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Topic G
1. Circulation cell
1. Tropicalcell (Hadleycell)-Lowlatitude airmoves towards
the Equator and heats up. As it heats it rises vertically
and moves pole wards in the upper atmosphere. This
forms a convection cell that dominates tropical and sub-
tropical climates.
1. Happens in Low lattitude
2. Air move toward the equator and heats up
3. Warm air rises vertically and move towrard the poles and
it forms a convetion cell
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2. Midlatitudecell(Ferrelcell)-Amid-latitudemean
atmospheric circulation cell for weather named by Ferrel
in the 19th century. In this cell the air flows pole wards
and towards the east near the surface and equator ward
and in a westerly direction at higher levels.
1. Air flows poleward and eastward near the surface
2. In upper atmosphere the, the air moves equatorward and
westward
3. Polarcell-Here airrises, spreadsoutandtravels toward
the poles. Once over the poles, the air sinks forming the
polar highs. At the surface, the air spreads out from the
polar highs. Surface winds in the polar cell are easterly
(polar easterlies).
1. Air rises at at around 60’ latitude
2. Then spread out and moves toward the poles
3. Over the poles, the air sinks, forming polar highs
4. At surface, air spreads out from the poles
5. Surface winds are called polar easterlies
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2. Doldrums, intertropical convergence
zone, trade winds, sub-tropical oceanic
highs, westerlies and polar easterlies
3. Doldrums
1. Located near the equator
2. Area where trade winds from both hemispheres meet
3. Also called the Intertropical Convergence Zone
4. Weather is hot, homid and has light winds
5. Tropical rainforest are found here
6. The ITCZ shifts moves north in January and moves south
in July
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4. Sea and Land Breeze
SEA BREEZE
Water for example, has a much greater heat capacity
than soil and rock. When the Sun heats it, it takes much
longer for its temperature to rise. On a warm summer
day along the coast, this differential heating of land and
sea leads to the development of local winds called sea
breezes.
1. Day time:
2. Sea cool (because of slow heating) =High pressure
3. Land warm (because of rapid heating) = Low pressure
4. Winds blow from High to Low area
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LAND BREEZE
Since the sea breeze owes its existence to the
enhanced heating of the land under the Sun, it follows
that at night, when the land cools faster than the sea, a
land breeze may develop.
1. Night Time:
2. Sea warm (because of slow cooling) =Low pressure
3. Land cool (because of rapid cooling) =High
pressure
4. Winds blow from High to Low area
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5. Anabatic and Katabatic Wind
Anabatic Wind
Anabatic winds tend to develop in hilly or mountainous areas
during the daytime, especially if the weather is relatively calm
with at least some sunshine.
In situations like this, the air around the hill tops becomes
warmer than the air at the same altitude over adjacent
valleys. The result is rising air over the summits, which
creates locally low pressure, which draws air up the
mountain sides.
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1. Happen in hilly or mountainous area
2. Form during the daytime, when its sunny and calm
3. Hiltops heat up from than nearby valleys
4. Warm air rises from the hills
5. This create low pressure at the top
Katabatic Wind
They occur on otherwise clear still nights, when the air in
contact with the ground loses heat rapidly by radiation back
to space. The result is that air near the ground over hill and
mountain summits become colder than air at the same
altitude over adjacent valleys.
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Because it is colder, the air is also denser, and begins to slide
down the hill slopes to the valley floor .
1. Happens on clear, still nights
2. The ground loses heat quicky and air near hilltops gets
cold
3. Cold air become heavy (dense)
4. Its slide down the slopes into valley
Coriolis Effect
The corolis effct, which is a result of Earth’s rotation, causes
moving particles such as air to be deflected to the right in the
northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern
hemisphere.
NE Moonsoon
• In Nov-Dec-Jan Northern hemisphere winter (Cool = High
pressure)
• Southern Hemisphere summer (Warm=Low pressure)
• Windblowsfromhightolow
• However due to Coriolis effect wind
deflected to right at northern hemisphere
• And deflected to left in southern hemisphere
• CausingMalaysiatohaveNEMonsoon
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SW Moonsoon
• In Nov-Dec-Jan Northern hemisphere winter (Cool = High
pressure)
• Southern Hemisphere summer (Warm=Low pressure)
• Windblowsfromhightolow
• However due to Coriolis effect wind
deflected to right at northern hemisphere
• And deflected to left in southern hemisphere
• CausingMalaysiatohaveNEMonsoon
Assignment Questions
1. With the aid of a sketch, explain formation of Sea Breeze and Land Breeze
2. Anabatic and katabatic wind
3. Explain qualitatively, with the aid of sketches, the circulation cells which
would exist on a rotating earth.
4. With the aid of sketches, explain the circulation cells which would exist on a
rotating earth.
5. Explain about the Coriolis Effect.
6. Draw the mean surface pressure and wind distribution over the earth's surface
in January and July
7. Describe the characteristics and location of the doldrums, intertropical
convergence zone, trade winds, sub-tropical oceanic highs, westerlies
and polar easterlies.
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Topic H
World Surface Currents
Wind Drift Current
Wind blowing on the surface it pushes the water. The water
moves slowly about 2% of the wind speed. This movement is
called wind dirft current. Water piles up in the direction of the
wind.
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Warm Currents
1. Warm currents are caused by the transport of warm
water into colder latitudes
2. Hence, whenever a current is warmer than the sea
through which it flows, it is called warm current
3. When a current from equatorial region (warm) passes
through a Higher latitdues (cold) it will be warm current
4. Warm currents are generally experienced along the
western shores of the large ocean.
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Cold Currents
1. Cold currents are caused by the transport of cold water
into warmer latitudes
2. Hence, whenever a current is colder than the sea
through which it flows, it is called cold current.
3. When a current from Higher latitudes (colde) passes
through a Lower latitudes (warm) it will be cold current.
If the current comes from the polar regions, the current
will be extremely cold.
4. Cold ccurrents are generally experienced along the
eastern shores of the large ocean.
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Upwelling Current
1. Effects of winds on the verticle movement of water
2. Upwelling along the coast caused by Ekman transport of
water (waters move to the right of the wind).
3. The waters moved offshore are replaced by waters from
below. This brings cold, nutrient rich waters to the
surface.
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Downwelling
1. Downwelling caused by Ekman transport onshore
(movement of water to the right of the wind direction)
2. Downwelling occurs where surface currents converge.
The converging water has nowhere to go but down, so
the surface water sinks.
3. Since surface water is usually low nutrients,
downwelling leads to low productivity zones.
Assignments
1. Effect of Cold Current and Warm Current
2. Wind draft, Upwelling and Gradient Current
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Topic I
1. Describe the organization, functions and objectives of the
World Meteorological Organisation
2. Describe the sources of weather information available to
shipping including internet and email
3. Describe the information flow between merchant ships and
Meteorological Offices
4. Describe the services provided for shipping by
Meteorological Offices
5. Describe the appropriate weather bulletin and the contents
of each of its sections
6. Describe the types of information received by facsimile
machine
7. Describe the services provided for storm warnings
8. Selected Ship, Supplementry, Auxilary Ship.
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1. Describe the organization, functions and objectives of the
World Meteorological Organisation
Specialized agency of the United Nations which focus on
international cooperation in meterology, climate, hydrology
and environment
Function and Objective
1. Integrated earth system observation network
2. Maintenance of data management centres and
telecommunication systems
3. Standards for observation and monitoring
4. Provision of weather, climate and water-related services
- through the application of science and technology
5. Activities in operational hydrology
6. Coordination of research and training
2. Describe the sources of weather information available to
shipping including internet and email
1. National Weather Services:
Most countries have their own national meteorological
agencies
2. Weather Websites and Apps:
Many websites and mobile apps offer weather information
specifically designed for mariners.
3. Weather Routing Services:
Commercial weather routing services.
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4. VHF Radio:
NAVTEX and VHF weather channels.
5. HF Radio and SSB:
Long-range weather information from global broadcasting
stations
6. Inmarsat and Satellite Communications:
Many ships are equipped with satellite communication
systems.
7. Weather Fax:
Weather fax machines to receive weather charts.
8. Weather Forecast Models:
Numerical weather models provide valuable information for
researcher to predict weather
9. Local Knowledge and Port Authorities:
Local knowledge and guidance from port authorities
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3. Describe the information flow between merchant ships
and Meteorological Offices
4. Describe the services provided for shipping by
Meteorological Offices
1. Weather Forecast and Real-Time Weather Observation
2. Marine and Oceanographic Data and Forecast
3. Instrumentation and Maintenance Calibration of
meteorological sensor
4. Climatological Data
5. Seismological Data
6. Radar Images and Data
7. Satellite Imageries and Data
8. Environmental Meteorology Data
9. Publications
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5. Describe the appropriate weather bulletin and the contents
of each of its sections
Weather & sea bulletins for high seas:
Part I – Warnings
Part II – Synopsis (weather chart + sea surface conditions)
Part III – Forecast
Part IV – Analysis/prognosis (IAC Fleet code)
Part V – Sea station reports
Part VI – Land station reports
6. Describe the types of information received by facsimile
machine
1. Synoptic weather charts
2. Barometric pressure (high/low areas)
3. Pressure gradients
4. Temperature
5. Facsimile weather Broadcast schedules in marine
publications
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7. Describe the services provided for storm warnings
Services
1. Show the specific meterological or hydroogical threat
area
2. Use polygons (many sided shapes) to show true threads
ares to improve NWS warning accuacry and quality
How they help
1. Better graphic for maps and forecast
2. Work with private sector to send warning like
Cellphones, pagers, tablets
3. Media show where is most at risk clearly
8. Selected Ship, Supplementry, Auxilary Ship.
Selected Ships : Fully equipped, send regular reports with
instruments like barometer, psychrometer, etc.
Sypplementary Ships : Fewer Instruments, still report
regularly
Auxiliary Ships : No instruments, send plain language or
simplifed reports (mostly in remote areas)
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LA 2 Assignments Questions
Define Fog, Mist and Haze
Fog
Obscurity in the surface layers of the atmosphere, which is
caused by a suspension of water droplets'. Visibility less
than 1km
Mist
Obscurity and the associated visibility is equal to or exceeds
1000 m.' Supension of water droplets and has lower density
Haze
Suspension of extremely small, dry particles in the air, not
water droplets.
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Formation of Radiation Fog, Advection Fog,
Evaporation or Mixing fog and SMOG
Radiation Fog
i. Clear calm night
ii. Land lose heat and cool down
iii. Air which in contact with land surface cools down iv. Air
condense to fog
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Advection Fog
i. Horizontal movement of warm moist air over a cold
surface
ii. Cool water surface
iii. Due to cold current or sunny day where water heated
slow
iv. Warm air in contact with cold water surface
v. Air condense to fog
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Evaporation or Mixing Fog
i. Cold air moves over warm water.
ii. Cool air mixes with the warm moist air over the water
iii. Aircools and fog forms
SMOG
i. Happen at foggy area
ii. Smoke due to air pollution
iii. Fog act like sponges and trapped smoke
iv. iv. Smog is smoke + fog
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Methods of estimating the visibility at sea
Four Main types of Clouds
Turbulence Cloud
i. Wind blow on the surface of uneven ground
ii. Strike and deflected upwards
iii. Rise and cools down, form cloud
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Orographic cloud
i. Wind blow towards mountain
ii. Wind climb the mountain
iii. Rise and cools down, form cloud
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Convection cloud
i. Land/water surface gets heat up
ii. Low pressure form
iii. Air rises, cool down, form cloud
Frontal cloud
i. Cold air heavy,undercut warmair
ii. Warm air lifted by cold air
iii. Warm air rise, cools down, form cloud