Module VI: Foundations of

Quality, Quality Control, TQM

BY: Dr. Anupam Jain
Associate Professor ABS
Quality Management
Definition:- Quality Management ensures that an organization, product, or service is consistent
and meets customer expectations. It encompasses all activities and processes that contribute to
quality. Quality Management is the act of overseeing all activities and tasks needed to maintain a
desired level of excellence. It includes:
•Quality Planning
•Quality Assurance
•Quality Control
•Quality Improvement

Goals:- Customer satisfaction, continuous improvement, defect reduction, cost minimization, and
brand reputation.
Objectives & Scope of Work Study:-

•To determine the best method of performing operations.

•To improve the efficiency of work processes.
•To identify the most efficient method to perform a task.
•To determine the standard time required for task completion.
•To reduce unnecessary motions, delays, and inefficiencies.
•To make the method of doing operation easy.
• Helps organizations maintain competitive advantage in the market.
• Increases productivity, reduces costs, and enhances quality.
• Leads to better resource utilization and optimized work methods.
 Key Concepts of Quality

Concept Description

Degree to which a product or service meets

Quality
requirements

Conformance to Product/service meets design and performance

Requirements standards

Fitness for Use Usability and functionality for the customer

Cost of Quality (COQ) Total cost incurred to prevent poor quality

 Pillars of Quality Management

A. Quality Planning
•Identify customers and their needs
•Develop products to meet those needs
•Key Tool: QFD (Quality Function Deployment)

B. Quality Assurance (QA)

•Focuses on process
•Prevention-oriented
•Documentation (SOPs, Work Instructions)
•Internal audits, supplier audits

C. Quality Control (QC)

•Focuses on output/product
•Detection-oriented
•Inspections, sampling, control charts

D. Quality Improvement
•Continuous process optimization
•Tools: Kaizen, Six Sigma, PDCA, Benchmarking
Benefits of Quality Management

•Improved customer satisfaction

•Increased operational efficiency
•Better employee morale
•Higher profitability
•Competitive advantage through innovation and reliability
 The Foundations of Moder Quality Management: The Gurus

Guru/Thinkers Philosophy Contribution

Father of Statistical Quality

Walter Sherwhart Control Charts ,Variance Reduction
Control—Control Charts

W. Edwards
Statistical thinking 14 Points, PDCA Cycle
Deming

Joseph M. Juran Strategic planning Quality Trilogy, Quality is Fitness-for-use

Philip B. Crosby Zero defects "Quality is Free", Cost of Quality

Kaoru Ishikawa Teamwork, tools Fishbone diagram, QC Circles

Armand
Total quality control Company-wide Quality
Feigenbaum
 Types of Quality Costs:-

Quality costs are typically classified into four main categories:-

Appraisal Costs:-

Purpose: To detect and measure defects before the product reaches the customer. These are inspection and
verification costs to ensure products/services meet standards.
Examples:
• Incoming material inspection In-process and final product testing
• Calibration of testing equipment Quality audits
• Field testing and lab trials

Prevention Costs:-

Purpose: To prevent defects before they occur. These are proactive investments in building quality into
processes, systems, and products.
Examples:
•Quality training for employees Quality planning and systems development
•Process improvement initiatives Preventive maintenance
•Supplier evaluation and certification Design reviews and FMEA (Failure Mode and Effects
Analysis)
Internal Failure Costs:-

Purpose: Costs resulting from defects detected before delivery to the customer. These are incurred when
problems are caught during production.
Examples:
•Scrap and rework Machine downtime due to quality problems
•Re-inspection and retesting Yield losses
•Delays in production due to errors

External Failure Costs:-

Purpose: Costs incurred when defects are found after delivery to the customer. These are the most
expensive and reputationally damaging.
Examples:
•Product returns or recalls Warranty claims
•Customer complaints handling Lost sales or customer goodwill
•Legal actions or penalties
 Total Quality Management (TQM)

Definition: A management approach focused on long-term success through customer satisfaction,

involving all members of the organization.
Principles:
•Customer-focused
•Total employee involvement
•Process-centered
•Integrated system
•Strategic and systematic approach
•Continual improvement
•Fact-based decision-making
•Communication
 Problem-Solving & Process Improvement in Quality Management

Problem-solving in quality management involves identifying the root cause of a problem, analyzing data,
and implementing corrective and preventive actions to avoid recurrence.
Process improvement focuses on making systematic changes to processes to enhance efficiency, quality,
and customer satisfaction.

Key Steps in Problem-Solving (Quality Focused)

Step Description
1. Problem
Recognize and define the issue clearly.
Identification

2. Data Collection Use tools like Check Sheets, Surveys, or Logs.

3. Root Cause Analysis Tools: Fishbone Diagram, 5 Whys, Pareto Chart

4. Solution Generation Brainstorming, benchmarking, creative thinking

5. Action Planning Prioritize and assign corrective actions

6. Implementation Deploy changes and ensure communication

7. Follow-up &
Monitor results and standardize if successful
Evaluation
 Common Process Improvement Frameworks

Framework Description
PDCA Cycle (Deming Plan → Do → Check → Act – A loop for continuous
Cycle) improvement
Define → Measure → Analyze → Improve → Control – Data-
DMAIC (Six Sigma)
driven improvement
Kaizen Small, continuous improvements involving all employees
Lean Focus on eliminating waste and increasing value
BPR (Business Process
Radical redesign of processes for breakthrough improvement
Reengineering)
 Methods for Generating Ideas for Quality Management

1. Brainstorming
•What it is: A group technique where participants freely suggest ideas without criticism.
•When to use: Early stages of problem-solving or process improvement.
•Goal: Quantity of ideas over quality — refine later.
Tip: Use a whiteboard or sticky notes for visual clustering.

2. 5 Whys Technique
•What it is: Repeatedly asking "Why?" (typically five times) to drill down to the root cause of a problem.
•When to use: Problem-solving and root cause analysis.
•Goal: Generate insights that lead to deeper, more targeted ideas.
Great for quality management and operational issues.

3. Benchmarking
•What it is: Studying the best practices of other organizations or industries.
•When to use: Seeking innovative ideas or performance standards.
•Goal: Learn and adapt successful strategies/processes.
Encourages external thinking and cross-industry innovation.

4. Mind Mapping
•What it is: Visual diagram that starts with a central idea and branches into related topics.
•When to use: Exploring all aspects of a problem, strategy, or theme.
•Goal: Unlock hidden connections and inspire creative links.
Ideal for group ideation and planning.
 Quality Tools

These tools were popularized by Kaoru Ishikawa, and are widely used in Total Quality Management
(TQM), Six Sigma, and ISO 9001 implementations.

1. Cause and Effect Diagram (Ishikawa / Fishbone Diagram)

•Purpose: Identify root causes of a problem.
•Structure: Looks like a fish skeleton — main spine (problem), branches (causes).
•Categories: Often the 6Ms — Man, Machine, Material, Method, Measurement, Mother Nature (environment).
Great for brainstorming and visualizing potential causes.

2. Check Sheet
•Purpose: Collect real-time data in a structured, simple format.
•Use: Tallying occurrences of events, defects, or errors.
•Example: Recording types of defects found in a manufacturing process.
Helps identify patterns and is the first step in data collection.
3. Control Chart
•Purpose: Monitor process variation over time.
•Key Elements: Upper Control Limit (UCL), Lower Control Limit (LCL), and average line.
•Use: Determine if a process is stable or has special cause variation.
Vital for statistical process control (SPC).

4. Histogram
•Purpose: Show the distribution of data.
•Use: Identify the frequency and spread of a variable (e.g., delivery time, weight).
•Shape: Can reveal if data is skewed, normal, bimodal, etc.
Useful for visualizing variation and detecting outliers.

5. Pareto Chart
•Purpose: Identify the most significant problems using the 80/20 rule.
•Structure: Bar graph + cumulative line graph.
•Use: Focus improvement efforts on the biggest contributors to defects.
“Vital few vs trivial many.”
6. Scatter Diagram
•Purpose: Show relationship between two variables (correlation).
•Use: Analyze cause-effect patterns (e.g., temperature vs defect rate).
•Types: Positive, negative, or no correlation.
Great for identifying possible cause-effect relationships.

7. Flowchart (Process Mapping)

•Purpose: Visualize the steps in a process.
•Use: Understand how a process flows and identify inefficiencies or bottlenecks.
•Shapes: Standard symbols (rectangle = process, diamond = decision, etc.).
Useful in process redesign and documentation.
 QUALITY AWARDS

Quality awards are formal recognitions given to organizations that demonstrate excellence in quality management,
customer focus, continuous improvement, and innovation. These awards are often benchmarks for best practices in quality
and operational excellence.
1. Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award (MBNQA) – USA
Established: 1987 by the U.S. Congress
Managed by: National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
Purpose:
Recognizes U.S. organizations for performance excellence based on a comprehensive management framework.
Assessment Areas:- Leadership, Strategy, Customers, Measurement, Analysis & Knowledge Management, Workforce,
Operations

2. Deming Prize – Japan

Established: 1951 by the Japanese Union of Scientists and Engineers (JUSE)

Named after: W. Edwards Deming
Purpose:-Promotes Total Quality Management (TQM) implementation and honors companies for long-term commitment
to quality.
Assessment Areas:- Policies, Organization-wide quality deployment, Daily management, Continuous improvement
3. EFQM Global Excellence Award – Europe
Established: 1992 by the European Foundation for Quality Management
Purpose:-Recognizes world-class organizations that demonstrate sustainable excellence through the EFQM
Model.
Assessment Areas:- Customer value creation, Agile leadership, Organizational learning, Results orientation.

4. CII-EXIM Bank Award for Business Excellence – India

Organized by: Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) with EXIM Bank

Based on: EFQM Excellence Model
Purpose:-To recognize Indian organizations demonstrating excellence in quality management and
performance.
Assessment Areas:- Leadership, Strategy, People, Partnerships & Resources, Processes
 Benefits of Winning Quality Awards
•Recognition and prestige
•Benchmarking against global standards
•Motivation for employees
•Customer trust and loyalty
•Enhanced operational performance
•Competitive advantage
 QUALITY CERTIFICATION
Feature / Aspect ISO 9000 Series ISO 14000 Series ISO 24700
Quality Management System Environmental Management Quality and performance of reused
Main Focus
(QMS) System (EMS) office equipment
Define quality principles, terms,
Help organizations reduce Ensure reused office equipment is
Purpose
and frameworks environmental impact safe, reliable, and eco-friendly
ISO 14001 (requirements for ISO 24700 (product standard for
Core Standard ISO 9001 (requirements for QMS)
EMS) reused equipment)
International Organization for
Issued By ISO ISO
Standardization (ISO)

All types of organizations across All types of organizations in Manufacturers and remanufacturers
Applicability
industries all sectors of office equipment

Customer satisfaction, process Environmental policy, legal

Product reuse, safety, functionality,
Key Concepts approach, continual compliance, pollution
performance equivalency
improvement prevention
Product/service quality, internal Environmental sustainability, Sustainability and circular economy
Impact Area
process efficiency compliance, reputation in office tech sector
Customers, employees, Environment, regulators, Consumers of refurbished/reused
Primary Beneficiaries
management communities equipment
Improvement Process efficiency, customer Waste reduction, resource Reuse over disposal, reduced
Emphasis satisfaction conservation carbon footprint
Example Hospitals, manufacturers, IT firms, Chemical companies, Companies refurbishing printers,
Organizations universities energy firms, logistics copiers, scanners, etc.
1987 (ISO 9000); latest ISO 1996 (ISO 14000); latest ISO
Year First Published 2006
9001:2015 14001:2015
External and internal audits (for Environmental audits and Product testing, quality evaluation,
Audit & Assessment
certification) compliance monitoring customer information
 Real-world Case Examples of Quality Management

Company Approach Key Results

Toyota TQM, Kaizen Global manufacturing excellence
McDonald’s Process standardization Uniform quality worldwide
Amazon Six Sigma, VOC High efficiency and customer loyalty
Apollo Hospitals ISO 9001, NABH Safe, high-quality healthcare
Tata Motors ISO/TS 16949 Product quality and global reach
 Questions for Practice

1. What is benchmarking in quality management?

2. What are the dimensions of service & product quality?
3. List any three benefits of ISO 9001 certification.
4. Define Quality Assurance vs. Quality Control.
5. What is a control chart used for?
6. Who are the “Gurus” of Quality Management? Name any two and their contributions.
7. What are the key principles of Total Quality Management (TQM)? Explain with examples.
[Link] and contrast ISO 9001 and Six Sigma as quality management frameworks.
[Link] the Cost of Quality. What are its four components? How can it influence strategic
decisions?
[Link] the PDCA (Plan-Do-Check-Act) Cycle. How is it used in continuous
improvement?
[Link] the steps of problem solving.
[Link] the steps of process improvement.
Process Quality Improvement
 Process Quality Improvement

Process quality focuses on the ability of a business process to produce consistent and defect-
free outcomes. It plays a critical role in operations management, ensuring that inputs are
transformed into outputs efficiently and effectively. Process quality improvement refers to the
systematic approach of identifying, analyzing, and enhancing existing business processes to
achieve better performance, reduce variability, and enhance customer satisfaction.

Quality assurance that relies primarily on inspection of lots (batches) of previously produced
items is referred to as acceptance sampling. It is a process that evaluates output relative to a
standard and takes corrective action when output doesn’t meet standards.
 Approaches to Quality Assurance

Incpection and corrective Quality built into the

Inspection
action during production process

Inspection alone
Process Control Continuous Improvement

The Least Progressive The Most Progressive

Term Description

A set of interrelated activities that

Process
transform inputs into outputs

Degree to which a set of

Quality
characteristics fulfills requirements

Positive change to increase

Improvement
effectiveness and efficiency
Objectives of Process Quality Improvement
• Improve consistency and predictability in processes
• Reduce defects and errors
• Enhance customer satisfaction
• Lower operational costs
• Foster a culture of continuous improvement

Where to Inspect in the Process

• Raw materials and purchased parts

• Finished products
• Before a costly operation
• Before an irreversible process
• Before a covering process
 Steps in Process Quality Improvement

[Link] and Define the Process

1. Understand current performance and scope.
[Link] Performance
1. Use metrics like defect rate, cycle time, throughput, etc.
[Link] Process
1. Find inefficiencies, bottlenecks, and causes of defects.
[Link] Improvements
1. Redesign steps, automate tasks, retrain staff, or remove waste.
[Link] and Monitor
1. Use SPC (Statistical Process Control) to ensure sustained performance.
[Link] and Document
1. Update SOPs and train staff on new processes.
 Statistical Process Control (SPC)

Statistical Process Control (SPC) is the use of statistical methods and tools to monitor, control, and

improve a process. It helps identify and eliminate causes of variation, ensuring the process operates at

its maximum potential.

Benefits of SPC

•Early detection of quality problems

•Prevents defects rather than detecting later

•Data-driven decisions

•Enhances customer satisfaction

•Reduces waste and operational cost

Types of Process Variation

Type Description
Natural or inherent to the process;
Common Cause Variation
random
Due to identifiable factors like
Special Cause Variation machine faults or operator error;
needs correction

Components of SPC
1. Control Charts
2. Process Capability Analysis
3. Sampling Plans
4. Descriptive Statistics (Mean, Range, SD)
 Control Charts (Most Important SPC Tool)
Control charts are graphical tools that help monitor process behavior over time.
Basic Elements of a Control Chart
•Center Line (CL): Mean of the data
•Upper Control Limit (UCL): +3 standard deviations from mean
•Lower Control Limit (LCL): -3 standard deviations from mean

Chart Type Data Type Used For

X̄ (X-bar) Chart Continuous Mean of subgroups
R (Range) Chart Continuous Dispersion within subgroups

p Chart Attribute Proportion of defective units

Number of defectives in a
np Chart Attribute
sample
c Chart Attribute Count of defects per unit
Defects per unit with
u Chart Attribute
variable sample size
 Process Capability

Process Capability:- The inherent variability of process output relative to the design specification. It refers to a
process’s ability to produce output within specification limits. The process capability analysis is performed on a
process that is in control for the purpose of determining if the range of variation is within design specification that
would make the output acceptable for its intended use.

Key Terms:
•Cp: Capability index (ignores process centering)
•Cpk: Capability index considering centering

Formula:-
Cp= USL−LSL Cpk=min(USL−μ, μ−LSL)
6σ 3σ 3σ

USL = Upper Specification Limit

LSL = Lower Specification Limit
σ = Standard deviation
μ = Process mean
 Interpretation of Cp and Cpk Values

Cp / Cpk Value Interpretation

< 1.0 Process is not capable
= 1.0 Barely capable, meets specs but with high risk
≥ 1.33 Capable process (industry standard minimum)
≥ 1.67 Highly capable
≥ 2.0 World-class performance

Benefits of Measuring Process Capability

•Identifies weaknesses in the process
•Helps set realistic improvement goals
•Supports data-driven decision-making
•Useful for supplier qualification and benchmarking
 Acceptance Sampling for Process Quality Improvement

Acceptance Sampling is a statistical quality control method used to decide whether to accept or reject a
batch (lot) of products based on a sample taken from it. It is a quality control technique where a random
sample from a lot is inspected, and based on the number of defects found, the lot is either accepted or
rejected.

Purpose of Acceptance Sampling

•To minimize inspection costs
•To balance risk between producer and consumer
•To ensure acceptable quality level (AQL)
•Useful when:
• 100% inspection is not feasible or economical
• Destructive testing is used
• Large quantities are produced
 Types of Acceptance Sampling Plans

Type Description
Single Sampling Plan One sample is taken and decision made based on it
Two samples may be taken before making a final
Double Sampling Plan
decision
Multiple Sampling Plan Several samples taken sequentially to decide
Sequential Sampling Plan Decision made after each item is inspected

Acceptance sampling is a practical tool in quality control that allows firms to make
statistically informed decisions about product lots without inspecting every item. It
plays a crucial role in reducing inspection costs, while maintaining a balance
between quality assurance and efficiency.
 Steps in Acceptance Sampling
[Link] the lot to be inspected.
[Link] the sample size (n) and acceptance number (c).
[Link] select items from the lot.
[Link] the items for defects.
[Link]:
1. If defectives ≤ c → Accept the lot
2. If defectives > c → Reject the lot

Applications of Acceptance Sampling

•Manufacturing industries
•Pharmaceuticals for drug testing
•Food processing
•Electronics & automotive component inspection
 Six Sigma for Process Improvement

Six Sigma is a quality improvement methodology aimed at process improvement through statistical
analysis and data-driven decision-making. It focuses on eliminating defects, reducing process variation,
and improving overall process quality.

Key Features of Six Sigma

Feature Description

Customer-Centric Focus on meeting or exceeding customer expectations

Data-Driven Uses facts, data, and statistical tools

Proactive Approach Prevents defects rather than correcting them later

Structured Methodology Follows step-by-step improvement models

Continuous Improvement Promotes a culture of ongoing process enhancement

Process Improvement Through Six Sigma
Benefits:
•Reduced defect rates
•Enhanced productivity
•Better customer satisfaction
•Lower costs due to waste reduction
•Improved process control and predictability

Steps for Process Improvement:

[Link] problem areas using data
[Link] DMAIC to analyze and solve the problem
[Link] solutions with statistical validation
[Link] control tools to sustain the improvement
 Six Sigma Methodologies

DMAIC DMADV
Phase Purpose Phase Purpose

Identify the problem, project

Define project goals and
Define goals, and customer Define
customer needs
requirements

Collect data on current Identify CTQs (Critical to

Measure Measure
performance Quality) and risks

Find root causes of defects or

Analyze Analyze Develop design alternatives
inefficiencies

Develop and implement Create the best possible

Improve Design
solutions design

Standardize and sustain Test and validate the design

Control Verify
improvements performance
 Product Quality Improvement

Product Quality refers to how well a product meets customer requirements, specifications, and
expectations in terms of performance, reliability, durability, and features. Product quality is the
degree to which a product or service satisfies the needs and expectations of customers.

Product Quality Improvement is the systematic effort to enhance the

quality of products by:
•Identifying defects or gaps
•Analyzing root causes
•Implementing corrective actions
•Ensuring continuous improvement
 Dimensions of Product Quality (As per Garvin)

Dimension Description

Performance How well the product performs its intended function

Features Additional characteristics that enhance appeal

Reliability Likelihood of the product operating without failure

Conformance Degree to which the product meets standards/specifications

Durability Product lifespan under normal conditions

Serviceability Ease and speed of repair

Aesthetics Look, feel, and sensory appeal

Perceived Quality Customer’s perception of quality, including brand image

Product quality improvement is a critical function in modern business that enhances

customer satisfaction, reduces costs, and builds competitive advantage.
 Key Approaches to Product Quality Improvement

1. Total Quality Management (TQM)

•Organization-wide commitment to continuous quality improvement.
•Focuses on customer satisfaction and employee involvement.
2. Six Sigma
•Data-driven methodology to reduce defects and variability.
•Uses DMAIC for process and product improvement.
3. Kaizen (Continuous Improvement)
•Small, incremental improvements by everyone, every day.
4. PDCA Cycle (Deming Cycle)
•Plan → Do → Check → Act: A continuous loop for quality improvement.
5. Quality Function Deployment (QFD)
•Translates customer requirements into engineering specifications.
 Robust Design and Taguchi Method

Robust Design is a quality engineering approach focused on making products and processes insensitive
to variations (noise factors), thereby improving performance consistency and reliability. Reduce variation
without eliminating the cause of the variation, by designing products that perform consistently under
varying conditions.

Importance of Robust Design

•Improves product quality and reliability
•Enhances customer satisfaction
•Reduces costs related to failure, rework, and warranty claims
•Increases process stability and performance
The Taguchi Method, developed by Dr. Genichi Taguchi, is a statistical approach to design of
experiments (DOE) aimed at improving quality by:
•Designing robust systems
•Reducing variability
•Optimizing performance
It helps identify the best combination of design parameters (factors) that will minimize variation due
to uncontrollable factors (noise). The Taguchi Method is a powerful tool for achieving robust design by
minimizing the effect of noise factors and optimizing product and process parameters.
 Kaizen in Total Quality Management
(TQM)
Meaning:

Kaizen is a Japanese term that means “continuous

improvement.” In the context of Total Quality Management
(TQM), Kaizen refers to the continuous, incremental
improvement of processes, products, and services through
the involvement of all employees — from top management
to frontline workers.

In essence, Kaizen is the heart of TQM—it transforms quality

from being a management-driven goal to a company-wide
culture of continuous improvement and customer
satisfaction.
Key Features of Kaizen in TQM:

[Link] Improvement:
Kaizen emphasizes small, regular improvements rather than large, one-time changes.

[Link] Involvement:
Every employee is encouraged to identify problems and suggest improvements in their
work area.
[Link]:
Once improvements are achieved, new processes are standardized to maintain quality
consistency.
[Link] Reduction:
Kaizen aims to eliminate all forms of waste (known as muda) — time, material, motion,
and resources that do not add value.
[Link] Focus:
Every improvement ultimately aims to enhance customer satisfaction and product/service
quality.
[Link] and Discipline:
Cross-functional teams and quality circles are formed to discuss problems and suggest
solutions collaboratively.
Kaizen Process in TQM:

Identify the problem or area of improvement.

Analyze the current situation using tools like flowcharts or cause-and-effect

diagrams.

Develop and test possible solutions.

Implement the best solution.

Evaluate results and standardize the improved process.

Benefits of Kaizen in TQM:

Improves efficiency and quality.

Increases employee morale and participation.

Reduces operational costs and waste.

Promotes a culture of continuous learning and innovation.