of Computer Microsoft Office Button
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The Microsoft Office Button performs all the functions of the ‘File’ menu of the
older versions of PowerPoint. It helps you to create a new presentation, open an
NOTES existing presentation, save a presentation, save a presentation with a new name
using the ‘Save As’ option, print a presentation, send a presentation and close a
presentation.

Ribbon
Ribbon refers to the strip of buttons that resides on top of the main Window. The
standard Ribbon includes the Home tab, the Insert tab, the Design tab, the
Animation tab, the Slide Show tab, the Review tab and the View tab.
Design
The Design option is accessed on the Ribbon. This option facilitates the choice of
colors, background styles, fonts, page setup, slide orientation, etc.

Home
The Home option is the most commonly used option which by users. It helps in
creating new slides. The ‘slides’ option provides you to insert new slides. You can
adjust the layout of slides, reset and set default slides. The paragraphs can be
aligned and specified in form of bulleted ornumbered lists. The drawing and editing
tools help in editing the text and figures.

Insert
The insert option is available for the purpose of adding tables, illustrations, links,
text and media clips. WordArt, header, footer, text, movie and sound can also be
inserted in the slides. The tables can be inserted or imported from MS Excel.
Illustrations can be in form of Clip Art files, photo albums, pictures, Smart Art,
shapes and charts. You can insert a link using the hyperlink tool to navigate the
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and location of the words along with the insertion of date, time, symbols, slide
numbers and embedded objects.

NOTES

Animation
The animation option contains preview, custom animation and various transition
settings that can be applied to the specified or all slides in the presentation. The
slide show transition can be set at mouse clicks or ‘automatically-after -seconds’
options. You can preview the slide show to view the proper effect and the mode of
presentations. Various objects, such as images, text and embedded objects can
be added on the slides. The various transitions available for slide shows are wipes,
fades and dissolve, random, strips and bars, push and cover, etc.

Slide Show
The slide show option helps in setting up the start slide show (either from the
starting or from-and-to specific slide numbers) and to record narration. It also has
the option to monitor the screen resolution by providing separate views of the
slide show.

Review
The content of the slides can be reviewed and modified by using the spell check,
research, adding comments, etc. This makes the presentation flawless. Proofing
provides the facility of text proofing by scanning the online research references,
finding synonyms and converting the text to other languages in totality. This option
provides the comment facility that enables the addition or modification of a comment
for a particular slide or the content of a slide. The protect option restricts usage by
unauthorized users. This option is helpful for slide show share with a network
drive if you collaborate with other users.
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NOTES
View
The view option enables the presentation to be viewed in different ways, such as
normal view, notes view, handout view, printout view and screen view, show/hide
grid lines, rulers and tools, zoom in and zoom out facility and also includes the
color/grayscale view whether the slides should appear in color or black and white.
The window tab arranges the windows of the current working slides and macros
includes complex tasks that get activated after clicking on the slides.

The format tab includes drawing tools and picture tools. The picture tool is a
context sensitive tab that appears on the Ribbon and allows the user to work with
inserted images, photos, Clip Art and pictures. It sets the brightness of images,
crops the picture, etc.
Navigation
Navigation through the slides can be accomplished using the Slide Navigation
menu on the left side of the screen. An outline of slides appear on the left side that
have been entered in the presentation. You need to click the outline tab to access
the outline of the presentation.

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Mini Toolbar Applications of Computer
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A new feature in Office 2007 is the Mini Toolbar. This is a floating toolbar that is
displayed when you select text or right click on the text. It displays the common
formatting tools, such as bold, italics, fonts, font size and font color. NOTES
Table
This option includes adding borders, rows and columns, formatting of individual
cell, etc., to a table. It helps in deciding the number of rows and columns that
would appear on the screen. The merge option combines the cells into a larger
one and the alignment option sets the alignment of the cell so that the text may fit
better.

Quick Access Toolbar

The quick access toolbar holds the commands which are issued by the user again
and again. The quick access toolbar can be easily customized using the command
button available on the Ribbon. This tool is displayed on the top most left corner
of the screen.

The drop-down list is customized on the quick access toolbar by selecting

the Customize Quick Access ToolbarMore CommandsCustomize.

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NOTES

You can add or remove the commands from the list. Once you make changes
and save them, the quick access toolbar gets updated. This toolbar is also known
as a customizable toolbar. You can add or delete the toolbar from the menu.

Customize
Microsoft PowerPoint 2007 facilitates customizable options. For this, click on the
File menu. It generates the option called ‘PowerPoint Options’ as follows:

By clicking on the PowerPoint Options leads to the Customize option.

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NOTES

The Popular option helps you to initialize the work environment, color
schemes and user name along with initials and accessing the Live Preview feature
which is useful for applying designs and changes.
The Proofing option provides auto correction settings and also helps in
finding errors through custom dictionaries.

The save option allows you to personalize the process of saving the
workbook.

The Advance feature option provides the options to edit, copy, paste, print,
display slide show and for general settings.
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NOTES

The Customize option allows you to add or delete the toolbars in the quick
access toolbar. This option is very useful from the point of view of setting the
toolbars as per the user requirement.

Check Your Progress

5. What is the proofing feature in MS Excel?
6. What does the CTRL+F4 function do in MS Excel?
7. What is the slide show function in MS PowerPoint?

14.7 APPLICATION OF THESE SOFTWARES’ FOR

DOCUMENTATION AND MAKING REPORTS

You have already learnt the tools of application software which can be used for
documentation and making reports. In this section, you will study some general
guidelines related to document and report making.
Guidelines for Effective Documentation
Command over the medium: Even though one may have done an extremely
rigorous and significant research study, the fundamental test still remains as to how
the learning has been disseminated. Regardless of how effective the graphs and
figures are in showcasing the findings, the verbal description and explanation—in
terms of why it was done, how it was done, and what was the outcome, still
remain the acid test.
Thus, a correct and effective language of communication is critical in putting
ideas and objectives in the vernacular of the reader/decision-maker. The writer
may, thus, be advised to read professionally written reports and, if necessary,
seek assistance from those proficient in preparing business reports.
Phrasing protocol: There is a debate about whether or not one makes use
of personal pronoun while reporting. To understand this, one needs to revisit the
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think…..’ or ‘in my opinion…..’ lends a subjectivity and personalization of
judgement. Thus, the tone of the reporting should be neutral. For example:
‘Given the nature of the forecasted growth and the opinion of the respondents,
NOTES
it is likely that the……’
Whenever the writer is reproducing the verbatim information from another
document or comment of an expert or published source, it must be in inverted
commas or italics and the author or source should be duly acknowledged.
The writer should avoid long sentences and break up the information in
clear chunks, so that the reader can process it with ease. Similar is the case in
structuring of the chapters or sections of the report that can be logically broken
down into smaller sections that are comprehensive and complete and yet maintain
a strong but logical link with the flow of reporting.
With the onset of the use of abbreviated communications in SMS and emails,
most people tend to use shortened form as ‘cd.’ for could and ‘u’ for you, etc.
Also the use of colloquial language and slangs must be avoided, as this is a formal
document and one must maintain the sanctity of the formal documentation required
in a research report.
Simplicity of approach: Along with grammatically and structurally correct
language, care must be taken to avoid technical jargon as far as possible. The
business manager, might have been a business student who had prepared a research
report in his academic pursuits but now understands simple common terms and
does not have the time or inclination to juggle the dictionary and the report together.
In case it is imperative to use certain terminology, then, as stated earlier, the definition
of these terms can be provided in the glossary of terms at the end of the report.
Sometimes the writer may prepare different research reports for the same
study to suit the need of diverse readers, for example, the business report needs to
be crisp and simple with definable and workable recommendations. On the other
hand, an academic report could discuss extensively the literature review section,
as well as the statistical analysis and interpretation.
Report formatting and presentation: In terms of paper quality, page
margins and font style and size, a professional standard should be maintained. The
font style must be uniform throughout the report. The topics, subtopics, headings
and subheadings must be construed in the same manner throughout the report.
Sometimes certain academic reports have a mandated format for presentation
which the writers need to follow, in which case there is no choice in presentation.
However, when this is not clear, it is advisable that the writer creates his/her
own formatting rules and saves it on a notepad so that they can be implemented in
a standardized and professional manner.
The researcher can provide data relief and variation by adequately
supplementing the text with graphs and figures. Pictorial representations are simple
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be used effectively whenever possible in the report.
Guidelines for Presenting Tabular Data
NOTES Most research studies involve some form of numerical data, and even though one
can discuss this in text, it is best represented in tabular form. The advantage of
doing this is that statistical tables present the data in a concise and numeral form,
which makes quantitative analysis and comparisons easier. Tables formulated could
be general tables following a statistical format for a particular kind of analysis.
These are best put in the appendix, as they are complex and detailed in nature.
The other kind is simple summary tables, which only contain limited information
and yet, are, essentially critical to the report text.
Table identification details: The table must have a title and an identification
number. The table title should be short and usually would not include any verbs or
articles. It only refers to the population or parameter being studied. The title should
be briefly yet clearly descriptive of the information provided. The numbering of
tables is usually in a series and generally one makes use of Arabic numbers to
identify them.
Data arrays: The arrangement of data in a table is usually done in an
ascending manner. This could either be in terms of time, (column-wise) or according
to sectors or categories (row-wise) or locations, e.g., north, south, east, west and
central. Sometimes, when the data is voluminous, it is recommended that one
goes alphabetically, e.g., country or state data. Sometimes there may be
subcategories to the main categories, for example, under the total sales data—a
column-wise component of the revenue statement—there could be subcategories
of department store, chemists and druggists, mass merchandisers and others.
Measurement unit: The unit in which the parameter or information is
presented should be clearly mentioned.
Spaces, Leaders and Rulings (SLR): For limited data, the table need
not be divided using grid lines or rulings. Simple white spaces add to the clarity of
information presented and processed. In case the number of parameters are too
many and the data seems to be bulky to be simply separated by space, it is advisable
to use vertical ruling. Horizontal lines are drawn to separate the headings from the
main data. When there are a number of subheadings as in the sales data example,
one may consider using leaders (…….) to assist the eye movement in absorbing
and processing the information.
Total sales
Mass market………
Department store………
Drug stores………
Others (including paan beedi outlets)………
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made, or a special definition required to understand the data, or formula used to
arrive at a particular figure, e.g., total market sale or total market size can be given
after the main tabled data in the form of footnotes.
NOTES
Data sources: In case the information documented and tabled is secondary
in nature, complete reference of the source must be cited after the footnote, if any.
Special mention: In case some figure or information is significant and the
reader should pay special attention to it, the number or figure can be bold or can
be highlighted to increase focus.
Guidelines for Visual Representations: Graphs
Similar to the summarized and succinct data in the form of tables, the data can also
be presented through visual representations in the form of graphs. The visual
representation of the findings in the form of lines or boxes and bars relative to a
number line is easy to comprehend and interpret. There are some standard rules
and procedures available to the researcher for this; also there are computer
programs like MS Excel and SPSS, where the numbered data can be converted
with ease into graphical form.
Line and curve graphs: Usually, when the objective is to demonstrate
trends and some sort of pattern in the data, a line chart is the best option available
to the researcher as the line is able to clearly portray any change in pattern during
a particular time period. On the same chart, it is also possible to show patterns of
growth of different sectors or industries in the same time period or to compare the
change in the studied variable across different organizations or brands in the same
industry. Certain points to be kept in mind while formulating line charts include:
 The time units or the causal variable being studied are to be put on the X-
axis, or the horizontal axis.
 If the intention is to compare different series on the same chart, the lines
should be of different colours or forms.
 Too many lines are not advisable on the same chart as then the data becomes
too cluttered; an ideal number would be five or less than five lines on the
chart.
 The researcher also must take care to formulate the zero baseline in the
chart as otherwise, the data would seem to be misleading.
Area or stratum charts: Area charts are like the line charts, usually used
to demonstrate changes in a pattern over a period of time. However, here there
are multiple lines that are essentially components of the original composite data.
What is done is that the change in each of the components is individually shown on
the same chart and each of them is stacked one on top of the other. The areas
between the various lines indicate the scale or volume of the relevant factors/
categories.
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representation is through the pie charts. The critical difference between a line and
pie chart is that the pie chart cannot show changes over time. It simply shows the
cross-section of a single time period. The sections or slices of the pie indicate the
NOTES ratio of that section to the total area of the parameter being displayed. There are
certain rules that the researcher should keep in mind while creating pie charts.
 The complete data must be shown as a 100 per cent area of the subject
being graphed.
 It is a good idea to have the percentages displayed within or above the pie
rather than in the legend as then it is easier to understand the magnitude of
the section in comparison to the total.
Bar charts and histograms: A very useful representation of quantum or
magnitude of different objects on the same parameter are bar diagrams. The
comparative position of objects becomes very clear. The usual practice is to
formulate vertical bars; however, it is possible to use horizontal bars as well if
none of the variable is time related. Horizontal bars are especially useful when one
is showing both positive and negative patterns on the same graph. These are called
bilateral bar charts and are especially useful to highlight the objects or sectors
showing a varied pattern on the studied parameter. It is possible to generate bar
graphs with relative ease with computer programs today and the distance between
the bars can be extremely precise as compared to those created by hand.
Another variation of the bar chart is the histogram here the bars are vertical
and the height of each bar reflects the relative or cumulative frequency of that
particular variable.
Pictogram: A pictogram shows graphical representation of data. Pictograms
are most often used in popular and general read such as in magazines and
newspapers, as they are eye-catching and easy to comprehend by one and all.
They are not a very accurate or scientific representation of the actual data and,
thus, should be used with caution in an academic or technical report.
Geographic representation: Geographic or regional maps related to
countries, states, districts, territories can be used as a base to show occurrence of
the studied variable in various regions or to show comparative analysis about
major brands or industries or minerals. In case of comparative data, the researcher
must provide the legend in the displayed map, for example any map of the location
may be given.

14.8 USE OF SPSS AND OTHER STATISTICAL

SOFTWARE

Researchers have to their advantage a wide array of statistical programmes to

assist them in both data management and data analysis. In this section we will
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tabulating data is on Excel. The basic mathematical functions can be calculated
here. Secondly, the software is easy to understand and used by most computer
users. The data entered on Excel can be transported to most statistical packages
for a higher level analysis. NOTES
Minitab: Minitab Inc. was developed more than 20 years ago at the
Pennsylvania State University. It can be used with considerable ease and
effectiveness in all business areas. It was originally used by statisticians. However,
today it is used for multiple applications—especially quality control, six sigma and
the design of experiments. The URL for Minitab is [Link] The
researcher can utilize the products and help the guide to undertake a quantitative
research analysis.
System for Statistical Analysis (SAS): SAS was created in the late 1960s
at North Carolina State University. It has been actively and extensively used in
managing, storing and analysing information. It has the advantage of being able to
manage really bulky data sets with considerable ease. Linear models (Regression,
Analysis of variance, Analysis of covariance), Generalized linear models (including
Logistic regression and Poisson regression), multivariate methods (MANOVA,
Canonical correlation, Discriminant analysis, Factor analysis, Clustering),
categorical data analysis (including log-linear models), and all the standard
techniques for descriptive and confirmatory statistical analysis are possible with
SAS. The statistical analyses may be interfaced with the graphical products to
produce relevant plots such as q-q plots, residual plots, and other relevant graphical
descriptions of the data. Forecasting and trend series can also be carried out using
the package. It finds a higher usage amongst industry than students who are more
comfortable with SPSS. The URL for package is [Link]
SPSS: Amongst the student community as well as with most research
agencies, this is the most widely used package. It is adaptable to most business
problems and is extremely user friendly. A reference URL for SPSS is http://
[Link]/.
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) is one of the most popular
software packages to perform statistical analysis on survey data. Its first version
was released in 1968 and since then, it has come a long way. It is used by researchers
in educational institutes, research organizations, government, marketing firms, etc.
Launching SPSS
To start SPSS, go to Start -> Programs -> SPSS followed by its version. For
example, SPSS 12, SPSS 14, SPSS 16, SPSS 17.
A dialog box will open in front of SPSS grid listing several options to choose
from. The following options will appear in the dialog box:
 Run the tutorial
 Type in data
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 Create new query using Database Wizard
 Open an existing data source
NOTES  Open another type of file

For the moment, we will concentrate on the second option, i.e., Type in
data. Select this option and click Ok. By default, the Data Editor view is initially
selected.
SPSS Data Editor
The SPSS Data Editor Window has two views: Data View and Variable View.
Variable View is used to define variables that will store the data. Data View contains
the actual data.
The first step is to open the ‘Variable View’ window of the Data Editor and
define variables. Let us consider an example where Employee Data of an
organization needs to be saved and analysed. The objective is to create a small
data file for employees that consist of six variables as given in Table below.

Variable name Variable type

EmpID Numeric

EmpName String

Gender Numeric (categories are Female = 1 and Male = 2)

Age Numeric

Income Numeric

MaritalStatus Numeric (categories are Unmarried=1 and Married=2)

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To change variable type, in Variable View click on the variable in the column Type.
A window similar to one below will open. Create all the variables and select
appropriate Type as given in the table above.
NOTES

Note: While defining variable names empty spaces are not allowed.
E.g., Marital Status – Not allowed
MaritalStatus or Marital_Status – Correct
The third column in Variable view is Width, which specifies the number of
characters allowed to be entered in the column. By default the width is 8 characters
and can be modified depending upon the data being entered.
The fourth column is Decimals, which represents the number of decimal
places. For numeric data type the default value is 0. Say, for example, EmpID
does not require decimal places, therefore, it can be set to 0.
The fifth column is Label, which describes the variable.
The sixth column is Values. For example, Gender contains two categories
(Female = 1 and Male = 2). In Data View, the gender will be entered as either 1
or 2. But what 1 or 2 represents is given in the Values as 1 represents Female and
2 Male.
The seventh column is Missing. Often while collecting data, you will have
missing values within your data. This column is used in cases where no data is
provided by a respondent. A missing value is chosen as an impossible value for
that column. For example, the missing value for age can be entered as 1000 or -
100 which are impossible entries for age. The objective of giving a missing value is
to exclude that record while analysing the data.

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Applications of Computer The eighth column is Columns. It represents the width of the column. Default
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value is 8 and can be changed.
The ninth column is Align, which aligns the data at the left, centre or right of
NOTES cell.
The last column is Measure. It can take values of Nominal, Ordinal or
Scale.
The table below shows the different types of measurement, with examples:

Nominal Category Discrete Eye colour

Ordinal Ranking Discrete Ranking preference for various soft drinks

Interval Scale Continuous Temperature

Ratio Scale Continuous Age, years of education.

Nominal Data: Discrete/category variable (limited number of values), e.g.,

Gender (Male or Female), Days of the week, Yes/No response in a questionnaire.
Ordinal Data: Discrete/category variable (limited number of ranks).
Interval Data: Continuous Data
Ratio Data: Continuous Data
Category or discrete measure consists of values that can be grouped into
categories, for example, gender, which can be grouped into male and female. A
category variable can be a string variable or a numeric variable but it is
recommended that categorical variables should be numeric because strings contain
letters which cannot be numerically analysed. Therefore, rather than representing
female as ‘f’ and male as ‘m’, it is recommended as stated earlier in the chapter,
where possible, use numeric values instead of letters when coding and entering
data, e.g., use ‘1’ for female and ‘1’ for male.
Continuous measure is not restricted to specific values and is usually
measured on a continuous scale, such as distance from home to office (in km). It
will vary from individual to individual on a scale as given below.

Enter some data for the variables created in the Variable View. The Data
View grid will look something like shown below:

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NOTES

Recoding Variables
Recode is a very important feature in SPSS, which is used to convert continuous
data into discrete or category data. One can recode values within the existing
variable into a new variable.
Note: If you recode the values into the existing variable, the old values are lost. So it is
recommended to recode a variable into a new variable wherever possible, so that your
original values are retained.
Recode is available under Transform menu. There are three ways to recode
the data.
1. Recode into same variables
2. Recode into new variables
3. Automatic recode
Now suppose, the variable income is to be categorized into three income
categories based upon the below logic.
< =10000 – 1 (Low income)
>10000 - <=30000 - 2 (Middle income)
> 30000 as 3 (High income)
Go to Transform-> Recode into new variable. The variable income will be
recoded into a new variable (IncomeRe) labeled as Income Redefined which is
the Output Variable.

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Applications of Computer Click on the button Old and New Values. A window will open divided into
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two parts. Left side will be Old Value and right side shows New Value.
Since the first category is 10000, the Old Value option to be selected will
be Range, Lowest through value: 10,000. New Value is 1.
NOTES
The second category is a range >10000 and 30,000, the Old Value option
to be selected is a Range, i.e., 10,000 through 30,000. New Value is 2.
The third category is > 3000, the Old value option to be selected is Range,
value through Highest: 30,000. New Value is 3.
A snapshot of the recode screen is given below for reference. Click on
Continue and Ok.
A new variable IncomeRe will be created based upon the income variable.
Next, we need to label what are 1, 2 and 3 values. Go to Variable View and give
the labels for the new variable IncomeRe.

There are a number of specific software programs like E Views for business
forecasting and LISREL Linear Structural Relations) for structural equation
modelling. However, for most purposes, SPSS is the most widely used software.

Check Your Progress

8. What should the table title include in a report?
9. What is the usual application of area charts?
10. List the statistical analysis possible with SAS.

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14.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS in Educational Research

QUESTIONS

1. The major components of MS Office include Excel, Word, One Note and NOTES
PowerPoint.
2. Ribbon is a panel in MS Office which houses a fixed arrangement of few
icons and command buttons.
3. The options of the default commands like Save, Undo and Redo are available
on the Quick Access Tool in MS Word.
4. The alternative key command for opening an existing document on MS
Word is CTRL+O on the keyword.
5. The Proofing feature in MS Excel permits you to personalize the options for
correcting words and formats of your text.
6. Th keyboard function CTRL+F4 in MS Excel closes a workbook file.
7. The slide show function in MS PowerPoint helps in setting up the start slide
show and to record narration. It also has the option to monitor screen
resolution by providing separate views of the slide show.
8. The table title short be short and usually wold not include any verb and
articles. It only refers to the population or parameter being studied.
9. Area charts are like the line charts, usually used to demonstrate changes in
a pattern over a period of time.
10. Linear models, generalized linear models, multivariate methods, categorical
data analysis, and all the standard techniques for descriptive and confirmatory
statistical analysis are possible with SAS.

14.10 SUMMARY

 Computers are useful in various ways. With the increasing availability of

more complex and dynamic operating systems, the primary use of a
computer is only limited to the imagination and technical know-how of the
user. Everything from your cell phone, DVD player, to your TV has some
sort of microprocessor in it, giving it computer-like abilities.
 Computers are widely used for research purposes in various fields such as
follows:
o Network-attached storage (Linux distribution named FreeNAS)
o Media Server (Hewlett-Packard makes a dedicated version)
o Graphics design (Adobe is the forefront in design software)
o Architectural design (AutoCAD/CAM)
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o Gaming (computer 3D games, etc.)
o Social networking (Myspace, Facebook, Twitter)
NOTES o Knowledge sharing (WikiAnswers, Wikipedia, Lifehacker, Gizmodo,
etc.).
 To create a table, follow the given steps:
o Place the cursor on the page where you want the new table
o Click on the Insert Tab of the Ribbon
o Click on the Tables Button on the Tables Group. You can create a
table using any one of the following four ways:
– Highlight the number of row and columns
– Click on Insert Table and enter the number of rows and columns
– Click on the Draw Table, create your table by clicking and entering
the rows and columns
– Click on Quick Tables and select a table
 Microsoft Office is packed with many features. It has components such
as Excel (Spreadsheet), Word (Word processor), OneNote and
PowerPoint (for making presentations). Microsoft gives these four programs
in Home and Student Edition.
 Microsoft Office Word 2007 enables you to create formal documents by
providing a broad set of tools for crafting and formatting your documents in
a new interface. Rich productive review, remarking content with comments
and comparison capabilities help you to manage feedback from colleagues.
Significant sources of business information stay connected by advanced
and improved data integration.
 MS Excel 2007 files are referred as spreadsheets. This is a generic term,
which sometimes means a workbook (file) and sometimes means a worksheet
(a page within the file).
 MS Excel 2007 is a powerful and most extensively used tool as spreadsheet
application which allows you to store, organize and analyse numerical, graphic
and text data.
 PowerPoint helps in using charts, diagrams, pictures and animations for the
purpose of creating effective presentation slides.
 Most research studies involve some form of numerical data, and even though
one can discuss this in text, it is best represented in tabular form. The
advantage of doing this is that statistical tables present the data in a concise
and numeral form, which makes quantitative analysis and comparisons easier.

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  Similar to the summarized and succinct data in the form of tables, the data Applications of Computer
in Educational Research
can also be presented through visual representations in the form of graphs.
The visual representation of the findings in the form of lines or boxes and
bars relative to a number line is easy to comprehend and interpret. There
are some standard rules and procedures available to the researcher for this; NOTES
also there are computer programs like MS Excel and SPSS, where the
numbered data can be converted with ease into graphical form.
 Researchers have to their advantage a wide array of statistical programmes
to assist them in both data management and data analysis. In this section we
will briefly discuss only the most frequently used packages.

14.11 KEY WORDS

 MS Word: It is a MS Office component which enables users to create

formal documents.
 Spreadsheet: It is the generic term used for workbook or worksheet in
MS Excel.
 MS PowerPoint: It is used to create charts, diagrams, pictures and
animations for the purpose of creating effective presentation slides.

14.12 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. Write a short note on MS Office.
2. Briefly explain the creation of tables in MS Word.
3. What are the main features of MS PowerPoint?
4. Mention the use of SPSS and statistical software in research.
Long Answer Questions
1. Discuss the various uses of computers.
2. Explain the opening, saving, renaming and working on different documents
in MS Word.
3. Describe the myriad functions available for text editing on MS Word.
4. Discuss the major commands in MS Excel.
5. Explain the general guidelines for documentation and report making.

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Applications of Computer
in Educational Research 14.13 FURTHER READINGS

Best, J.W. and J.V. Kahn. 1989. Research in Education. New Delhi: Prentice
NOTES Hall.
Buch, M. B. 1974. A Survey of Research in Education. Baroda: CASE, M. S.
University.
Fox, D. J. 1969. The Research Process in Education. New York: Rhinehart and
Winston, Inc.
Garrett. H. E. 1988. Statistics in Psychology and Education. Bombay: Vikils,
Feiffer & Semen’s Ltd.
Guilford, J.P. and B. Fruchter. 1974. Fundamental Statistics in Psychology &
Education. New York: McGraw Hill.

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