Ch-6 life Processes

Why viruses are not considered living?

The viruses do not show any molecular movement until they infect a cell. Thus, there is a controversy about
them being truly alive or not.

Why are molecular movements necessary?

Due to the effects of the environment, the organized and ordered nature of living is very likely to break over
time and the organism will no longer be alive. So that’s why, the living must keep repairing and maintaining
their structure and since these structures are made up molecules, they must move all the time. Therefore,
molecular movement is necessary.

What criteria can be used to decide if something is alive?

Visible movements like growth are not common evidence of being alive. Even some animals can breathe
without visible movement. So, to define the characteristic of life, visible movement is not enough. Hence,
the presence of life processes (invisible movement) is the fundamental criteria to decide whether
something is alive.

6.1 WHAT ARE LIFE PROCESSES?

What are life processes?
The processes which together perform the maintenance job and are important for survival are called life
processes. The basic life processes are – nutrition, respiration, transportation/circulation and
excretion.

Why are most of the food resources carbon based? OR Why do different organisms have different
mode of nutrition?
The life on Earth depends upon the carbon-based molecules and most of the food sources are also carbon
based. That’s why depending upon the complexity of the of the carbon sources, different organism use
different kinds of nutritional processes.

What is the importance of nutrition? OR What is the importance of digestive system?

The outside sources of energy can vary, and since the environment is not under the control of an individual
organism. These sources of energy thus need to be broken down or built up in the body and finally be
converted to a uniform source of energy that can be used for various molecular movements.

Which reactions are some of the most common means to break down molecules?
Oxidizing-reducing reactions (Many organisms use oxygen sourced outside for this reaction)

Why is diffusion insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements of multicellular organisms like
humans? OR What is the importance of respiratory system in multicellular organism?
In multi-cellular organisms, all the cells may not be in direct contact with the surrounding environment.
Thus, simple diffusion will not meet the requirements of all the cells and respiratory system is required.

Single celled organisms do not need organs to carry out different processes such as taking in food, exchange
of gases etc because the entire surface of the organism is in direct contact with the environment.

What are outside raw materials used for by an organism?

Organic (Food, starch etc) and Inorganic (Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide etc)

6.2 NUTRITION
What is Nutrition? The process of transfer of a source of energy (food) from outside the body of an
organism to the inside to utilize the energy for the maintenance of our body is called nutrition.

Why do we need energy? Energy is required to maintain the state of order in our body and to grow, develop
and synthesize protein and other substances.
What are nutrients?
The Materials which provide nutrition to organisms are called nutrients. Carbohydrates, proteins and fats
are the main nutrients and are called macronutrients. Minerals and vitamins are required in small amounts
and hence are called micronutrients.

What are enzymes? Enzymes are bio-catalysts which helps to break down certain substances.

6.2.1 Autotrophic Nutrition

What are the two modes of nutrition? Autotrophic and heterotrophic

Define Autotrophic mode of nutrition

The mode of nutrition in which an organism prepares its own food using inorganic materials like CO2,
water etc, in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll (photosynthesis) is called Autotrophic mode of
nutrition.
The organisms which carry out autotrophic nutrition are called autotrophs like all green plants and some
bacteria. Autotrophs are on the producer level.

Define Photosynthesis. Write a balanced equation for it and Give Three important events involved.
Photosynthesis is the process by which autotrophs prepare food using CO2 and water in the presence of
sunlight and chlorophyll and convert them into stored forms of energy.
The food prepared is carbohydrates which is stored in the form of starch. Oxygen is released in this
process.

(The food we eat is stored in the form of Glycogen and fungi)

The following events occur during this process –

 Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll
 Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into hydrogen
and oxygen.
 Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.

Why is photosynthesis important?
 Photosynthesis is the main way through which solar energy is made available for different living
beings.
 Green plants are the main producers of food in the ecosystem. All other organisms directly or
indirectly depend on green plants for food.
 The process of photosynthesis also helps in maintaining the balance of carbon dioxide and oxygen in
the air.

What are the raw materials used for photosynthesis?
 Sunlight
 Chlorophyll: Sunlight absorbed by chloroplast
 CO2
 Water + dissolved minerals like nitrogen, phosphorous etc.
How do raw materials for photosynthesis become available to the plant?
 The water is taken up from soil by the xylem tissue present in the roots in the terrestrial plants.
 Nitrogen, Phosphorus, iron and magnesium are also taken up from the soil.
 Carbon dioxide comes in the leaves through stomata.

What is the importance of Nitrogen in plants and how is it taken up?

Nitrogen is an important element that is used in the synthesis of proteins and other compounds. It is taken
up in the form of inorganic nitrates/nitrites or as organic compounds prepared by bacteria from
atmospheric nitrogen.

How do the desert plants conserve water during photosynthesis?

Desert plants take up carbon dioxide at night and prepare an intermediate which is acted upon by the
energy absorbed by the chlorophyll during the day.
What is Chlorophyll and Chloroplasts?
Chlorophyll are the green pigments present in the leaves. If we observe a cross section of a leaf under a
microscope, we can see cells containing green dot like structures called chloroplasts which contain the
chlorophyll. Chloroplast is the site where food is made.

What is stomata?
Stomata are tiny pores present in the epidermis of leaf or stem through which gaseous exchange and
transpiration occur. The plant obtains carbon dioxide from stomata

What is the function of stomata?

1) Gaseous Exchange – Exchange of Co2 and O2 by closing and opening of the stomata pores.
2) Transpiration - Removal of excess of water in the form of water vapour.

Explain the mechanism of stomata

The opening and closing of the pore is a function of the guard cells.
 Opening of stomata -When water flows into the guard cells, the cells becomes turgid and swells
causing the stomatal pore to open.
 Closing of Stomata- When excess of water is evaporated in the cell. It becomes flaccid (shrinks)
causing the stomatal pore to close
Activity 6.1- To prove chlorophyll is imp for photosynthesis
1) Take a plant and keep it in a dark room for three days so all the starch is used up.
2) Keep the plant in sunlight for 6 hours and then pluck a leaf and mark the green areas and trace them on
paper.
3) Then, Dip the leaf in boiling water for few min and after this, submerge the leaf in a beaker containing
alcohol and heat until it begins to boil.
What happens to the colour of the leaf and what is the colour of the solution?
The leaf becomes colorless and chlorophyll is dissolved in alcohol which turns green.
4) Dip, the leaf in a dilute solution of iodine for few min
What is the colour of the leaf now and compare it with the tracing of the leaf done before?
The green areas of leaf turns dark blue and it indicates the presence of starch as the colorless part of
the leaf shows no formation of starch
Conclusion: The blue colour in green areas indicates presence of starch and the colorless part of leaf
shows no formation of starch

Activity 6.2- To prove CO2 is imp for photosynthesis

1) Take two plants of the same size and keep them in a dark room for three days.
2) Now, place each plant on separate glass plates and place a watch glass containing potassium hydroxide
by the side of one plant. (The Potassium hydroxide is used to absorb CO2 )
3) Use Vaseline to seal the bottom of jars so that set up is air tight.
4) Keep the plant in sunlight for 2 hours and pluck a leaf from both plants and check for the presence of
starch.
Do both leaves show presence of starch? No, both the leaves don’t show the same amount of starch
as both got different amount of CO2 due to the presence of KOH.
Conclusion: The amount of CO2 affects the process of photosynthesis

Activity 6.A- To prove sunlight is imp for photosynthesis

1) Take a plant and leave it in a dark room for 3 days so all starch is used.
2) Cover a part of leaf with black paper and keep the plant in sunlight.
3) Now, pluck the lead and bleach it by boiling and then submerging in alcohol.
4) Perform a starch test by using iodine.
Obs: The part of the leaf exposed to sunlight will be able to perform photosynthesis and form starch
while the part of the leaf covered with paper will not be able to perform photosynthesis and thus
starch will be absent.

6.2.2 Heterotrophic Nutrition

Define Heterotrophic nutrition. What are its types and explain them
The mode of nutrition in which an organism takes food from another organism is called heterotrophic
nutrition. The organisms which carry out Heterotrophic nutrition are called heterotrophs like animals and
fungi. The survival of heterotrophs depends directly or indirectly on autotrophs. Heterotrophs are on the
consumer level.
Heterotrophic nutrition can be further divided into three types-- saprophytic nutrition, holozoic
nutrition, and parasitic.
Saprophytic nutrition is the nutrition in which an organism breaks down the food material outside their
body and then absorbs it. Organisms that follow this nutrition are known as saprophytes. All the
decomposers follow saprophytic nutrition. Examples are fungi like mushroom, bread moulds, yeast.
Holozoic nutrition is the nutrition in which organisms take food directly and break it down inside their
body .The digestion happens inside the body of the organism. i.e., after the food is ingested. . Examples are
amoeba, paramecium, birds, fishes, humans. Organisms that follow this nutrition are holozoic.
Parasitic nutrition is the nutrition in which organisms derive nutrition from plants or animals (host)
without killing them. Examples are cuscuta (amar-bel), orchids, ticks, lice, leeches, round worm, tape worm,
plasmodium.
6.2.3 How do organisms obtain their nutrition?
Explain Nutrition in Amoeba
Amoeba is a unicellular organism that have specialized organs to carry out nutrition. The mode of nutrition
in Amoeba is holozoic. Its takes place with help of pseudopia (finger like projections)
Holozoic nutrition takes four steps—Ingestion, digestion, absorption/assimilation and egestion.
Ingestion- The pseudopia engulfs the food that comes in contact with the cell surface and forms a food
vacuole.
Digestion- It is intracellular (takes place inside the cell) in terms of Amoeba. Inside the vacuole, complex
food is broken down into small soluble molecules
Absorption/Assimilation- The soluble molecules are then readily absorbed by the cytoplasm. It is further
assimilated to use energy for growth.
Egestion – The undigested food material is then removed by the cell membrane which ruptures at any
place and eliminates the digested food.

Paramecium is a unicellular organism. The cell has a definite shape and food is taken in at a specific spot.
The food gets tangled in cilia and enters the food spot. Cilia cover the entire surface of cell.

6.2.4 Nutrition in Human Beings

Activity 6.3
1) Take 1 mL starch solution (1%) in two test tubes (A and B).
2) Add 1 mL saliva to test tube A and leave both test tubes undisturbed for 20-30 minutes.
3) Now add a few drops of dilute iodine solution to the test tubes.
In which test tube do you observe a colour change? Test Tube B
What does this indicate about the presence or absence of starch in the two test tubes? Test Tube A
does not contain starch but Test tube B does.
What does this tell us about the action of saliva on starch? On the addition of saliva in starch
solution, the starch gets converted into other products like maltose sugar.

Human beings are omnivorous animals that have a complex digestive system. It involves alimentary canal
and digestive enzymes.

What are the parts of the alimentary canal? The alimentary canal is divided into several parts, like
oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Salivary gland, liver and pancreas
are the accessory glands which lie outside the alimentary canal.

What are the events involved in Human nutrition?

Ingestion –It is the intake of solid or liquid food through the mouth. (Ingestion is part of holozoic nutrition)
Digestion- It is the process of breakdown of complex food substances into simple substances.
Absorption- It is the process of the absorption of digested food (nutrients)
Assimilation- It is the process of utilization of absorbed food for the purpose of growth and repair.
Egestion- It is the process of removing the undigested food from the body.

What is alimentary canal? The alimentary canal is a long tube which extends from the mouth to the anus.
Mouth
Mouth or buccal cavity is the opening of the alimentary canal and helps in the ingestion of food. The
dental formula in adult humans is 2:1:2:3. The saliva is a fluid that is secreted by the salivary glands.
The saliva has an enzyme called salivary amylase or ptyalin which breaks down starch to simple
sugar. The saliva helps the food become moist which makes it easy to swallow the food.

What is peristalsis?
Rhythmic contraction and relaxation of muscles of the lining of the alimentary canal which is used to push
the food downwards is called peristalsis which occurs along the gut.

Oesophagus
Oesophagus is a muscular tube which Is 25 cm long. The swallowed food is taken to the stomach through
this food pipe by the peristaltic movement.

What is Epiglottis?
It is a flap or a leaf structure that is present in pharynx. It covers the windpipe during the swallowing of
food so that the food will move to the oesophagus only without choking.

Stomach
The stomach is a large bag like organ which expands when food enters it. The muscular walls of the
stomach help in mixing the food thoroughly with more digestive juices.
Stomach contains gastric glands that secrete gastric juice. This gastric juice contains 3 enzymes
which are Hydrochloric acid (HCL), pepsin and mucus.
HCL creates an acidic medium for pepsin and also kills the germs in food.
Pepsin is a protein digesting enzyme and converts proteins into simple proteins (peptides)
Mucus protects the inner lining of stomach from HCL
The food exits the stomach by the sphincter muscle that releases small amount of food into the small
intestine.

Why is acidity caused? Acidity occurs when the gastric glands in the stomach produce an overabundance of
the HCL acid. It damages the inner lining of the stomach and causes a burning effect.

Small Intestine
Small Intestine is a highly coiled tube-like structure and the longest part of the alimentary canal.
It is the site for complete digestion of proteins, fats and carbohydrates.
Bile juice is secreted from the liver and provides an alkaline medium for the pancreatic enzymes. It
also helps in the emulsification of the fats/lipids. The excess of bile juice is stored in gall bladder. It
breaks the fats in the form of larger globules to smaller globules.
Pancreatic juice is secreted by the pancreas (largest gland in the body). The pancreatic juice
contains 3 enzymes- trypsin, lipase and pancreatic amylase.
Trypsin converts peptides (proteins) into amino acids.
Lipase converts lipids/fats into fatty acids and glycerol
Pancreatic amylase converts simple sugar into glucose.

Small Intestine is made up of 3 main parts – duodenum, jejunum, Ileum

Duodenum- It receives secretions from liver and pancreas. It has intestinal glands that secrete intestinal
Amylase, Proteases and Intestinal Lipase
Intestinal Amylase converts Carbohydrates to glucose
Proteases convert protein to amino acids.
Intestinal Lipase converts fats into Fatty acid & Glycerol.
Jejunum- It has villi that increases the surface area for absorption
Ileum- Absorption of vitamins and minerals takes place here.

What is Villi? The inner lining of the small intestine has numerous fingers like projections called villi that
increase the surface area for better absorption.
The unabsorbed food is sent to large intestine where absorption of water and mineral also takes place and
rest of the material is removed from the body through anus/rectium. The exit of waste material is regulated
by anal sphincter.
Why does the length of small intestine differ in various animals?
The length of the small intestine depends on the food the animals eat. Like, Herbivores eat grass and thus
require a longer small intestine so that the cellulose can be digested. While, the carnivores eat meet which is
easier to digest. Thus they have a shorter small intestine.

Why does absorption occur in small intestine?

 Small intestine is the site of complete digestion.
 The inner lining of the small intestine has hair like projections called villi that increases the surface
area for better absorption.
 The walls of the small intestine are richly supplied with blood vessels that take the absorbed food to
all the cells.
 It has thin membrane that helps in easy exchange of materials.

How is the small intestine designed to maximize absorption?
 Villi – The inner lining of the small intestine has hair like projections called villi that increases the
surface area for better absorption.
 Supplied with blood vessels- The walls of the small intestine are richly supplied with blood vessels
that take the absorbed food to all the cells
 Thin Membrane- Small intestine has thin membrane which easens the exchange of materials.

How is carbohydrates digested?

1) Buccal cavity
An enzyme called salivary amylase is present in the saliva which converts starch into simple sugars.
Starch Salivary Amylase Simple sugars
2) Small Intestine
The intestinal amylase secreted by the small intestine and pancreatic amylase secreted by the
pancreas convert the simple sugars into glucose.
Simple sugars Intestinal Amylase Glucose
Pancreatic Amylase

How is proteins digested?

1) Stomach
An enzyme called pepsin in the presence of HCL acts on the proteins and convert them into peptides.
Proteins Pepsin and HCL Peptides
2) Small intestine
The pancreatic enzyme, Trypsin comes into activation due to the alkaline medium provided by bile
juice and proteases secreted by small intestine acts upon peptides and protease to form amino acids.
Peptides +Protease Trypsin Amino acids
(Alkaline medium)
Proteases
How are fats digested?
1) Liver
Fats are converted from large globules to small globules by the emulsification from Bile Juice.
Large Globules Emulsification Small Globules
(Bile Juice)
2) Small Intestine
The small globules are then converted into fatty acids & glycerol by the action of intestinal lipase secreted
by intestinal glands and pancreatic lipase secreted by pancreas.
Small Globules Intestinal Lipase Fatty acids & Glycerol
Pancreatic lipase
6.3 Respiration
Activity 6.4
1) Take freshly prepared lime water in a test tube and blow air through the lime water
How long it takes for this lime water to turn milky? It immediately turns lime water milky
2) Use a syringe to pass air through some fresh lime water taken in another test tub
How long it takes for this lime water to turn milky? It takes much time to turn the lime water milky
What does this tell us about the amount of carbon dioxide in the air that we breathe out?
It shows that breath out air contains more CO2 as compared to atmospheric air.

Activity 6.5
Take some fruit juice or sugar solution and add some yeast to this.
Take this mixture in a test tube fitted with a one-holed cork. Fit the cork with a bent glass tube.
Dip the free end of the glass tube into a test tube containing freshly prepared lime water.
What change is observed in the lime water and how long does it take for this change to occur? Air
taken out through the tube makes lime water milky.
What does this tell us about the products of fermentation? The products of fermentation are CO2 and
alcohol.

What is Respiration and what is its main purpose?

The process of acquiring oxygen from outside the body and use it in the process of break-down of food
sources for cellular needs is called respiration. Its main purpose is to use the energy for metabolic purposes,
growth,
Respiration is an oxidation reaction. Mitochondria is the site of respiration and. ATP is stored in
mitochondria.

Give difference between breathing and cellular respiration.

Breathing Cellular Respiration
The exchange of gases takes place. It involves oxidation of glucose to obtain
It is a physical process. energy.
No enzymes are required. It is a bio-chemical process.
Some amount of heat energy is utilized Respiratory enzymes are required.
Energy is released in the form of ATP.

Explain Inhalation and Exhalation

Inhalation Exhalation
It is the intake of air during breathing. It is expelling out air during breathing.
The Diaphragm contracts and bends. Diaphragm relaxes and becomes dome
Ribcage moves upwards and downwards. shaped.
The volume of the thoracic (chest) cavity Ribcage moves inwards and upwards.
increases. The volume of the thoracic cavity
decreases.

The rate of breathing in human beings in normal conditions is 17-20 breathe per minute.
What are the types of respiration?
Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
It takes place in the presence of oxygen. It takes place in the absence of oxygen.
The end products are carbon Dioxide, water The end products are lactic acid or ethanol,
and energy carbon dioxide, and energy.
More amount of ATP is released. Less amount of ATP is released.
Occurs in Mitochondria. Occurs in cytoplasm
Examples are: Humans and Animals Examples are: Yeast and Anaerobic bacteria

Explain the mechanism of breathing.

Inhalation- While inhalation, the diaphragm stretches and the ribs move outwards & upwards. Thus, the
volume increases.
Exhalation- While exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes and the ribs moves inwards & downwards. Thus, the
volume decreases.

What are the steps of respiration?

 Breaking down of glucose into pyruvate: This process takes place in the cytoplasm. Glucose
molecule which is a 6 carbon molecule is broken down into pyruvate which is 3 carbon molecules.
 Fate of Pyruvic Acid:
In terms of yeast during fermentation
The pyruvate is converted into ethanol and Carbon dioxide. This process takes place in the absence of
oxygen. Therefore, it is also called anaerobic respiration.
In terms of Mitochondria,
The pyruvate molecule is broken down to give three molecules of carbon dioxide. Water is also formed. This
process takes place in the presence of oxygen. Therefore, it is called Aerobic respiration.
In terms of Human Muscle cells
The pyruvate is converted into lactic acid (3 carbon molecule. This buildup of lactic acid causes cramps in
our muscles during sudden activity.

Respiration involves:
Gaseous exchange: Intake of oxygen from the atmosphere and release of CO2 → Breathing.
Breakdown of simple food in order to release energy inside the cell → Cellular respiration

What is ATP? The energy released during cellular respiration is stored in the form of ATP. It is the energy
currency for most cellular needs.

ATP- Adenosine Tri-Phosphate and ADP- Adenosine Di- Phosphate.

ADP and inorganic phosphate are used to make an ATP molecule. ATP can be used in the cells for the
contraction of muscles, protein synthesis, conduction of nervous impulses etc. When the terminal
phosphate linkage in ATP is broken using water, the energy equivalent to 30.5 kJ/mol is released.
How many ATP’s are released in oxidation of 1 molecule of glucose?
38 molecules of ATP are produced on oxidation of 1 molecule of glucose out of which 2 molecules are used
for further glycolysis

What is Diffusion? Name two organisms that absorb oxygen by diffusion.

Diffusion is the movement of molecules from high concentration area to the low concentration area. Carbon
dioxide and oxygen are exchanged by it. Amoeba and Paramecium are the organism.

How do fish breathe/respire? Fish close and open their mouths and gill-slits present behind their eyes. The
fishes take in water through the mouths and force it past the gills where the dissolved oxygen is taken up by
blood.
How do plants respire/ how do plants exchange oxygen and O2?
Plants exchange gases through stomata and the larger intracellular spaces ensures that all the cells are in
contact with the air. Co2 and O2 are exchanged by diffusion through stomata. They can go into or away from
the cells. The direction of diffusion depends upon the environmental conditions and the requirements of the
plant.

How do plants respire during night? / Why plants release Co 2 during night? / What is the Major
exchange event at day and night?
At night, when there is no photosynthesis occurring, CO2 elimination is the major exchange activity going
on. During the day, CO2 generated during respiration is used up for photosynthesis; hence there is no CO2
release. Instead, oxygen release is the major event at this time.

Why rate of breathing in aquatic organism is more than terrestrial organisms?

Since, the amount of dissolved oxygen is less than the oxygen in the air, the rate of breathing in the aquatic
organisms is much faster than the terrestrial organisms

Activity 6.6
A fish in an aquarium open and close their mouths and the gill-slits (or the operculum which covers the gill-
slits) behind their eyes also open and close.
Are the timings of the opening and closing of the mouth and gill-slits coordinated in some manner?
Yes, during breathing, fishes open and close their mouth & gills slits in a coordinated manner and
timing.
Count the number of times the fish opens and closes its mouth in a minute? It depends on the type
and size of fish. For eg, Goldfish can breathe up to 100 or more times per minute
Compare this to the number of times you breathe in and out in a minute? The amount of dissolved O2
is lower as compared to that in air. So, the rate of breathing fishes is faster as compared to
terrestrial organism. The normal respiratory rate of an adult is 12-16 times/minute

What are the forms of tobacco and why is it harmful?

Tobacco can come in the forms of cigar, cigarettes, bidis, hookah, guthka etc. Tobacco is very harmful for
health and can affect tongue, lungs, heart and liver. Smokeless tobacco can also cause heart attacks, strokes
pulmonary diseases and many types of cancer. Oral cancer in India is very common due to the chewing of
tobacco is the form of guthka.

What are the main organs of the respiratory system?

The main organs of the respiratory system are nostrils, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles, lungs and diaphragm.

Why is it advisable to breathe through nose? The air passing through the nostrils is filtered by the fine hairs
that line the passage. This passage is also lined with mucus that helps in the process.

What is the use of rings of cartilage present on trachea?

The rings of cartilage are present on the trachea in the throat ensures that the air-passage does not collapse
during forceful exhalation.

Explain the structure of Respiratory system in humans

The air enters through the nostrils of the nasal passage/nose and dust particles in the air are filtered by fine
hairs lining the passage that also contains mucus
The air then passes through Pharynx, larynx and trachea and bronchi and enters the lungs.
In the lungs, the bronchi divides into smaller tubes called bronchioles which ends in alveoli which is a
balloon like structure. It provides a surface for exchange of gases. The walls of alveoli contain a network of
blood vessels (Alveolus- singular) Thoracic cavity Is the cavity where lungs in humans are present.

What is residual volume? Give its importance.

During the breathing cycle, when air is taken in and let out during forceful exhalation, the lungs always
contain a residual volume of air so that there is sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed and for the carbon
dioxide to be released.

Why is there a need of respiratory pigment in humans/multi-cellular organisms?

When the size of animals is large, the diffusion pressure alone cannot take care of oxygen delivery to all
parts of the body. Instead, respiratory pigments take up oxygen from the air to the lungs and carry it to
tissues which are deficient of oxygen before releasing it.

What is the respiratory pigment in humans and what would happen if there was the deficiency of
the pigment?
The respiratory pigment in humans is haemoglobin which has a very high affinity for oxygen. This pigment
is present in the red blood corpuscles (RBC). If there would be deficiency of the Haemoglobin will decrease
the oxygen carrying capacity of blood and will lead to slow functioning of body parts and will cause
weakness due to less supply of blood.

(Some facts. No need to learn)- The alveolar would cover about 80m2 if spread out. The normal surface area
of our body is 1.7m2 . If diffusion moved the oxygen in our body, it would take 3 years for a molecule of
oxygen to get to our toes from lungs.
Write common features that can be found in all respiratory systems?
Large surface Area- All respiratory organism have a large surface area to get enough oxygen.
Thin walls- All the respiratory organs have thin walls for easy diffusion and exchange of gases.
Blood supply- All respiratory organs have a rich blood supply for transporting respiratory gases.

How are lungs protected?

1) The lungs are surrounded by pleural membrane and it contains pleural fluid provides protection to
lungs.
2) The pleural fluid prevents friction and absorbs shock.
The ribcage is also responsible for protecting lungs from external injuries and shocks.

Why is smoking harmful for our lungs?

Lung cancer is one of the most common causes of death and is caused by smoking. The upper part of the
respiratory tract has cilia which helps to remove germs, dust etc. from the inhaled air. And smoking
destroys these hairs and thus harmful substances enter our lungs and cause an infection, cough and lung
cancer.

6.4 Transportation
6.4.1 Transportation in Human beings
What is the importance of transportation/circulatory system?
The uptake of food and oxygen is a function of specialized tissues and the food and oxygen are now taken up
at one place in the body of the organism but all parts of the body need them. Thus, the organism requires a
need for transportation from one place to another in the body.

The Blood is a fluid connective tissue which transports food, oxygen, salt and waste materials in our body.
Blood consists of plasma, RBC ( RED BLOOD CORPUSCLES/CELLS), WBC ( WHITE BLOOD
CORPUSCLES/CELLS) and platelets Plasma is a fluid medium in which the cells are suspended. Plasma
transports food, carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes in dissolved form. The oxygen is carried by the
RBC.

Heart is a muscular organ, composed of cardiac muscles that is as big as a fist. It is a pumping organ which
pumps the blood. The heart has 4 chambers, right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle and left ventricle. The
upper two chambers are called atria, whereas the lower two chambers are called ventricles.
Why does the heart have different chambers?
Heart has different chambers to prevent the mixing of the oxygen rich-blood with the carbon dioxide rich-
blood.
Why is the separation of right and left side of heart useful The separation of heart is useful to prevent
mixing of oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood. This separation allows an efficient supply of oxygen to the
body.

Why is separation of heart useful for some animals? Separation of heart is very useful for animals with high
energy needs (birds & mammals) as they constantly use energy to maintain their body temperature.

How do the animals who don’t use energy for body temperature maintain their temperature?
Animals that don’t use energy for this purpose, their body temperature depend on the temperature in the
environment. Like amphibians and reptiles. These animals have three chambered hearts . These animals
can tolerate some mixing of oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood.

Why do fish have single circulatory system?

Fishes are cold blooded animals and have only two chambers in their hearts The blood is oxygenated in the
gills and which then passes to rest of the body, So, the blood goes only once through the heart and They also
do not need to maintain their body temperature; hence they can survive on single circulatory system.

Arteries- These are the vessels that carry blood away from the heart to other organs of the body. Veins-
These are the vessels that collect the blood from different organs and bring it back to heart.

Why do arteries have thick & elastic walls as compared to veins?

Arteries are the vessels that carry blood away from the heart to other organs of the body. have thick and
elastic walls because the blood emerges from the heart under high pressure while veins bring blood from
organs to blood, thus the blood is no longer under pressure.

Why do the veins have valves but artery don’t?

Veins collect blood from different organs and bring it back to heart and since the blood is no longer under
pressure, they don’t require thick, elastic walls instead they have valves which prevents the back flow of
the blood i.e. valves ensure that the blood moves in one direction only.
Capillaries- These are the smallest blood vessels which have one- celled thick walls. This vessel allows
exchange of gases, food material and waste materials from oxygenated to de-oxygenated blood. They also
connect the veins and artery.

What would happen if the system of tubes leak? How is it avoided?

If the system of tubes would leak then the leakage would lead to a loss of pressure which would reduce the
efficiency of the pumping system. To avoid this, the blood contains platelet cells that circulate around the
body and plus such leaks by clotting the blood at the point of injury.

What is blood pressure?

The force that the blood exerts against the blood the wall of a vessel is called blood vessel. It is measured by
an instrument called sphygmomanometer. Normal blood pressure is 120/80 mm HG.

What is Hypertension? How is it caused? What are its effects?

High blood pressure is also known as hypertension. It is caused by the constriction of arterioles which
results into increased resistance of the blood flow. It can lead to the rupture of an artery and internal
bleeding.

What is systolic and diastolic pressure?

The pressure of blood inside the artery during ventricular systole (contraction) is called systolic pressure.
The Normal systolic pressure is 120 mm of Hg.
The pressure in artery during ventricular diastole (relaxation) is called diastolic pressure. The normal
systolic pressure is 120 mm of Hg.
What are Lymph’s and how are they formed?
Lymph or tissue fluid is a colorless fluid that is involved in transportation. It has no pumping organ.
Through the pores in the walls of capillaries, some amount of plasma, proteins and blood cells escape into
the intracellular spaces in the tissues to form lymph. Lymph drains into lymphatic capillaries which forms
lymph vessels and joins into large veins. It contains less protein as compared to plasma. It carries digested
and absorbed fat from the intestine and drains excess of fluid from intercellular spaces back to the blood. It
contains lymphocyte which provides immunity.

6.4.2 Transportation in Plants

Activity 6.8
Take two small pots of the same size with same amount of soil. One pot should have a plant in it. Place a
stick of the same height as the plant in the other pot. Cover the soil in both pots with a plastic sheet so that
moisture cannot escape by evaporation. Cover both sets, one with the plant and the other with the stick,
with plastic sheets and place in sunlight for half an hour.
Do you observe any difference in the two cases?
Yes, In the pot with plant, water droplets are found in plastic sheet because of the condensation of water
vapour released by transpiration. Whereas, water droplets in the other pot with the stick are not formed.
What are the raw materials required by plants?
Soil is the richest and nearest source of the raw materials like nitrogen, phosphorus and others minerals
required by plants.
Differentiate between Xylem and Phloem

Why transportation system is not required by lower/small plants?

If the distances in between soil contacting organs and chlorophyll containing organs are small, then energy
and raw materials can easily diffuse to all parts of the plant. Thus, transportation system in not required by
lower/small plants.

Why multicellular plants can’t take up material by diffusion? OR Why do multicellular plants require
specific transportation system?
If the distance between soil contacting organs and chlorophyll become large because of the changes in plant
body design, then diffusion will not be sufficient to provide the raw material in leaves and energy in roots.
Thus, a proper system of transportation is required.

Why do plants have low energy needs?

Xylem Phloem
Xylem transports water & minerals from roots Phloem transports photosynthesis products and also
to other parts of plant. amino acids from leaves to other parts of the plant.
It is unidirectional. It is Bio-directional.
It occurs due to Transpirational pull. The food is distributed by translocation and requires
energy.

The energy needs differ between different body designs. Plants do not move and have a large proportion of
dead cells in many tissues. Therefore, plants have low energy needs and can use slow transport system.

Plants have specialized vascular tissues for transportation of substances. There are two types of vascular
tissues in plants Xylem and phloem.
Xylem Phloem
Xylem transports water & minerals from roots Phloem transports photosynthesis products from
to other parts of plant. leaves to other parts of the plant.
Most cells are dead Most cells are living.
It requires loss of energy for maintenance and It requires more energy for maintenance and
survival. survival.
Explain Xylem and Phloem
Explain Xylem and Phloem on the basis of Xylem and Phloem
Xylem is composed of tracheids, xylem vessels, xylem parenchyma and xylem fibre.
Xylem vessels and tracheids are the water conducting elements.

What is transpiration?
The loss of water in the form of vapor from the aerial parts of the plant is called transpiration.

What is the importance of transpiration?

1)It helps in suction and upward movement of the water and minerals from roots to other pores.
2)It helps to maintain the constant temperature of plant as the water released provides a cooling effect on
the plant.

What is translocation? Where does it occur? The transport of soluble products of photosynthesis is called
translocation and occurs in the vascular tissue called phloem.

How the movement of photosynthetic products and metalloids (food) takes place?
The food is prepared by the plants by the process of photosynthesis and then the food is distributed to all
parts of the plant by translocation. Translocation is an active process and requires energy and takes place in
phloem in the sieve tubes with the help of companion cells.

How is translocation achieved in phloem?

Translocation in phloem is achieved by utilizing the energy. Sucrose is transferred into phloem using
energy from ATP which increases the osmotic pressure of the tissue and causes water to move into it. This
pressure moves the material from phloem to other tissues with less pressure. This allows phloem to move
materials according to the needs of the plant. For eg, Sugar stored in spring in roots or stem would be
transported to buds which require energy to grow.

6.5 Excretion
What is excretion?
The biological process involved in the process of removal of harmful metabolic wastes from the body is
called excretion.
Unicellular organism use diffusion to remove waste from the body surface into the surrounding water.
While some, use specialized organs for the same.

Why is excretion necessary? What is the importance of excretion?

It helps in the removal of waste which if accumulated will form toxins and harm the body.
It helps in maintaining water content in the body.

What does excretory system involve? The excretory system involved a pair of kidneys, a pair of uterus,
urinary bladder and urethra.
Kidney- Kidneys are dark-red, bean shaped organs that are present in the abdomen (one on either side of
the backbone). They are basically the filtration units of the human body and are made up of nephrons.
Kidneys carry out main excretion of nitrogenous waste like urea or uric acid.

Uterus- Uterus is a long tube which carries urine from the kidneys to urinary bladder.
Urinary bladder: The urinary bladder is a pear-shaped sac organ where urine is stored for some time until
the pressure of the expanded bladder leads to the urge to pass urine through urethra. The urinary bladder
is muscular and works under the control of nervous system, that’s why we can control the urge to urine.
Urethra- Urethra is a canal like structure that helps in the removal of urine from the body.

Why and How is urine formed?

The main purpose of urine is to filter out waste products from the blood.
Urine formation involves three steps:
Ultra Filtration- The blood pressure in the afferent artery is high and a continuous process of ultra-filtration
takes place through the blood capillaries and the Amino acids, Glucose ions are filtered out in the Bowman’s
capsule except for water and nitrogenous waste.
Re-absorption /Tubular Reabsorption- In the Henle loop, the absorption of selected materials from the
filtrate into the blood takes place. Water and usable material are thus returned back to the blood.
Osmoregulation- Osmoregulation is the removal of access of water from the body to keep a constant
osmotic pressure. While, the left out water and waste are collected in the collecting ducsts and removed by
the ureters.

Explain the working of kidneys.

The structural and functional unit known as nephron is present in an amount of 1-1.5 million in each
kidney.
The two main parts of Nephron are Bowman’s capsule and Renal Tube.
Bowman’s capsule is a small cup shaped structure with a network of blood capillaries called Glomerulus.
The blood enters glomerulus through the arteries that have a broad diameter and leaves through efferent
arteries that have a small diameter.
Renal Tube: The Bowman’s capsule A major amount of water from the Bowman’s capsule that collects the
filtrate is absorbed as the urine flows along the renal tube. This reabsorption is also known as tubular
reabsorption. The urine is then collected into the connecting duct.

What is an artificial kidney?

An artificial kidney is a device that is used to remove nitrogenous waste products from the blood through
dialysis
They contain tubes with semi-permeable lining which is suspended in a tank filled with dialyzing fluid. The
dialyzing fluid has the same osmotic pressure as blood but devoid of nitrogenous wastes.

What are the methods used by plants to get rid of excretory products?
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide is removed through stomata by diffusion.
Excess of water is removed by transpiration.
Plant Based products are stores in cellular vacuoles.
Many tissues consist of deal cells and can lose some parts like leaves
Other waste products are stored in the form of resins and gums (especially in old xylem
’Plants also excrete waste into the soil.