2025 1 9

iii
0.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
0.2 ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
0.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
0.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

1 1
1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2 15
2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3 41
3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

4 55
4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
∗
4.3 Z/nZ (Z/nZ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
ii

5 69
5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

6 83
6.1 Peano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

7 95
7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
7.3 p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

A 109

B 113

C 115

D TEX, 117
D.1 TEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
D.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

E 123
 iii

0.1
?
iv

10 100
200

0.2 ?

2
2

3
 v

4
,

0.3

1.
2.
3.
4.

1.

( )
2.
3.
vi

4.

0.4

*1

*1
 1

( )
*1
logic (˜l´oˆgˇi`c) logique Logik logika

*1
2

1.1
( ) (proposition)

(i) 3
5
(ii) 22 + 1
(iii) 366 5

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

(propositional logic)
4

∧ (and) (conjunction)
∨ (or) (disjunction)
¬ ··· (not . . . ) (negation)
→ (imply) (implication)

2 p, q , p q p∧q
p q p, q
p q p∨q p q
p, q
T (truth), F (false)

p q p∧q p∨q
T T T T
T F F T
F T F T
F F F F

(the truth table) p (T) q (T)

 3

p∧q (T) p (T) q (F) p∧q

(F) T, F 1, 0
1, 0
≤

a ≤ b ⇐⇒ a < b a=b

1≤2 a≤b a≦b *2

p ¬p

p ¬p
T F
F T

p ¬p p, ∼ p, p′

1.1.1. p, q, r

(i) (p ∧ q) ∧ r
(ii) (p ∧ q) ∨ r
(iii) (p ∨ r) ∧ (q ∨ r)

p, q, r p, q, r p, q, r
p, q, r (propositional
variable)
p, q , p q p→q
p q

p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

p q p q
p→q ¬(p ∧ (¬q))

*2
4

p q ¬q p ∧ (¬q) ¬(p ∧ (¬q))

T T F F T
T F T T F
F T F F T
F F T F T

p→q q→p (converse), (¬p) → (¬q) (converse

of contrapositive), (¬q) → (¬p) (contraposition)

1.1.2. p → q

p q ¬p ¬q q→p (¬p) → (¬q) (¬q) → (¬p)

T T
T F
F T
F F

T( )
(tautology)

1.1.3. p ∨ ¬p

p ¬p p ∨ ¬p
T F T
F T T

p ∨ ¬p (law of excluded middle)

p ∧ ¬p (contradiction)

1.1.4. p → p

1.1.5. (p ∧ (p → q)) → q

p q p→q p ∧ (p → q) (p ∧ (p → q)) → q
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T

1.1.6. ((p → q) ∧ (q → r)) → (p → r)

 5

p, q, r, . . . ∧, ∨, →, ¬
(formula)

p ∧ q, p ∨ (p → ¬q), (p ∧ ¬q) ∧ (q → ¬p)

A, B p, q, r, . . . A→B
A B A =⇒ B
A (T) p, q, r, . . . B
(T)
(A → B) ∧ (B → A) A↔B A↔B
2 A, B A ⇐⇒ B A B

1.1.7. (p → (q → r)) ↔ ((p ∧ q) → r)

(p → (q → r)) ⇐⇒ ((p ∧ q) → r)

1.1.8.

p ∨ (q ∧ r) ⇐⇒ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r),
p ∧ (q ∨ r) ⇐⇒ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r).

1.1.9. de Morgan*3

¬(p ∧ q) ⇐⇒ (¬p) ∨ (¬q),

¬(p ∨ q) ⇐⇒ (¬p) ∧ (¬q).

*3 Augustus de Morgan, 1806 – 1871,

6

1.2

x 3 y
x, y
(propostional function) (predicate) x y
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 2 3
n n (predicate)
(predicate logic)

U (whole set, universe set)

(universe) U
U ,
x 3 y
U
( ) ∧, ∨, ¬, →

x P (x) ∀x P (x) ∃x P (x)

∀x P (x) : x P (x)
∃x P (x) : P (x) x

∀ (universal quantifier), ∃ (existental quantifier)

(quantifier) Any ( ) A,
Exist ( ) E

1.2.1. (x + 1)2 = x2 + 2x + 1 ∀x ((x + 1)2 =

x2 + 2x + 1) x2 = 2
∃x (x2 = 2)

1.2.2 ( ). P (x) x

∃ x P (x) ∃1 x P (x) ∃! x P (x).

P (x) x

1.2.3 (4 2 ). 4 2
x 4 x 2
 7

P (x) : x 4 Q(x) : x 2

( ) P (x) → Q(x)

x P (x) Q(x) P (x) → Q(x)

1 F F T
2 F T T
3 F F T
4 T T T
5 F F T
6 F T T
.. .. .. ..
. . . .

x P (x) → Q(x)
∀x(P (x) → Q(x))

1.2.4. 2 4

¬(∀xP (x)) ⇐⇒ ∃x (¬P (x))

¬(∃xP (x)) ⇐⇒ ∀x (¬P (x))

de Morgan
de Morgan

¬(∀x(P (x) → Q(x)) ⇐⇒ ∃x (P (x) ∧ ¬Q(x))

¬(∃x(P (x) ∧ Q(x)) ⇐⇒ ∀x (P (x) → ¬Q(x))

1.2.5.

(i) x1 = x2 = · · · = xn = 0.
(ii) i = 1, . . . , n xi = 0.
(iii) ∀λ xλ = 0.

1.2.6.

(i) x1 = 0 x2 = 0 ... xn = 0.
(ii) i (1 ≤ i ≤ n) xi = 0.
(iii) ∃λ xλ = 0.
8

1.2.7. .
?

P (x) : x Q(x) : x

P (x) → Q(x) x x

P (x, y) 2 x, y ( ) ∀yP (x, y)

∃yP (x, y) x ∀ ∃
y (bounded variables), x
(free variables)
P (x, y) 2 x, y ( )

∀x ∀y P (x, y) ⇐⇒ ∀y ∀x P (x, y)
∃x ∃y P (x, y) ⇐⇒ ∃y ∃x P (x, y)

∀x, y P (x, y) 2 ∃x, y P (x, y)

∀ ∃

∀x ∃y (x = y)
∃y ∀x (x = y)

∀x(P (x) ⇐⇒ Q(x))

P (x) ⇐⇒ Q(x)

1.2.8.

(i) (∃y P (x, y)) ∧ Q(x) ⇐⇒ ∃y (P (x, y) ∧ Q(x))

(ii) (∃y P (x, y)) ∨ Q(x) ⇐⇒ ∃y (P (x, y) ∨ Q(x))
(iii) (∀y P (x, y)) ∧ Q(x) ⇐⇒ ∀y (P (x, y) ∧ Q(x))
(iv) (∀y P (x, y)) ∨ Q(x) ⇐⇒ ∀y (P (x, y) ∨ Q(x))
 9

.
(axiom)

1
,

A A A
(definition)

,
,

(theorem)

(corollary) (lemma)

(proposition)

,
10

1.3
U ( )

∀x (x > 0) → P (x) ∀x > 0 P (x)


∃x (x > 0) ∧ P (x) ∃x > 0 P (x)

M


∀x (x < M ) → P (x) ∀x < M P (x)


∃x (x < M ) ∧ P (x) ∃x < M P (x)

1.3.1.

(i) ∀x > 0 P (x) ∃x > 0 ¬P (x)

(ii) ∃x > 0 Q(x) ∀x > 0 ¬Q(x)

1.3.2. ∀ε > 0 a < b + ε ⇐⇒ a ≤ b.

. ∀ε > 0 a < b + ε

∀ε (ε > 0 a < b + ε)

⇐= =⇒ a>b a>b+ε
ε

■
Quod Erat Demonstrandum (
) Q.E.D. *4 Q.E.D.

1.3.3.

(i) ∀ε > 0 a ≤ b + ε ⇐⇒ a ≤ b.
(ii) ∀ε ≥ 0 a ≤ b + ε ⇐⇒ a ≤ b.

*4 Q.E.D.
 11

(iii) ∀ε ≥ 0 a < b + ε ⇐⇒ a < b.

1.3.4. ∀ε > 0 |a − b| < ε ⇐⇒ a = b.

. ⇐= =⇒ ∀ε > 0 |a − b| < ε

∀ε > 0 b − ε < a < b + ε.

∀ε > 0 b < a + ε, a < b + ε. 1.3.2 b≤a a ≤ b, a=b

1.3.5.

(i) ∀ε > 0 |a − b| ≤ ε ⇐⇒ a = b.
(ii) ∀ε ≥ 0 |a − b| ≤ ε ⇐⇒ a = b.

1.3.6 ( ). {xn } α

{xn } α , ε
N n≥N n |xn − α| < ε

∀ε > 0 ∃N ∀n (n ≥ N ) → (|xn − α| < ε)

∃ε > 0 ∀N ∃n (n ≥ N ) ∧ (|xn − α| ≥ ε) .

{xn } α

∀ε > 0 ∃N s.t. ∀n (n ≥ N |xn − α| < ε)

∀ε > 0 ∃N s.t. |xn − α| < ε (∀n ≥ N )

s.t. such that

For any positive number ε there exists a natural number N such that |xn − α| < ε
for any n with n ≥ N .
12

F`o˘rffl `a‹n‹y ¯p`o¯sfi˚i˚tˇi‹vfle ”n˚u‹m˜bfleˇrffl ε ˚t‚h`eˇr`e `e›xˇi¯sfi˚t¯s `affl ”n`a˚tˇu˚r`a˜l ”n˚u‹m˜bfleˇrffl N ¯sfi˚u`c‚hffl ˚t‚h`a˚t
|xn − α| < ε ˜f´o˘rffl `a‹n‹y n ”w˘i˚t‚hffl n ≥ N .

1.3.7. {an }
an → α an → β α=β

∀ε > 0 ∃N1 s.t. n ≥ N1 |an − α| < ε

∀ε > 0 ∃N2 s.t. n ≥ N2 |an − β| < ε

ε>0 N1 , N2 N N1 ,
N2 n≥N

|α − β| = |(α − an ) + (an − β)| ≤ |α − an | + |an − β| < ε + ε = 2ε

ε 1.3.4 α = β.

1.3.8 ( ). {xn } (bounded)

{xn } K n
|xn | < K

∃K > 0 ∀n (|xn | < K)

∀K > 0 ∃n (|xn | ≥ K).

1.3.9 ( ). f (x) x=a

f (x) x=a , ε
δ |x − a| < δ |f (x) − f (a)| < ε

∀ε > 0 ∃δ > 0 ∀x (|x − a| < δ) → (|f (x) − f (a)| < ε)

∃ε > 0 ∀δ > 0 ∃x (|x − a| < δ) ∧ (|f (x) − f (a)| ≥ ε) .

f (x) x=a

∀ε > 0 ∃δ > 0 s.t. ∀x (|x − a| < δ |f (x) − f (a)| < ε)

 13

For any positive number ε there exists a positive number δ such that |f (x) − f (a)| < ε
for any x with |x − a| < δ.

F`o˘rffl `a‹n‹y ¯p`o¯sfi˚i˚tˇi‹vfle ”n˚u‹m˜bfleˇrffl ε ˚t‚h`eˇr`e `e›xˇi¯sfi˚t¯s `affl ¯p`o¯sfi˚i˚tˇi‹vfle ”n˚u‹m˜bfleˇrffl δ ¯sfi˚u`c‚hffl ˚t‚h`a˚t
|f (x) − f (a)| < ε ˜f´o˘rffl `a‹n‹y x ”w˘i˚t‚hffl |x − a| < δ.
∧ ,
∨ or f (x)
x=a


∃ε > 0 s.t. ∀δ > 0 ∃x s.t. |x − a| < δ, |f (x) − f (a)| ≥ ε .

x2 = 1
x = 1, −1

∧
∨ or
14

(
1 12-15
,

*5

(self-contradictory proposition)

(atomic formula, atom)

(i)
(ii) p, q ¬p, p ∧ q, p ∨ q, p → q
(iii) p(a) a , x ∀x p(x), ∃x p(x)

(iv) (ii), (iii)

*5
 15

0≤x≤1 x

(naive set theory)

( )
set (¯sfi`eˇt) ensemble Menge mioestvo
16

2.1

A, B, C, . . . , S, T, . . . A
,A A (
element) a A

a ∈ A, A3a

a A ( ) a∈A

a 6∈ A, A 63 a

N= (the set of natural numbers)

Z= (the set of integers)
Q= (the set of rational numbers)
R= (the set of real numbers)
C= (the set of complex numbers)

0
0 0

N = {1, 2, 3, . . . .}, N = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . .}.

10

{2, 3, 5, 7}

N = {1, 2, 3, . . . .}

{x | x 10 }
 17

P (x) P (x)
x
{x | P (x)}

*1 0≤x≤1 x

{x ∈ R | 0 ≤ x ≤ 1}

x P (x)
{x | P (x)}
(empty set) ∅

{x ∈ R | x2 + 1 = 0}

2.1.1 ( ). A, B A B

∀x x ∈ A =⇒ x ∈ B (2.1)

A B (subset)

A⊂B B⊃A

A B B A
A=∅ x∈A
(2.1)
A⊂B
A 6⊂ B B 6⊃ A

∃x x ∈ A x 6∈ B

A B A=B
A⊂B A 6= B A B (proper subset)

A ⊊ B, A ⫋ B, B ⊋ A, B⫌A

*1 {x : P (x)} {x ; P (x)}
18

A B A⊆B ,A B
A⊂B <
A⊂B A⊊B
A⫋B
1
U
U (whole set) (universe)

x U U A, B P (x), Q(x)

A = {x ∈ U | P (x) }, B = {x ∈ U | Q(x) }

x∈U P (x) =⇒ Q(x) A⊂B

A = B ⇐⇒ A ⊂ B, B ⊂ A
⇐⇒ ∀x (x ∈ A ⇔ x ∈ B)

2 A B ,A⊂B A⊃B
2

2 A, B ,A B ,
A B (union) A∪B A∪B

A ∪ B := {x | x ∈ A x ∈ B}

2 A, B , A, B ,A B
(intersection) A∩B A∩B

A ∩ B := {x | x ∈ A, x ∈ B}
 19

2 A, B ,A B
,A B

A−B A\B

A−B

A − B := {x | x ∈ A, x 6∈ B}

2.1.2. A ∪ B, A ∩ B, A−B Venn

U U U
A B A B A B

A∪B A∩B A−B

Venn *2 Venn Venn

U A U U −A A
(complement) Ac

Ac = {x ∈ U | x 6∈ A}

2.1.3. U A − B = A ∩ Bc

∪, ∩

: A∪B = B ∪ A,
A∩B = B ∩ A.
: (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C),
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C).
: (A ∪ B) ∩ C = (A ∩ C) ∪ (B ∩ C),
(A ∩ B) ∪ C = (A ∪ C) ∩ (B ∪ C).
: (A ∪ B) ∩ A = A,
(A ∩ B) ∪ A = A.

2.1.4.

*2 John Venn (1834–1923)

20

2.2
2.2.1 (de Morgan ). U A, B

(A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c , (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c .

x ∈ (A ∩ B)c ⇔ x 6∈ A ∩ B
⇔ ¬(x ∈ A ∩ B)
⇔ ¬(x ∈ A, x ∈ B)
⇔ ¬(x ∈ A) ¬(x ∈ B)
⇔ x 6∈ A x 6∈ B
⇔x∈A c
x ∈ Bc
⇔ x ∈ Ac ∪ B c

2.2.2. de Morgan 2

a b (ordered pair) (a, b)

(a, b) = (a′ , b′ ) ⇐⇒ a = a′ , b = b′
def

*3 (a, b)
A, B A a B b (a, b) A
B (direct product of sets) A×B

A × B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A, b ∈ B}

A×A A2 n A (a1 , . . . , an )
,
(a1 , . . . , an ) = (a′1 , . . . , a′n ) a1 = a′1 , . . . , an = a′n
def
⇐⇒

*3 a′ a a a
′

(Wikipedia )
 21

(a1 , . . . , an ) A n
An := {(a1 , . . . , an ) | a1 , . . . , an ∈ A}

A A (power set) 2A
P(A)

2.2.3. A = {1, 2, 3} 2A

2A = ∅, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}

2.2.4. A = {1, 2, . . . , n} 2A

2A = ∅, {1}, {2}, . . . , {n}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, . . . , {1, 2, . . . , n}

2A ?

X, Y X x Y
X Y (map of X to Y ) f X
Y
f
f :X→Y X −→ Y

f X x Y y
f (x) = y x 7→ y

y x f (image)
f :X→Y X f (domain)
f (X) = {y ∈ Y | ∃x ∈ X s.t. f (x) = y} = {f (x) | x ∈ X}

f (range)

2.2.5. X 1X : X → X, x 7→ x, (identity)

2.2.6. X, Y f : X → Y , x 7→ f (x), X A

f |A : A → Y, a 7→ f (a)

f A (restriction) f |A , f |A
22

2.2.7. f :X→Y X A ,

f (A) = {y ∈ Y | ∃x ∈ A s.t. f (x) = y} = {f (a) | a ∈ A}

A f (image) f (∅) = ∅ Y
B ,
f −1 (B) = {x ∈ X | f (x) ∈ B}

B f (inverse image) f −1 (∅) = ∅

y∈Y f −1 (y)

f −1 (y) = {x ∈ X | f (x) = y}

f −1 ({y}) X

2.2.8. f : R → R, f (x) = x2 , A = {x ∈ R | 1 ≤ x ≤ 2}

f (A) = {x ∈ R | 1 ≤ x ≤ 4}

B = {y ∈ R | 1 ≤ y ≤ 4} ,

f −1 (B) = {x ∈ R | − 2 ≤ x ≤ −1} ∪ {x ∈ R | 1 ≤ x ≤ 2}

f −1 (4) = {2, −2}

2.2.9. f : R2 → R, f (x, y) = x2 − y 2 ,

(i) A = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | 1 ≤ x ≤ 2, 1 ≤ y ≤ 2} f (A)

−1
(ii) B = {z ∈ R | 1 ≤ z ≤ 4} ,f (B)

2.2.10 ( ). a, b, c, d
      
x ax + by a b x
f :R →R ,
2 2
7→ = .
y cx + dy c d y



R2 = { xy | x, y ∈ R} 0 = 00

(i) ad − bc 6= 0 f −1 (0)
(ii) ad − bc = 0 f −1 (0)

X, Y f :X→Y

2.2.11. A, A1 , A2 X

(i) A1 ⊂ A2 =⇒ f (A1 ) ⊂ f (A2 ).

 23

(ii) f (A1 ∪ A2 ) = f (A1 ) ∪ f (A2 ).

(iii) f (A1 ∩ A2 ) ⊂ f (A1 ) ∩ f (A2 ).
(iv) f (X − A) ⊃ f (X) − f (A).
(v) A ⊂ f −1 (f (A)).

. (i): y ∈ f (A1 ) ⇐⇒ ∃x ∈ A1 [f (x) = y] =⇒ ∃x ∈ A2 [f (x) = y] ⇐⇒ y ∈ f (A2 ).

(ii): y ∈ f (A1 ∪A2 ) ⇐⇒ ∃x ∈ A1 ∪A2 [f (x) = y] ⇐⇒ ∃x [(x ∈ A1 ∨x ∈ A2 )∧f (x) = y]
⇐⇒ [∃x ∈ A1 (f (x) = y) ∨ ∃x ∈ A2 (f (x) = y)] ⇐⇒ y ∈ f (A1 ) ∪ f (A2 )
(iii): y ∈ f (A1 ∩A2 ) ⇐⇒ ∃x ∈ A1 ∩A2 [f (x) = y] ⇐⇒ ∃x [(x ∈ A1 ∧x ∈ A2 )∧f (x) = y]
=⇒ [∃x1 ∈ A1 (f (x1 ) = y)] ∧ [∃x2 ∈ A2 (f (x2 ) = y)] ⇐⇒ y ∈ f (A1 ) ∩ f (A2 )
(iv): y ∈ f (X) − f (A) y y ∈ f (X) f (x) = y x∈X
x 6∈ A y 6∈ f (A) ∀a ∈ A f (a) 6= y x∈A
x ∈ X − A.
(v): x ∈ A f (x) ∈ f (A). x ∈ f −1 (f (A))

2.2.12. (iii), (iv), (v)

2.2.13. B, B1 , B2 Y

(i) B1 ⊂ B2 =⇒ f −1 (B1 ) ⊂ f −1 (B2 ).

(ii) f −1 (B1 ∪ B2 ) = f −1 (B1 ) ∪ f −1 (B2 ).
(iii) f −1 (B1 ∩ B2 ) = f −1 (B1 ) ∩ f −1 (B2 ).
(iv) f −1 (Y − B) = f −1 (Y ) − f −1 (B).
(v) B ∩ f (X) = f (f −1 (B)).

. (i): x ∈ f −1 (B1 ) ⇐⇒ f (x) ∈ B1 =⇒ f (x) ∈ B2 ⇐⇒ f (x) ∈ B2

(ii): x ∈ f −1 (B1 ∪ B2 ) ⇐⇒ f (x) ∈ B1 ∪ B2 ⇐⇒ (f (x) ∈ B1 ) ∨ (f (x) ∈ B2 )
⇐⇒ [x ∈ f −1 (B1 )] ∨ [x ∈ f −1 (B2 )] ⇐⇒ x ∈ f −1 (B1 ) ∪ f −1 (B2 )
(iii): x ∈ f −1 (B1 ∩ B2 ) ⇐⇒ f (x) ∈ B1 ∩ B2 ⇐⇒ (f (x) ∈ B1 ) ∧ (f (x) ∈ B2 )
⇐⇒ [x ∈ f −1 (B1 )] ∧ [x ∈ f −1 (B2 )] ⇐⇒ x ∈ f −1 (B1 ) ∩ f −1 (B2 )
(iv): x ∈ f −1 (Y − B) ⇐⇒ f (x) ∈ Y − B ⇐⇒ f (x) 6∈ B ⇐⇒ x 6∈ f −1 (B)
⇐⇒ x ∈ X − f −1 (B)
(v): y ∈ B ∩ f (X) ⇐⇒ (y ∈ B) ∧ [∃x ∈ X(f (x) = y)]
⇐⇒ ∃x ∈ f −1 (B)[f (x) = y] ⇐⇒ y ∈ f (f −1 (B))
24

2.3
2.3.1 ( ). f :X→Y f (X) = Y f X Y
(map of X onto Y ) f (surjection)

def
f: ⇐⇒ ∀ y ∈ Y, ∃ x ∈ X s.t. f (x) = y

f :X↠Y

surjection Bourbaki on
sur surjection

2.3.2 ( ). f :X→Y x, x′ ∈ X

x 6= x ′ f (x) 6= f (x′ ),

f (x) = f (x′ ) x = x′

f (one-to-one map) f (injection)

f : X ,→ Y Bourbaki

: injection , injection

2.3.3.

(i) f : R → R, x 7→ 2x + 1,
(ii) f : R → R, x 7→ x2 ,
(iii) f : R → R, x 7→ x3 + x,
(iv) f : R → R, x 7→ x3 − x,
(v) f : R → R, x 7→ tan−1 x,

2.3.4. f : X → Y X A, A1 , A2

(i) f (A1 ∩ A2 ) = f (A1 ) ∩ f (A2 ).

(ii) f (X − A) = f (X) − f (A).
(iii) A = f −1 (f (A)).
 25

. (i)
f (A1 ∩A2 ) ⊂ f (A1 )∩f (A2 ) 2.2.11(iii) f (A1 ∩A2 ) ⊃ f (A1 )∩f (A2 )

y ∈ f (A1 ) ∩ f (A2 ) ∃a1 ∈ A1 f (a1 ) = y, ∃a2 ∈ A2 f (a2 ) = y. f (a1 ) = y =

f (a2 ) f a 1 = a 2 ∈ A1 ∩ A2 . y = f (a1 ) ∈ f (A1 ∩ A2 ).

2.3.5. (ii), (iii)

f :X →Y g :Y →Z x 7→ g(f (x))
X→Z f g (composition) g◦f

f - g -

x - f (x) - g(f (x))

X Y Z

2.3.6. f :X →Y, g :Y →Z

(i) f , g g◦f
(ii) f , g g◦f

2.3.7. f : R → R, x 7→ x2 , g : R → R, x 7→ x + 1,
g◦f : R → R g ◦ f (x) = x2 + 1 f◦g : R → R
f ◦ g(x) = (x + 1)2

2.3.8 ( ). a, b, c, d, p, q, r, s f, g
      
x ax + by a b x
f :R →R ,
2 2
7→ = ,
y cx + dy c d y
      
x px + qy p q x
g : R2 → R2 , 7→ = .
y rx + sy r s y
g ◦ f : R2 → R2
       
x p(ax + by) + q(cx + dy) p q a b x
7→ = .
y r(ax + by) + s(cx + dy) r s c d y
26

2.3.9. f : X → Y , g : Y → Z, h : Z → W

h ◦ (g ◦ f ) = (h ◦ g) ◦ f.

h◦ g◦ f

. x∈X

(h ◦ (g ◦ f ))(x) = h((g ◦ f )(x)) = h(g(f (x))) = (h ◦ g)(f (x)) = ((h ◦ g) ◦ f )(x)

2.3.10. f :X →Y, g :Y →Z

(i) g◦f g
(ii) g◦f f

. (i) z∈Z g(y) = z y∈Y

g◦f g ◦ f (x) = z x∈X y = f (x)

(ii) x1 , x 2 ∈ X f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) x1 = x2

f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) g ◦ f (x1 ) = g ◦ f (x2 ). g ◦ f x1 = x2

2.3.11. f :X →Y, g :Y →Z

(i) g◦f g f
(ii) g◦f f g

2.3.12. f : X → Y g : Y → Z, g ′ : Y → Z
g ◦ f = g′ ◦ f g = g′

2.3.13 ( ). f : X → Y f
(bijection)

bijection Bourbaki

2.3.14 ( ). f :X→Y f −1 : Y → X

x = f −1 (y) ⇐⇒ f (x) = y
 27

f −1 f −1 f (inverse map)

2.2.7 f f −1 (y) X
{x} = f −1 (y) x = f −1 (y)

2.3.15. f : X → Y, g : Y → Z g◦f : X → Z
(g ◦ f )−1 = f −1 ◦ g −1

2.3.16. f :X →Y, g :Y →X g ◦ f = 1X , f ◦ g = 1Y f
−1
g=f .

. g ◦ f = 1X 2.3.10 (ii) ,f f ◦ g = 1Y
2.3.10 (i) ,f f
f −1

g = g ◦ 1Y = g ◦ (f ◦ f −1 ) = (g ◦ f ) ◦ f −1 = 1X ◦ f −1 = f −1 .

2.3.17. f : X → Y , g : Y → X, g ′ : Y → X g ◦ f = 1X ,
f ◦ g ′ = 1Y f g = g ′ = f −1

2.3.18.

(i) f : (0, 1) → (a, b) f (x) = (b − a)x + a

(ii) f : (−π/2, π/2) → R, f (x) = tan x,

(iii) f : (−1, 1) → R, f (x) = x/(1 − x2 ),


x

(iv) ad − bc 6= 0 f : R2 → R2 , x
y 7→ a b
c d y ,
28

2.4

2.4.1. f : X → Y

(i) f ⇐⇒ g ◦ f = 1X g:Y →X
(ii) f ⇐⇒ f ◦ g = 1Y g:Y →X

. (i), (ii) ⇐= 2.3.10 (i) =⇒

f : X → Y f : X → f (X)
g0 : f (X) → X X x0 g:Y →X
(
g0 (y) y ∈ f (X)
g(y) =
x0 y 6∈ f (X)

(ii) =⇒ :f y∈Y f (x) = y x∈X

x g(y) f ◦ g = 1Y
(ii) Y Y
g

P = {g ∈ X Y | g(y) ∈ f −1 (y) ∀y ∈ Y }

y∈Y f −1 (y)
P
2.6.20

(finite set)

n+1 n 2

2.4.2 ( ). m, n m>n

{1, 2, . . . , m} {1, 2, . . . , n}
 29

. n n=1 n
n+1 m>n+1

f : {1, 2, . . . , m} −→ {1, 2, . . . , n + 1}

n+1 f f
{1, 2, . . . , m} {1, 2, . . . , n}
f (k) = n + 1 k ∈ {1, 2, . . . , m}

g : {1, 2, . . . , m − 1} → {1, 2, . . . , n}

f (x) (1 ≤ x < k)
g(x) =
f (x + 1) (k ≤ x < m)

f g

2.4.3. m, n m<n {1, 2, . . . , m} {1, 2, . . . , n}

. f : {1, 2, . . . , m} → {1, 2, . . . , n} k ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n}

f −1 (k) ak

g : {1, 2, . . . , n} −→ {1, 2, . . . , m}, k 7→ ak

2.4.2 m≥n

2.4.4. An = {1, 2, . . . , n}

(i) f : An → An
(ii) f : An → An

. (i): f : An → An f (An ) k ∈ An
f n n−1 An − {k}
2.4.2
(ii): f : An → An f (x) = f (y) An
x, y f An − {y} n−1 n
2.4.3
30

(infinite set)

A {1, 2, . . . , n} A
n A {1, 2, . . . , n}
A

2.4.5. N Z
Q, R, C

2.4.6.

2.4.7. A A=N

(i) f :A→A
(ii) f :A→A

2.4.8.

0, 1, −1, 2, −2, 3, −3, . . .

N Z

2.4.9. Q+ N

1 2 3 4 5
1 1 1 1 1 ...
1 2 3 4 5
2 2 2 2 2 ...
1 2 3 4 5
3 3 3 3 3 ...
1 2 3 4 5
4 4 4 4 4 ...
1 2 3 4 5
5 5 5 5 5 ...
.. .. .. .. ..
. . . . .

1 1 2 2 1 2 3 3 3 1 2 3 4 4 4 4 1 2 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 6 6 6 6
1, 2, 2, 1, 3, 3, 3, 2, 1, 4, 4, 4, 4, 3, 2, 1, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, . . .

1 1 2 1 2 3 3 1 3 4 4 1 2 3 4 5 5 5 5 1 5 6 6
1, 2, 1, 3, 3, 2, 1, 4, 4, 3, 1, 5, 5, 5, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 6, 6, 5, 1, . . .
 31

2.4.10. (0, 1) (0, 1]

{xi } x1 = 1, xi > xi+1 , 0 < xi < 1 (i = 2, 3, . . . )
f : (0, 1] → (0, 1) f (x) = x, x 6= xi , f (xi ) = xi+1

2.4.11. (0, 1] 0.32

0.31999 . . .

(0, 1] × (0, 1] → (0, 1], (0.a1 a2 . . . , 0.b1 b2 . . . ) 7→ (0.a1 b1 a2 b2 . . . )

(0.a1 b1 a2 b2 . . . ) 0
(0.a1 a2 . . . , 0.b1 b2 . . . ) (0, 1]
(0, 1] × (0, 1]
(0, 1] × (0, 1] (0, 1] ?
0 0 0
0.00203025006 . . . 002|03|02|5|006| . . .
a i , bi g

g : (0, 1] × (0, 1] → (0, 1], (0.a1 a2 . . . , 0.b1 b2 . . . ) 7→ (0.a1 b1 a2 b2 . . . )

2.4.10 f

(0, 1) × (0, 1) → (0, 1), (α, β) 7→ f ◦ g(f −1 (α), f −1 (β))

2.4.12. N (0, 1)
f : N → (0, 1) (0, 1)
2.4.11

f (1) = 0.a11 a12 a13 . . .

f (2) = 0.a21 a22 a23 . . .
f (3) = 0.a31 a32 a33 . . .
···


1 (akk )
bk =
2 (akk )

b = 0.b1 b2 b3 . . . (0, 1) f (k) b k

f (k) = b k f
Cantor
32

2.5
U Λ 2U

Λ → 2U , λ 7→ Aλ

Aλ U {Aλ | λ ∈ Λ}
Λ (family of sets indexed by Λ)
{Aλ }λ∈Λ {Aλ } (union)
(intersection)
∪
Aλ = {x ∈ U | ∃λ ∈ Λ s.t. x ∈ Aλ }
λ∈Λ
∩
Aλ = {x ∈ U | ∀λ ∈ Λ x ∈ Aλ }
λ∈Λ

2.5.1. Λ = {1, 2, 3, . . . , n} Λ
{Ai }i=1,2,...,n

∪
Ai = A1 ∪ · · · ∪ An
i∈Λ
∩
Ai = A1 ∩ · · · ∩ An
i∈Λ

2.5.2. Λ = N = {1, 2, 3, . . . } Λ
{Ai }i=1,2,...

∪ ∞
∪
Ai = Ai = A1 ∪ A2 ∪ · · · ∪ An ∪ · · ·
i∈Λ i=1
∩ ∩∞
Ai = Ai = A1 ∩ A2 ∩ · · · ∩ An ∩ · · ·
i∈Λ i=1

Λ=N Λ

2.5.3. θ Aθ = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | x cos θ + y sin θ = 1} Aθ

 33

(cos θ, sin θ)
∪
Aθ = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | x2 + y 2 ≥ 1}
θ∈R
∩
Aθ = ∅
θ∈R

2.5.4. ε Aε = {x ∈ R | − ε < x < ε}

∪
Aε = R
ε>0
∩
Aε = {0}
ε>0 0
2.5.5. ε Bε = {x ∈ R | − ε ≤ x ≤ ε}

∪
Bε = (−1, 1)
0<ε<1
∩
Bε = {0}
0<ε<1 −1 0 1
2.5.6 ( ). {Aλ | λ ∈ Λ} B
 
∪ ∪
Aλ ∩ B = (Aλ ∩ B)
λ∈Λ λ∈Λ
 
∩ ∩
Aλ ∪B = (Aλ ∪ B)
λ∈Λ λ∈Λ

. x
 
∪ ∪
x∈ Aλ ∩ B ⇐⇒ x ∈ Aλ x∈B
λ∈Λ λ∈Λ
⇐⇒ (∃λ ∈ Λ x ∈ Aλ ) x∈B
⇐⇒ ∃λ ∈ Λ (x ∈ Aλ x ∈ B)
⇐⇒ ∃λ ∈ Λ x ∈ Aλ ∩ B
∪
⇐⇒ x ∈ (Aλ ∩ B)
λ∈Λ

2.5.7 (de Morgan ). {Aλ | λ ∈ Λ}

 c  c
∪ ∩ c
∩ ∪
Aλ = Aλ Aλ = Aλ c
λ∈Λ λ∈Λ λ∈Λ λ∈Λ
34

2.5.8. de Morgan

2.5.9. f : X → Y , Aλ ∈ 2X
 
∪ ∪
f Aλ = f (Aλ )
λ∈Λ λ∈Λ
 
∩ ∩
f Aλ ⊂ f (Aλ )
λ∈Λ λ∈Λ

2.5.10. f : X → Y , Bλ ∈ 2Y
 
−1
∪ ∪ −1
f Bλ = f (Bλ )
λ∈Λ λ∈Λ
 
∩ ∩
f −1 Bλ = f −1 (Bλ )
λ∈Λ λ∈Λ

2.5.11. X, Y X Y YX

2.5.12. X = {1, 2}, Y = {1, 2, 3} f :X→Y 9

X 2
Y 9(= 3 )

f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7 f8 f9
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
2 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

2.5.13. X = {1, 2, . . . , m}, Y = {1, 2, . . . , n} YX

2.5.14 ( ). Λ X

{Aλ | λ ∈ Λ}

XΛ

P = {f ∈ X Λ | ∀λ ∈ Λ, f (λ) ∈ Aλ }

Λ {Aλ | λ ∈ Λ} (direct product of sets)

Y
P = Aλ
λ∈Λ

P f

f = (aλ )λ∈Λ , (aλ = f (λ) ∈ Aλ )

 35

f = (. . . , aλ , . . . )
Q
P = λ∈Λ Aλ p λ : P → Aλ pλ (x) = aλ
pλ (projection)

{Aλ | λ ∈ Λ} P p λ : P → Aλ
ϕ-
Q P
Q λ q λ : Q → Aλ λ
qλ pλ
pλ ◦ ϕ = q λ ϕ:Q→P R ?
Aλ
x∈Q ϕ(x) = (qλ (x)) ϕ(x) : Λ → X, λ 7→ qλ (x)
pλ ◦ ϕ(x) = qλ (x) pλ ◦ ϕ′ = q λ ϕ′ : Q → P
λ∈Λ

ϕ′ (x)(λ) = pλ (ϕ′ (x)) = qλ (x) = pλ (ϕ(x)) = ϕ(x)(λ)

ϕ′ (x) = ϕ(x). x ∈ Q ϕ = ϕ′ ϕ
P p λ : P → Aλ
P = Q, pλ = qλ ϕ = 1P
ϕ ϕ
P p λ : P → Aλ
Q
P̄ = λ∈Λ Aλ p̄λ : P̄ → Aλ
ϕ : P → P̄ pλ = p̄λ ◦ ϕ P̄
ϕ : P → P̄ P
φ : P̄ → P ϕ◦ φ : P → P
φ ◦ ϕ : P̄ → P̄ ϕ φ

2.5.15. {Aλ | λ ∈ Λ} S λ∈Λ ι λ : Aλ → S

ϕ
T  S
T λ ßλ : Aλ → T λ I
ßλ 6ιλ
ϕ ◦ ιλ = ß λ ϕ:S→T
Aλ
S
S̄ = λ∈Λ (Aλ × {λ}), ῑλ : Aλ → S̄, x 7→ (x, λ), S = S̄
S ϕ : S → S̄
ϕ ◦ ῑλ = ιλ ( S̄ )
36

2.6
2.6.1 ( ). X  X 2 a, b
ab

(i) : a  a.
(ii) : ab ba a = b.
(iii) : ab bc a  c.

X  (X, )

a  b, a 6= b a≺b ba ab ,b≺a

ab

2.6.2. N, Z, Q, R
≤
def
ab ⇐⇒ a≤b

6.2.4
6.3.10
( 3.3.6)

 ≤ ,


2.6.3. N
def
ab ⇐⇒ b a

2.6.4. X X A, B
def
A  B ⇐⇒ A ⊂ B

(2X , ) X = {1, 2, 3}
 37

{1, 2, 3}

{1, 2} {1, 3} {2, 3}

{1} {2} {3}

2.6.5 ( ). a, b ∈ X ab ba

(X, ) (totally ordered set) 
(partial ordered set)


2.6.2 2.6.3, 2.6.4

(X, ) A  (A, )

2.6.6 ( ). N0 = {0, 1, 2, . . . } Nn0

(lexicographic order)

def
(a1 , . . . , an ) ≺L (b1 , . . . , bn ) ⇐⇒ ∃j s.t. ai = bi (∀i < j), aj < bj

n=2

(0, 0) ≺ (0, 1) ≺ (0, 2) ≺ (0, 3) ≺ (0, 4) ≺ · · ·

≺(1, 0) ≺ (1, 1) ≺ (1, 2) ≺ (1, 3) ≺ (1, 4) ≺ · · ·
≺(2, 0) ≺ (2, 1) ≺ (2, 2) ≺ (2, 3) ≺ (2, 4) ≺ · · ·
≺(3, 0) ≺ (3, 1) ≺ (3, 2) ≺ (3, 3) ≺ (3, 4) ≺ · · ·
≺(4, 0) ≺ (4, 1) ≺ (4, 2) ≺ (4, 3) ≺ (4, 4) ≺ · · ·
..
.

2.6.7 ( - ). N0 = {0, 1, 2, . . . } Nn0

- (total degree-lexicographic
order)

def
(a1 , . . . , an ) ≺ (b1 , . . . , bn ) ⇐⇒

a 1 + · · · + a n < b 1 + · · · + bn
a 1 + · · · + a n = b1 + · · · + bn , (a1 , . . . , an ) ≺L (b1 , . . . , bn )
38

n=2 -

(0, 0) ≺(0, 1) ≺ (1, 0)

≺(0, 2) ≺ (1, 1) ≺ (2, 0)
≺(0, 3) ≺ (1, 2) ≺ (2, 1) ≺ (3, 0)
≺(0, 4) ≺ (1, 3) ≺ (2, 2) ≺ (3, 1) ≺ (4, 0)
≺(0, 5) ≺ · · ·

2.6.8 ( ). (X, ) m X (maximal ele-

ment) ,

m  x, m 6= x X x

(X, ) m X (minimal element) ,

m  x, m 6= x X x

2.6.9 ( ). (X, ) m X (maximum ele-

ment) ,
x∈X xm

(X, ) m X (minimum element) ,

x∈X xm

2.6.10. A = {1, 2, 3} {1, 2} {1, 3} {2, 3}

X = 2A − {A} 2.6.3
X 3 {1} {2} {3}

∅
2.6.11 ( , ). (X, ≤) A

A∗ = {x ∈ X | ∀a ∈ A a  x}
 39

A (supremum) sup A
A∗ A (upper bound)

A∗ = {x ∈ X | ∀a ∈ A x  a}

A (infimum) inf A
A∗ A (lower bound)

2.6.12. R A = (0, 1)
1
0

2.6.13 ( ). (X, ) (well ordered set) X

A A

2.6.14. N

2.6.15. R

2.6.16.

{m − 1
n :m n 2 }

0 1 2 3 4

2.6.17.

{m + 1
n :m n 2 }

0 1 2 3 4
40

∗
Zorn
Zorn

2.6.18 ( ). (X, ) (inductive set)

X A X X
sup A

2.6.19.

(i) {Aλ | λ ∈ Λ} λ∈Λ Aλ 6= ∅

Q
λ∈Λ Aλ 6= ∅.
(ii) X ,X

(iii) (X, ) X

(i) Zermelo*4 (ii)

Cantor*5 (iii) Zorn*6
2.4.1 (ii) =⇒

2.6.20. f : X → Y f ◦ g = 1Y g:Y →X

. f :X→Y y∈Y Ay = f −1 (y)

{Ay | y ∈ Y }
Q
y∈Y Ay Y X g:Y →X g(y) ∈ Ay , y ∈ Y ,
( ) g f ◦ g = 1Y

*4 Ernst Friedrich Ferdinand Zermelo (1871–1953

*5 Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp Cantor (1845–1918)
*6 Max August Zorn (1906 – 1993
 41

( )
equivalence relation (`e´qfi˚u˚i‹vˆa˜l´e›n`c´e ˚r`e¨l´a˚tˇi`o“nffl)

relation d’équivalence Äquivalenzrelation otioxenie èkvivalentnosti

42

3.1
2 ?

3.1.1 ( ). X ∼
∼ (equivalence relation) :

(i) : x∈X x∼x

(ii) : x, y ∈ X x ∼ y =⇒ y ∼ x
(iii) : x, y, z ∈ X x ∼ y, y ∼ z =⇒ x ∼ z

3.1.2 ( ). X ∼ x
X [x] (equivalence class)

[x] = {a ∈ X | x ∼ a}.

3.1.3. x∼x x ∈ [x] x ∈ [x]

? x∼y y∼x x∼x
x X
y y
x ∈ [x]

3.1.4 ( ). X ∼

(i) x ∼ y.
(ii) [x] = [y].
(iii) [x] ∩ [y] 6= ∅.

. (i)=⇒(ii): [x] a x∼a x∼y

y∼x y∼a a
[y] [x] ⊂ [y]
[x] ⊃ [y] [x] = [y]
(ii)=⇒(iii): [x] ∩ [y] = [x] x ∈ [x] (iii)
(iii)=⇒(i): a ∈ [x] ∩ [y] x ∼ a, y ∼ a
a∼y x∼y
 43

3.1.5 ( ). X {Aλ | λ ∈ Λ}
2
[
(i) X = Aλ
λ∈Λ
(ii) Aλ = Aµ Aλ ∩ Aµ = ∅

3.1.6 ( ). X ∼

3.1.7 ( ). [x] ( )
X ∼ (quotient)

X/∼ = {[x] | x ∈ X}

3.1.6 . X ∼
S
X = x∈X [x] 3.1.5 (i) 3.1.4 2

[x] = [y] [x] ∩ [y] = ∅

3.1.5 (ii)

3.1.8. Z n, m ∈ Z

n ∼ m ⇐⇒ n − m ∈ 6Z = {6k | k ∈ Z}

Z/∼ 6

Z/∼ = {[0], [1], [2], [3], [4], [5]}.

3.1.9 ( ?). (1) Z n, m ∈ Z

n ∼ m ⇐⇒ |n − m| ≤ 6
44

(2) Z n, m ∈ Z

n ∼ m ⇐⇒ n ≤ m

(3) Z n, m ∈ Z

n ∼ m ⇐⇒ n 6= m

( )

3.1.10 ( (cardinal number)). A B

(equivalent) A B
f :A→B A
B A∼B ( #A = #B) A∼B A
B (equipotent)

A #A |A|

3.1.11.

n
A ∼ {1, 2, . . . , n}

A n #A = n
(finite set) A (infinite set)

A N

A ∼ {1, 2, 3, . . . }

A (countable) A (countable set)

#A = ℵ0 ℵ 1
 45

3.1.12. 2.4.8 N Z
2.4.9 N Q+ 2.4.8
Q+ Q

ℵ0 = #N = #Z = #Q+ = #Q.

3.1.13. 2.3.18 (a, b) (0, 1)

R 2.4.11 (0, 1) × (0, 1) (0, 1)
R×R R (0, 1) ℵ

ℵ = #R = #(0, 1) = #(0, 1)2 = #R2 .

3.1.14. R3 R2 n Rn R

3.1.15. 2.4.12 N R ℵ0 6= ℵ

R ℵ A A
(at most countable)

( )∗

2 (X, ), (Y, ′ ) f :X →Y

(X, ) (Y, ′ )

x, x′ ∈ X x  x′ f (x) ′ f (x′ )

*1

(X, ) (Y, ′ ) X Y

*1 X 6= ∅ (X, )

(X, ) G : X → 2X a 7→ G(a) = {x ∈ X | x < a} (X, )

46

3.2
n

3.2.1. x, y x−y n x, y n
(congruent)

x≡y (mod n)

n (congruence expression)

m, n n m
k m = kn ,n m

n|m

x≡y (mod n) ⇐⇒ n | x − y

3.2.2. x ≡ y (mod n)

. x ≡ y (mod n) x≡y
x−x=0=0·n x≡x
x≡y x − y = kn k y − x = (−k)n y≡x

x ≡ y, y ≡ z , x − y = k1 n, y − z = k2 n k1 , k2
x − z = (x − y) + (y − z) = k1 n + k2 n = (k1 + k2 )n x≡z
n Z
Z/nZ Zn

Z/nZ = Zn = Z/≡

x [x]n , [x]

Zn = {[0], [1], [2], . . . , [n − 1]}

x ≡ y (mod n) x≡y

3.2.3. x ≡ x′ , y ≡ y ′
 47

(i) x + y ≡ x′ + y ′ . ( ≡ )
(ii) xy ≡ x′ y ′ . ( ≡ )

. x ≡ x′ x − x′ = kn k y ≡ y′ y − y ′ = `n
`

(i) (x + y) − (x′ + y ′ ) = (x − x′ ) + (y − y ′ ) = kn + `n = (k + `)n x + y ≡ x′ + y ′ .

(ii) xy − x′ y ′ = (x − x′ )y + x′ (y − y ′ ) = kny + x′ `n = (ky + x′ `)n xy ≡ x′ y ′ .

Z/nZ
[x]n + [y]n := [x + y]n (1)
[x]n · [y]n := [x y]n (2)

[x]n , [y]n x, y

[x]n = [x′ ]n , [y]n = [y ′ ]n

=⇒ x ≡ x′ , y ≡ y′
=⇒ x + y ≡ x′ + y ′ , xy ≡ x′ y ′ ( 3.2.3 )
′ ′ ′ ′
=⇒ [x + y]n = [x + y ]n , [xy]n = [x y ]n

(1), (2) (well-

defined )

3.2.4. Z/2Z = {[0]2 , [1]2 }

+ [0]2 [1]2 × [0]2 [1]2

[0]2 [0]2 [1]2 [0]2 [0]2 [0]2
[1]2 [1]2 [0]2 [1]2 [0]2 [1]2

3.2.5. Z/3Z = {[0]3 , [1]3 , [2]3 } [n]3 n

+ 0 1 2 × 0 1 2
0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0
1 1 2 0 1 0 1 2
2 2 0 1 2 0 2 1

3.2.6. Z/4Z = {[0]4 , [1]4 , [2]4 , [3]4 }

[n]4 n
48

+ 0 1 2 3 × 0 1 2 3
0 0 1 2 3 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 2 3 0 1 0 1 2 3
2 2 3 0 1 2 0 2 0 2
3 3 0 1 2 3 0 3 2 1

3.2.7. Z/5Z = {[0]5 , [1]5 , [2]5 , [3]5 , [4]5 }

+ 0 1 2 3 4 × 0 1 2 3 4
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4

3.2.8. Z/6Z = {[0]6 , [1]6 , [2]6 , [3]6 , [4]6 , [5]6 }

+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 × 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5

3.2.9. Z/7Z = {[0], [1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6]}

+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 × 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6

3.2.10. Z/8Z = {[0], [1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6], [7]}
 49

+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 × 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7

3.2.11. Z/9Z

× 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

3.2.12. n = 2, 3, . . . , 9

{[ak ] | k = 1, 2, 3, . . . }

a 1≤a<n
50

3.3

Z = {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, . . . }

N = {1, 2, 3, . . . }

a, b a + b, ab

(i) : a + b = b + a.
(ii) : (a + b) + c = a + (b + c).
(iii) : ab = ba.
(iv) : a(bc) = (ab)c.
(v) : a(b + c) = ab + ac, (a + b)c = ac + bc.

3.3.1. p q (p, q) Z×N Z×N

∼

(p, q) ∼ (p′ , q ′ ) ⇐⇒ pq ′ − p′ q = 0
def

∼ (p, q) [(p, q)] p/q ∼

Z×N Q
Q = Z × N/∼

∼ (p1 , q1 ) ∼ (p2 , q2 ), (p2 , q2 ) ∼

(p3 , q3 ) p1 q2 − p2 q1 = 0, p2 q 3 − p3 q 2 = 0
q2 (p1 q3 − p3 q1 ) = q3 (p1 q2 − p2 q1 ) + q1 (p2 q3 − p3 q2 ) = 0

q2 6= 0 p1 q 3 − p3 q 1 = 0 (p1 , q1 ) ∼ (p3 , q3 )

3.3.2. ∼

3.3.3. Q
[(p, q)] + [(p′ , q ′ )] : = (pq ′ + p′ q, qq ′ )
[(p, q)] · [(p′ , q ′ )] : = (pp′ , qq ′ )
 51

(well-defined )
(p1 , q1 ) ∼ (p2 , q2 ),
(p′1 , q1′ ) ∼ (p′2 , q2′ )

(p1 q1′ + p′1 q1 , q1 q1′ ) ∼ (p2 q2′ + p′2 q2 , q2 q2′ )

(p1 p′1 , q1 q1′ ) ∼ (p2 p′2 , q2 q2′ )

(p1 , q1 ) ∼ (p2 , q2 ), (p′1 , q1′ ) ∼ (p′2 , q2′ ) p1 q2 − p2 q1 = p′1 q2′ − p′2 q1′ = 0

(p1 q1′ + p′1 q1 )(q2 q2′ ) − (p2 q2′ + p′2 q2 )(q1 q1′ )
= (p1 q2 − p2 q1 )q1′ q2′ + (p′1 q2′ − p′2 q1′ )q1 q2 = 0

(p1 q1′ + p′1 q1 , q1 q1′ ) ∼ (p2 q2′ + p′2 q2 , q2 q2′ ) ,

(p1 p′1 )(q2 q2′ ) − (p2 p′2 )(q1 q1′ ) = (p1 q2 − p2 q1 )p′1 q2′ + (p′1 q2′ − p′2 q1′ )p2 q1 = 0

(p1 p′1 , q1 q1′ ) ∼ (p2 p′2 , q2 q2′ )

,

p p′ pq ′ + p′ q p p′ pp′
+ ′ = , · ′ = ′
q q qq ′ q q qq

?
(p, q) p/q

3.3.4. Q a = p1 /q1 , b = p2 /q2 , c = p3 /q3 ,

(i) : a + b = b + a.
(ii) : (a + b) + c = a + (b + c).
(iii) : ab = ba.
(iv) : a(bc) = (ab)c.
(v) : a(b + c) = ab + ac, (a + b)c = ac + bc.

. ( )

p1 /q1 + p2 /q2 = (p1 q2 + p2 q1 )/(q1 q2 ) = p2 /q2 + p1 /q1 .

3.3.5. 3.3.4 (ii)–(v)

52

3.3.6 ( ). 2 p1 /q1 , p2 /q2 p1 /q1 ≤ p2 /q2

def
p1 /q1 ≤ p2 /q2 ⇐⇒ p1 q2 ≤ p2 q1

3.3.7. (p1 , q1 ) ∼ (p′1 , q1′ ), (p2 , q2 ) ∼

(p′2 , q2′ )
p1 q2 ≤ p2 q1 ⇐⇒ p′1 q2′ ≤ p′2 q1′

3.3.8. Q

3.3.9 (Z Q ). f :Z→Q p 7→ p/1 f

(i) f (p) + f (p′ ) = f (p + p′ ),

(ii) f (p)f (p′ ) = f (pp′ ).
(iii) p ≤ p′ f (p) ≤ f (p′ ).

p p/1 p p/1 p

3.3.10 ( ). O = 0/1 a + O = a, a · O = O

O 0 0

3.3.11 ( ). Q a = p/q a + a′ = a′ + a = 0 Q
′ ′ ′
a a = (−p)/q a a −a

3.3.12 ( ). Q a,b

a − b := a + (−b)

3.3.13. a = p1 /q1 , b = p2 /q2

a − b = (p1 q2 − p2 q1 )/(q1 q2 )

a−b

3.3.14 ( ). 1 = 1/1 Q a a · 1 = 1 · a = a.

3.3.15 ( ). 0 Q a = p/q aa′ = a′ a = 1

Q a′ a′ = q/p a′ a 1/a
 53

3.3.16 ( ). Q a,b b 6= 0 a
b

a
:= a(1/b)
b
3.3.17. a = p1 /q1 , b = p2 /q2
a
= (p1 q2 )/(q1 p2 )
b
a
b

Q 0

3.3.18. a, b, c

(i) a < b a + c < b + c.

(ii) a > 0, b > 0 ab > 0.
(iii) a < b, c > 0 ac < bc.

3.3.19. 3.3.18

3.3.20. Z∗ = Z − {0} Z × Z∗

def
(p1 , q1 ) ∼ (p2 , q2 ) ⇐⇒ p1 q2 − p2 q1 = 0

Z × Z∗
 55

*1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100

( )
number theory (”n˚u‹m˜bfleˇrffl ˚t‚h`e´o˘r‹y) théorie des nombres

Zahlentheorie teori qisel

*1 1 2 2 3 3 5
5
56

4.1
4.1.1 ( ). a, b > 0

a = bq + r, 0≤r<b

q, r

. q, r a≥0

B = {bn | bn > a ≥ 0, n ∈ N}

N b(a + 1) > a b(a + 1) ∈ B

b(q + 1)

bq ≤ a < b(q + 1)

r = a − bq 0 ≤ a − bq = r < b a<0 −a > 0

−a = bq1 + r1 , 0 ≤ r1 < b

q 1 , r1

a = −bq1 − r1 = b(−q1 − 1) + (b − r1 )

q = −q1 − 1, r = b − r1
a = bq1 + r1 = bq2 + r2 , 0 ≤ r1 , r2 < b

b(q1 − q2 ) = r2 − r1

−b < r2 − r1 < b b>0 r2 − r1 = 0.

q1 − q2 = 0

a, b a = bc c a b (multiple)
b a (divisor) b a (factor) b a

b|a

4.1.2. (i) a | b b|c a | c.

(ii) a | b b|a a = ±b.
 57

a1 , . . . , a n ai a1 , . . . , a n
(common multiples) (the
least common multiple) a1 , . . . , a n LCM(a1 , . . . , an )
ai a1 , . . . , a n (common divisors)
(the greatest common divisor)
a1 , . . . , a n GCD(a1 , . . . , an )

4.1.3. a1 , . . . , an 0

(i) a1 , . . . , an
(ii) a1 , . . . , an

. (i) l = LCM(a1 , . . . , an ) l′
l′ = lq + r, 0 ≤ r < l, r=0 i ai | l,
ai | l ′ ai | r. r 6= 0 l r=0

(ii) d = GCD(a1 , . . . , an ) d′ d d′ l
d | ai , d′ | ai (i) l | ai . l a1 , . . . , a n d
l ≥ d. l d d ≥ l. d = l. l d′
d′ | d.

4.1.4. a, b, q, b 6= 0, GCD(a, b) = GCD(a − qb, b).

. d = GCD(a, b), d′ = GCD(a − qb, b)

a, b d a − qb d d | d′ .
a − qb, b d′ a = (a − qb) + qb d′ d′ | d.
d = d′ .

a, b

a = q 0 b + r0 0 ≤ r1 < b
b = q 1 r 1 + r2 0 ≤ r2 < r 1
r1 = q 2 r 2 + r3 0 ≤ r3 < r 2
···
rk−1 = qk rk + rk+1 0 ≤ rk < rk−1
···

b > r1 > r2 > · · · ≥ 0

58

rn−1 = qn rn n

GCD(a, b) = GCD(b, r1 ) = GCD(r1 , r2 ) = · · · = GCD(rn−1 , rn ) = rn

4.1.5. 7803 6273

7803 =1 × 6273 + 1530

6273 =4 × 1530 + 153
1530 =10 × 153

153

4.1.6. 637 507

637 =1 × 507 + 130

507 =3 × 130 + 117
130 =1 × 117 + 13
117 =9 × 13

13

4.1.7. 2567 7652

4.1.8. a, b

A = {ax + by | x, y ∈ Z}

A a, b d

. A d0 c ∈ A c = d0 q + r,
0 ≤ r < d0 q, r r∈A d0 r=0
A d0 d = d0
a, b ∈ A a, b d0 d0 a, b d
d0 ≤ d.
d a, b a = a1 d, b = b1 d a1 , b 1 d0 = ax + by
x, y d0 = ax + by = a1 dx + b1 dy = (a1 x + b1 y)d d
d = d0

a, b, c

ax + by = c x, y ⇐⇒ GCD(a, b) | c
 59

4.1.9. 32x + 57y = 1

4.1.10. 4.1.8 a1 , . . . , a n

A = {a1 x1 + · · · + an xn | x1 , . . . , xn ∈ Z}

A a1 , . . . , a n d

4.1.10 a1 , . . . , a n , b

(i) a1 x1 + · · · + an xn = b x1 , . . . , x n .
(ii) GCD(a1 , . . . , an ) | b

4.1.11. 6x + 10y + 15z = 1 x, y, z

GCD(a, b) = 1 a b (coprime)

4.1.12. a, b a | bc a | c.

. a, b GCD(a, b) = 1, 4.1.8 ax + by = 1 x, y ∈ Z

c = 1c = (ax + by)c = acx + bcy,

a | bc a | c.

4.1.13. a, b a | c, b | c ab | c.

. a, b 4.1.8 ax + by = 1 x, y ∈ Z
c = aa1 = bb1 a1 , b 1 ∈ Z

c = 1c = (ax + by)c = axc + byc = ab(b1 x + a1 y)

ab | c
60

4.2
p ±1, ±p (prime number)
(composite number)

4.2.1. p a, b p | ab p|a p | b.

. a p p p 1
GCD(a, p) = p p | a.
GCD(a, p) = 1 4.1.12 p | ab p | b.

4.2.2. p a1 , . . . , a n p | a1 . . . a n i
p | ai

4.2.3 ( ). a
a 2

a = p1 · · · p k = q 1 · · · q l

k=l p1 = q 1 , . . . , p k = q k

. a a a=2
a k = 1, p1 = 2 a a
k = 1, p1 = a a a = a1 a2 , 1 < a1 < a,
1 < a2 < a a1 , a2 a

a 2 a = p1 · · · p k = q 1 · · · q l
k≤l p1 | q 1 · · · q l 4.2.1
qj p1 | q j p1 , q j p1 = q j . p1 = q 1

p2 · · · pk = q 2 · · · q l

k (k < l
1 2 )
 61

a = p 1 e1 p 2 e2 · · · p k ek , p2 < p3 < · · · < pk

p, q a = p4 q 3 a

1 p p2 p3 p4
q pq p2 q p3 q p4 q
q2 pq 2 p2 q 2 p3 q 2 p4 q 2
q3 pq 3 p2 q 3 p3 q 3 p4 q 3

a 5 × 4 = 20 a

1 + p + p2 + p3 + p4
+ q + pq + p2 q + p3 q + p4 q
+ q2 + pq 2 + p2 q 2 + p3 q 2 + p4 q 2
+ q3 + pq 3 + p2 q 3 + p3 q 3 + p4 q 3
= (1 + p + p2 + p3 + p4 )(1 + q + q 2 + q 3 )
p5 − 1 q 4 − 1
=
p−1 q−1

4.2.4. 2 a = p 1 e1 · · · p k ek

(i) a (1 a ) (1 + e1 ) · · · (1 + ek )
(ii) a

p1 e1 +1 − 1 p2 e2 +1 − 1 pk ek +1 − 1
··· .
p1 − 1 p2 − 1 pk − 1
4.2.5. 4.2.4

4.2.6. a, b 2

a = p 1 e1 p 2 e2 · · · p k ek , b = p 1 f1 p 2 f2 · · · p k fk

(pi 0 )

GCD(a, b) = p1 d1 p2 d2 · · · pk dk di = min{ei , fi }
LCM(a, b) = p1 l1 p2 l2 · · · pk lk li = max{ei , fi }

4.2.7.
62

(Euclid) 3 ?)

4.2.8.

. p1 , . . . , p n

p = p1 p2 . . . p n + 1

p1 , . . . , p n p p1 , . . . , p n
p p p1 , . . . , p n

(1 )

3 2 5 3 7 2 ?


 x ≡ 2 (mod 3)
x ≡ 3 (mod 5)

x ≡ 2 (mod 7)

x0 x0
3, 5, 7 105 x0 + 105 1 105

4.2.9 ( (Chinese remainder theorem)). m1 , . . . , mr 2

n = m1 · · · mr



 x ≡ a1 (mod m1 )

x ≡ a2 (mod m2 )

 ···

x ≡ ar (mod mr )

. Mi = n/mi = m1 · · · m
ci · · · mn mi mj (j 6= i)
 63

xi yi

mi x i + M i y i = 1

mi | Mi yi − 1 mj | Mi (j 6= i)

Mi y i ≡1 (mod mi )
Mi y i ≡0 (mod mj ) (j 6= i)

a = a 1 M1 y 1 + a 2 M2 y 2 + · · · + a r Mr y r

x x ≡ a (mod mi ) mi | x − a. 4.1.13
M | x−a x ≡ a (mod M ) x ≡ a ≡ ai (mod mi )
x

4.2.10. n, m1 , . . . , mr

f : Z/nZ −→ (Z/m1 Z) × · · · × (Z/mr Z)

[a]n 7 → ([a]m1 , . . . , [a]mr )

2.4.4

4.2.11.
m1 = 3, m2 = 5, m3 = 7 M1 = 35,
M2 = 21, M3 = 15

mi xi + Mi yi = 1, i = 1, 2, 3

x i , yi

3 · 13 + 35 · (−1) = 1, 5 · (−4) + 21 · (1) = 1, 7 · (−2) + 15 · 1 = 1

x = −35a1 + 21a2 + 15a3 a1 = 2, a2 = 3, a3 = 2 x = 23

4.2.12. x ≡ 2 (mod 5), x ≡ 3 (mod 7), x ≡ 2 (mod 16) x

64

4.3 Z/nZ (Z/nZ)∗

3.2 Z/nZ n≤8 5.1, 5.2
Z/nZ Z/nZ

4.3.1. Z/10Z

× 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

4.3.2. Z/11Z

× 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

4.3.3. Z/12Z
 65

× 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

4.3.4. Z/13Z

× 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

4.3.5. n = 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, a = 1, 2, . . . , n − 1

{[ak ] | k = 1, 2, . . . }

Z/nZ (Z/nZ)∗
66

4.3.6. (Z/nZ)∗

. (Z/nZ)∗ [p], [q] ∈ (Z/nZ)∗

[s], [t] ∈ Z/nZ [ps] = [1], [qt] = 1 [pq][st] = [psqt] =
[ps][qt] = [1][1] = [1] [pq]

4.3.7. n = 9, 10, 11, 12 (Z/nZ)∗

4.3.8. (Z/nZ)∗ = {[a] | GCD(a, n) = 1}.

. a∈Z

[a] ∈ (Z/nZ)∗ ⇐⇒ ∃b ∈ Z [ab] = [1]

⇐⇒ ∃b, c ∈ Z ab − 1 = nc
⇐⇒ ∃b, c ∈ Z ab + n(−c) = 1
⇐⇒ GCD(a, b) = 1

4.1.8

4.3.9. n = pe

(Z/nZ)∗ = Z/nZ − {[pb] | b = 1, 2, . . . , pe−1 }.

n = p 1 e1 . . . p r er

f : Z/nZ −→ (Z/p1 e1 Z) × · · · × (Z/pr er Z)

[a]n 7 → ([a]p1 e1 , . . . , [a]pr er )
*2 4.2.10 a ∈ Z/nZ
f (a) = (a1 , . . . , ar )

a ∈ (Z/nZ)∗ ⇐⇒ a−1 = (a1 −1 , . . . , ar −1 )

⇐⇒ i ai −1
⇐⇒ i ai ∈ (Z/pi ei Z)∗

f ((Z/nZ)∗ ) = (Z/p1 e1 Z)∗ × · · · × (Z/pr er Z)∗

*2 5.2.7 5.2.21
 67

4.3.10 ( ). n n n
ϕ(n)

ϕ(n) = #{a ∈ Z | GCD(a, n) = 1, 1 ≤ a ≤ n} = #((Z/nZ)∗ ).

4.3.9 ϕ(pe ) = pe − pe−1 = pe (1 − 1/p). n = p 1 e1 · · · p r er

ϕ(n) = ϕ(p1 e1 ) · · · ϕ(pr er )

   
1 1
= p1 e1
1− · · · pr er
1−
p1 pr
   
1 1
=n 1− ··· 1 −
p1 pr

4.3.11. GCD(a, n) = 1 aφ(n) ≡ 1 (mod n).

. [a] Z/nZ

fa : (Z/nZ)∗ → (Z/nZ)∗ , [x] 7→ [a][x] = [ax]

f[a]−1 Z/nZ = {[a1 ], . . . , [ak ]}, k = ϕ(n),

{[a1 ], . . . , [ak ]} = {[aa1 ], . . . , [aak ]}.

[a1 · · · ak ] = [a1 ] · · · [ak ] = [aa1 ] · · · [aak ] = [ak a1 · · · ak ]

a1 · · · ak ≡ ak a1 · · · ak (mod n)

n | a1 · · · ak (ak − 1) a1 · · · ak n n | (ak − 1)

4.3.12. p 1≤a<p a ap−1 ≡ 1 (mod p).

. GCD(a, p) = 1, ϕ(p) = p − 1
4.3.12 *3

*3 Pierre de Fermat (1607 – 1665

68

ϕ(n)
ϕ(n)

250

200

150

100

50

50 100 150 200 250 300 n

 69

+ − × ÷
⊕ ⊗

group (`gˇr`o˘u¯pffl) groupe Gruppe gruppa

ring (˚r˚i‹n`g) anneau Ring kolvqo
field (˜fˇi`e¨l´dffl) corps Körper pole
70

5.1

5.1.1 ( ). S (semigroup) ·

(i) a, b, c ∈ S (a · b) · c = a · (b · c). ( )

(ii) a, b ∈ S a · b = b · a. ( )

S (commutative semigroup)
· + +
(additive semigroup)

5.1.2. N = {1, 2, 3, . . . } + ×

5.1.3. 3.2 Z/nZ = {[0], [1], [2], . . . , [n − 1]} +

×

5.1.4 ( ). S · a∈S

a·e=e·a=a

S e e S (unity)
0

5.1.5. S = {5a + 7b | a, b } 0 S

5.1.6 ( ).

. e e′ a∈S a · e = a, a = e′ · a
e′ = e′ · e = e e = e′

5.1.7 ( ). S e S a
(invertible element)

a·b=b·a=e

b∈S b a (inverse) a
 71

a−1
a −a

5.1.8 ( ). a

. b b′ a a∈S a · b = e, b′ · a = e

b′ = b′ · e = b′ · (a · b) = (b′ · a) · b = e · b = b

b = b′

5.1.9. b a a b

5.1.10. N ?
? ?

5.1.11. 3.2 Z/nZ

5.1.12. (Z/nZ) (Z/nZ)∗ n =

∗
2, 3, . . . , 8 (Z/nZ)

5.1.13 ( ). · G (group)

(i) ·
(ii) a∈G

a a−1

5.1.14. G
• a ae = a e ea = a *1

• aa = a G a ab = e b
• ab = e ba = e ((ba)(ba) = ba )

(commutative group) +
(additive group) 0
a −a

*1 ab = e, bc = e b, c ea = e(ae) = e(a(bc)) = e((ab)c) = (e(ab))c = (ee)c = ec =

(ab)c = a(bc) = ae = a.
72

5.1.15. 3.2 Z/nZ = {[0], [1], [2], . . . , [n − 1]} +

×

5.1.16. Z/nZ (Z/nZ)∗

n = 2, 3, . . . , 9

5.1.17 ( ). M M (per-
mutation) ,M S(M ) S(M )
M M = {1, 2, . . . , n} S(M )
n (symmetric group) Sn

i 7→ ai , i = 1, 2, . . . , n

 
1 2 ··· n
a1 a2 ··· an

{a1 , a2 , . . . , an } = {1, 2, . . . , n}
n=3    
123 123
σ= , τ=
231 213

   
123 123
στ = , τσ =
132 321

σ τ

στ στ τσ

στ , τ σ =

5.1.18 (3 S3 ).
     
123 123 123
e= , α= , β=
123 213 132

 
123
σ= = βα
231
 73

S3 = {e, σ, σ 2 , α, ασ, ασ 2 }

S3

e σ σ2 α ασ ασ 2
e
σ

σ2
α
ασ

ασ 2

5.1.19 (4 S4 ). 4 S4 5.1.18 *2

:
       
1234 1234 1234 1234
e= , α= , β= , γ=
1234 2134 1324 1243

5.1.20. #Sn = n!

2 G, H f :G→H (group homomorphism)

(i) a, b ∈ R f (a · b) = f (a) · f (b).

5.1.21. f :G→H

5.1.22. f :G→H Ker f

Ker f f

5.1.23. 5.1.18 ϕ : S3 → Z/2Z

ϕ(e) = ϕ(σ) = ϕ(σ 2 ) = [0], ϕ(α) = ϕ(ασ) = ϕ(ασ 2 ) = [1].

*2 S4 24
74

5.2
5.2.1 ( ). R +, · , R
(ring)

(i) R +
(ii) R ·
(iii) a, b, c ∈ R a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c, (a + b) · c = a · c + b · c. (
)

+ (zero) 0 ·

(iv) a, b ∈ R a · b = b · a. ( )

R (commutative ring) ·
(commutative ring with unity)
1

R a, b a−b

a − b := a + (−b)

a − a = a + (−a) = 0

x+b=a ⇐⇒ x=a−b

5.2.2. R a, b, c ,

(a − b)c = ac − bc, a(b − c) = ab − ac

5.2.3. Z = {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, . . . } + ×

Q, R, C
3.2 Z/nZ
 75

5.2.4. R Z, Q, R, C R n

  

 a11 ··· a1n 

 .. 
Mn (R) =  ... ..
. .  aij ∈ R

 

an1 ··· ann
+ · n≥2

5.2.5. R Z, Q, R, C 1 R
 
∃n ∈ N, ∃ a1 , . . . , an ∈ R,
R[x] = f (x)
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn
n x1 , . . . , x n
n∑ o
R[x1 , . . . , xn ] = ai1 ,...,in x1 i1 · · · xn in ai1 ,...,in ∈ R

5.2.6. R a, b

(i) 0 · a = 0, a · 0 = 0.
(ii) a(−b) = −ab, (−a)b = −ab.
(iii) (−a)(−b) = ab.

. (i): 0 · a = (a − a)a = aa − aa = 0. a · 0 = a(a − a) = aa − aa = 0.

(ii): 0 = a(b + (−b)) = ab + a(−b), 0 = a((−b) + b) = a(−b) + ab, a(−b) = −ab
(−a)b = −ab
(iii): (ii) (−a)(−b) = −(−a)b = −(−ab) = ab. −ab
ab

5.2.7. 2 R, S f :R→S (ring homomor-

phism)

(i) a, b ∈ R f (a + b) = f (a) + f (b).

(ii) a, b ∈ R f (a · b) = f (a) · f (b).

f R S f

5.2.8. f :R→S f −1
76

5.2.9. f : Z → Z/nZ, f (x) = [x],

5.2.10. f :R→S Ker f

Ker f f

5.2.11 ( ). F F − {0} · F
(field) 0

5.2.12. Q, R, C

5.2.13 ( ). x + yi, x, y ∈ R i2 = −1

  
x y
C̄ := x, y ∈ R
−y x

C C̄
 
x y
f : C → C̄, x + yi 7→
−y x

5.2.14 ( ). x + yi + zj + wk,
x, y, z, w ∈ R,

i2 = j 2 = k2 = −1, ij = −ji = k, jk = −kj = i, ki = −ik = j

H H
  

 x y z w 

 
−y x −w z 
H̄ :=  −z
 x, y, z, w ∈ R

 w x −y  

 
−w −z y x

 
x y z w
 −y x −w z 
f : H → H̄, x + zi + yj + wk 7→ 
 −z

w x −y 
−w −z y x

H H̄
  
x + yi z + wi
Ĥ := x, y, z, w ∈ R
−z + wi x − yi
 77

 
x + yi z + wi
f : H → Ĥ, x + zi + yj + wk 7→
−z + wi x − yi

H Ĥ

5.2.15. R[x] R ϕ : R[x] → R

( : ϕ : R[x] → R ϕ(1) = 1
ϕ(x) = a a f (x) = c0 + c1 x + · · · + cn xn ,
ci ∈ R, ϕ f (a) = c0 + c1 a + · · · + cn an ϕa
) Ker ϕa = Ker ϕa′

Ker ϕ = {f ∈ R[x] | ϕ(f ) = 0}.

5.2.16. R[x] C ϕ : R[x] → C

( : ϕ : R[x] → C ϕ(1) = 1
√
ϕ(x) = a + b −1 a, b f (x) ϕ
√
f (a + b −1) ϕa,b ) Ker ϕa,b = Ker ϕa′ ,b′

5.2.17 ( ). R S 1 ∈ S
a, b ∈ S ab ∈ S S S
R×S

(a, s) ∼ (a′ , s′ ) ⇐⇒ t(as′ − a′ s) = 0 t∈S

(a, s) a/s, R[S −1 ] S −1 R

a/s + a′ /s′ = (as′ + a′ s)/(ss′ ), a/s + a′ /s′ = (aa′ )/(ss′ )

5.2.18. 3.3 ∼
ϕ : R → R[S −1 ], ϕ(a) = a/1
Ker ϕ = {a ∈ R | ∃s ∈ S as = 0}

5.2.19 ( ). r G1 , . . . , G r G1 × · · · × G r

(a1 , . . . , ar ) · (b1 , . . . , br ) := (a1 b1 , . . . , ar br )

· G1 × · · · × Gr (e1 , . . . , er ), ei Gi
78

5.2.20. G1 × · · · × Gr a = (a1 , . . . , ar ) (a1 −1 , . . . , ar −1 )

5.2.21 ( ). r R1 , . . . , R r R1 × · · · × R r

(a1 , . . . , ar ) + (b1 , . . . , br ) := (a1 + b1 , . . . , ar + br )

(a1 , . . . , ar ) · (b1 , . . . , br ) := (a1 b1 , . . . , ar br )

+, · R 1 × · · · × Rr
 79

5.3
X  X 2 a, b ab

(i) : a  a.
(ii) : ab ba a = b.
(iii) : ab bc a  c.


(pseudo-order) X a, b ab ab
(total pseudo-order)

5.3.1 ( ). G 

(i) G a, b, c ab a+cb+c

 , ,

5.3.2 ( ). R 

(i) R
(ii) a  0, b  0 ab  0.

 (ordered ring),  ,

R
P := {a ∈ R | a  0}

(positive cone) −P

−P := {x ∈ R | − x ∈ P }.

5.3.3. (R, ) P

(i) 0 ∈ P
(ii) a, b ∈ P a + b ∈ P.
80

(iii) a, b ∈ P ab ∈ P .

(i), (ii), (iii) P P R

. (R, ) (i), (iii) (ii)

a, b ∈ P a  0, b  0. a + b  a + 0  0 + 0 = 0 a + b ∈ P.
P (i), (ii), (iii) R ,
def
a  b ⇐⇒ b − a ∈ P

5.3.4. R P

(i)  ⇐⇒ P ∩ (−P ) = {0}.

(ii)  ⇐⇒ P ∪ (−P ) = R.

. (i):  P ∩ (−P ) = {0} P ∩ (−P ) = {0}

a  b, a  b ⇐⇒ a − b  0, b − a  0
⇐⇒ a − b ∈ P, b − a ∈ P
⇐⇒ a − b ∈ P ∩ (−P ) = {0}
⇐⇒ a = b.


(ii):  R a a0 a0
, P ∪ (−P ) = R.

ab a  b ⇐⇒ a − b  0 b−a0
⇐⇒ a − b ∈ P b−a∈P
⇐⇒ a − b ∈ P a − b ∈ (−P )

P ∪ (−P ) = R 

5.3.5. Q P

P = {p/q ∈ Q | p ≥ 0}.

P 5.3.3(i), (ii), (iii) P ∪ (−P ) = R, P ∩ (−P ) = {0}

 81

5.3.6. R

5.3.7. R[x] a
Pa

Pa = {f (x) ∈ R[x] | f (a) ≥ 0}.

Pa 5.3.3(i), (ii), (iii) P ∪ (−P ) = R[x]

Pa + , Pa −

Pa+ = {f (x) ∈ R[x] | ∃ε > 0 s.t. x < y < x + ε f (y) ≥ 0}

Pa− = {f (x) ∈ R[x] | ∃ε > 0 s.t. x > y > x − ε f (y) ≥ 0}

5.3.8. X, Y ( ) f :X→Y ( )
, X x, y

xy f (x)  f (y)

: X ∼ f : X → Y := X/ ∼

(i) X Y f ?
?
(ii) X Y f ?
?
(iii) X ( ) Y ( ) f ( )
? ?

5.3.9. X, Y f : X → Y, g : Y → X (i)–(iv)
f |g(Y ) : g(Y ) → f (X) g|f (X) : f (X) → g(Y )

(i) x, x′ ∈ X x  x′ f (x′ )  f (x)

(ii) y, y ′ ∈ Y y  y′ g(y ′ )  g(y)
(iii) x∈X x  g ◦ f (x)
(iv) y∈Y y  f ◦ g(y)
82

. x∈X

f (x)  f ◦ g(f (x)) ((iv) )

= f (g ◦ f (x))
 f (x) ((i), (iii) )

f ◦ g(f (x)) = f (x). y∈Y

g(y)  g ◦ f (g(y)) ((iii) )

= g(f ◦ g(y))
 g(y) ((ii), (iv) )

g ◦ f (g(y)) = g(y). f ◦ g|f (X) = 1|f (X) , g ◦ f |g(Y ) = 1|g(Y )

 83

-
- -
- - -
- - - -
- - - - -
- - - - - -
- - - - - - -
- - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Giuseppe Peano (1858 – 1932

84

6.1 Peano
Peano N 5

(i) 1 ∈ N.
(ii) ϕ:N→N
(iii) ϕ(N) 63 1.
(iv) ϕ
(v) N A N = A.
1 ∈ A, ϕ(A) ⊂ A.

(i)–(v) , N
(i)–(v) N (i) ‘1
’ (ii) ‘ϕ(1) ’
ϕ(1) = 2 ‘2 ’ ϕ(2) = 3, ϕ(3) = 4, . . .
‘1, 2, 3, 4, . . . 1 ϕ(1),
ϕ(ϕ(1)), ϕ(ϕ(ϕ(1))), . . . .
(v)

N
ϕ(N)

1 7→ 2 7→ 3 7→ 4 7→ 5 7→ 6 7→ 7 7→ 8 7→ 9 7→
φ φ φ φ φ φ φ φ φ

ϕ
(iv)

- - - - -
ϕ
R - - - - -

- - - - - ϕ

ϕ(x) x ϕ(x) x+1

x+1 Peano
 85

(i) 1
(ii) x x x+1
(iii) 1
(iv) 2
(v) N A N = A.

1 ∈ A, x ∈ A =⇒ x + 1 ∈ A.

(v)

6.1.1 ( ). n P (n) n
2

(i) P (1)
(ii) P (n) P (n + 1)

. A = {n ∈ N | P (n) } ,A=N

(i) 1 ∈ A, (ii) x ∈ A =⇒ x + 1 ∈ A.

(v) A=N

x, y ∈ N x+y

6.1.2. N x N N fx

(1)x fx (1) = ϕ(x).

(2)x y∈N fx (ϕ(y)) = ϕ(fx (y)).

. fx : A

A = {x ∈ N | (1)x , (2)x fx }.

A=N
f1 (y) = ϕ(y)

(1)1 : f1 (1) = ϕ(1),

(2)1 : ∀ y ∈ N, f1 (ϕ(y)) = ϕ(ϕ(y)) = ϕ(f1 (y)).
86

1 ∈ A.
x∈A fφ(x) (y) = ϕ(fx (y))

(1)φ(x) : fφ(x) (1) = ϕ(fx (1)) = ϕ(ϕ(x)).

(2)φ(x) : fφ(x) (ϕ(y)) = ϕ(fx (ϕ(y))) = ϕ(ϕ(fx (y))) = ϕ(fφ(x) (y)).

ϕ(x) ∈ A Peano (v) A=N

fx : fx′ fx = fx′ A

A = {y ∈ N | fx (y) = fx′ (y)}

A = N fx (1) = ϕ(x) = fx′ (1) 1 ∈ A x ∈ A

fx (y) = fx′ (y)

fx (ϕ(y)) = ϕ(fx (y)) = ϕ(fx′ (y)) = fx′ (ϕ(y))

ϕ(y) ∈ A Peano (v) A=N

x + y := fx (y) x+y

6.1.3 (F - ). F :N→N ,

f (ϕ(y)) = F (f (y)), ∀ y ∈ N,

f :N→N F- f1 , f2
F- f1 (1) = f2 (1) f1 = f2 : A = {x ∈
N | f1 (x) = f2 (x)} ,

6.1.4. x, y, z ∈ N

(i) x + y = y + x
(ii) (x + y) + z = x + (y + z)

: x f1 (y) = x + y, f2 (y) = y + x 6.1.3

x, y f1 (z) = (x + y) + z, f2 (z) = x + (y + z)
6.1.3

x, y
x+y = y+x ,
x,
y x+y =y+x
x, y ∈ N xy
 87

6.1.5. N x N N gx

(i) gx (1) = x.
(ii) y∈N gx (ϕ(y)) = gx (y) + x.

. gx : A

A = {x ∈ N | (1)x , (2)x gx }.

A=N
g1 (y) = y

(1)1 : g1 (1) = 1,
(2)1 : ∀ y ∈ N, g1 (ϕ(y)) = ϕ(y) = y + 1.

1 ∈ A.
x∈A gφ(x) (y) = gx (y) + y

(1)φ(x) : gφ(x) (1) = gx (1) + 1 = x + 1 = ϕ(x).

(2)φ(x) : gφ(x) (ϕ(y)) = gx (ϕ(y)) + ϕ(y) = gx (y) + x + ϕ(y)
= gx (y) + x + y + 1 = gφ(x) (y) + ϕ(x).

ϕ(x) ∈ A Peano (v) A=N

6.1.2

6.1.6. 6.1.5

xy := gx (y) xy

6.1.7. 6.1.4 , x, y, z ∈ N xy = yx, (xy)z = x(yz)

x(y + z) = xy + xz, (x + y)z = xz + yz
88

6.2
N

6.2.1. x, y ∈ N

(i) x = y + u N u
(ii) x = y.
(iii) y = x + v N v

6.2.2. x, y ∈ N x + y 6= y.

. N x , A = {y | x + y 6= y} A=N Peano
(iii) 1 ∈ A y ∈ A x + y 6= y Peano (iii)
ϕ(x + y) 6= ϕ(y) x + y + 1 6= y + 1 y + 1 ∈ A. Peano
(v) A=N

6.2.3. x ∈ N x 6= 1 x=1+u u∈N

. A = {1} ∪ {x ∈ N | ∃ u ∈ N, x = u + 1} A = {1} ∪ ϕ(N)

Peano (v) A=N

6.2.1 . (i) (ii) x=y+u=x+u

6.2.2 (i) (ii) (ii) (iii)
(i) (iii) ,

x = y + u = (x + v) + u = x + (u + v)

6.2.2
x

A = {y ∈ N | (i),(ii),(iii) }

A=N 6.2.3 y=1 (i) (ii)

1∈A
y∈A

(i) x = y + u , 6.2.3 u = 1, u = 1 + u′
 89

x = y + 1, x = (y + 1) + u′ x y+1
(ii) (i)
(ii) x = y y+1 = x+1 x y+1 (iii)

(iii) y = x + 1 y + 1 = (x + 1) + 1 = x + 2 x y+1
(iii)

y+1∈A

6.2.4 (N ). N x,y ,

def
x > y ⇐⇒ (i)
def
x < y ⇐⇒ (iii)
def
x ≥ y ⇐⇒ (i) (ii)
def
x ≤ y ⇐⇒ (ii) (iii)

N ≤

6.2.5. x ≤ y, y ≤ z =⇒ x ≤ z

6.2.6. N x, y, z, w ,

(i) x ≤ y =⇒ x + z ≤ y + z.
(ii) x ≤ y =⇒ xz ≤ yz.
(iii) x + z = y + z =⇒ x = y.
(iv) xz = yz =⇒ x = y.
(v) x + y = z + w, x < z =⇒ y > w

N x, y x>y x = y+u u
6.2.6(iii) u u x−y
N x, y x = yu u 6.2.6(iv)
u u x/y

6.2.7. N ≤

. A N ,A min A

A∗ = {x ∈ N | ∀ a ∈ A x ≤ a}
90

6.2.3 min N = 1 1 ∈ A∗ . a ∈ A a + 1 6∈ A∗
A∗ 6= N. N x∗

x ∗ ∈ A∗ , x∗ + 1 6∈ A∗ .

x x ∈ A∗ x + 1 ∈ A∗
, Peano (v) A=N
x∗ ∈ A x∗ = min A x∗ + 1 6∈ A∗ x+1>a
a∈A x ≥ a. x ∗ ∈ A∗ x ≤ a. x = a ∈ A.

6.2.8 ( ). N x N N hx

(i) hx (1) = x.
(ii) y∈N hx (ϕ(y)) = hx (y) x.

xy = hx (y) y x (y x )

6.2.9 ( ). x, y, z

(i) xy+z = xy · xz .
(ii) (xy )z = xyz .

(i): (i) x1 = x (ii) z=1

z (ii) z

6.2.10. F1 (x, y) = xy F1 n

F1 (x, y), . . . , Fn (x, y)

Fφ(n) (x, y)

(i) x∈N Fφ(n) (x, 1) = x.

(ii) x, y ∈ N Fφ(n) (x, ϕ(y)) = Fn (x, Fφ(n) (x, y)).

F2 (x, y) = xy Fn (x, y)

F3 (x, 2) = F2 (x, F3 (x, 1)) = F2 (x, x) = xx

 91

x
F3 (x, 3) = F2 (x, F3 (x, 2)) = F2 (x, xx ) = xx
x xx
F3 (x, 4) = F2 (x, F3 (x, 3)) = F2 (x, xx ) = xx
x
xx xx
F3 (x, 5) = F2 (x, F3 (x, 4)) = F2 (x, xx ) = xx
···

F4 (x, 2)

F4 (2, 2) = F3 (2, F4 (2, 1)) = F3 (2, 2) = 22 = 4

3
F4 (3, 2) = F3 (3, F4 (3, 1)) = F3 (3, 3) = 33 = 327 = 7625597484987
4
F4 (4, 2) = F3 (4, F4 (4, 1)) = F3 (4, 4) = 44 = 4256 = 155
···

F4 (x, 3) ?
22 4
F4 (2, 3) = F3 (2, F4 (2, 2)) = F3 (2, 4) = 22 = 22 = 216 = 65536

F4 (3, 3) = F3 (3, F4 (3, 2)) = F3 (3, 327 )

92

6.3
x, y x>y x−y ,x≤y x−y

Z = {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, . . . }

−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

N = {1, 2, 3, . . . }

Z
(x, y) N2 N2 ∼

(x, y) ∼ (x′ , y ′ ) ⇐⇒ x + y ′ = y + x′
def

∼ (x, y) [(x, y)] ∼ N2

Z
Z = N2 / ∼

6.3.1 ( ). Z [(x1 , y1 )], [(x2 , y2 )]

[(x1 , y1 )] + [(x2 , y2 )] := [(x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )].

6.3.2. (well-definedness)

6.3.3 ( ). Z a1 = [(x1 , y1 )], a2 = [(x2 , y2 )], a3 = [(x3 , y3 )]

(i) a1 + a2 = a2 + a1 .
(ii) (a1 + a2 ) + a3 = a1 + (a2 + a3 ).

: 6.1.4

6.3.4 (N Z ). f :N→Z a 7→ [(ϕ(a), 1)] f

f (a + b) = f (a) + f (b), ∀ a, b ∈ N
 93

x f (x) = [(ϕ(x), 1)] x [(ϕ(x), 1)] x

N Z

6.3.5 ( ). 0 = [(1, 1)] Z a a + 0 = 0 + a = a.

x∈N [(x, x)] = 0.

. a = [(x, y)], x, y ∈ N, a + 0 = [(x + 1, y + 1)], 0 + a = [(1 + x, 1 + y)]

(x + 1, y + 1) ∼ (1 + x, 1 + y) ∼ (x, y)

(x, x) ∼ (1, 1) [(x, x)] = 0

x [(1, ϕ(x))] −x

−N := {−x | x ∈ N}

6.2.1
Z = N ∪ {0} ∪ (−N)

6.3.6 ( ). Z a a + a′ = a′ + a = 0 Z a′
a′ a −a

. a = [(x, y)], x, y ∈ N, a′ = [(y, x)]

a + a′ = [(x + y, x + y)] = [(1, 1)] = 0

6.3.7 ( ). Z a, b a − b := a + (−b)
a = [(x1 , y1 )], b = [(x2 , y2 )] a − b = (x1 + y2 , y1 + x2 )

6.3.8.

(x1 , y1 ) ∼ (x′1 , y1′ ), (x2 , y2 ) ∼ (x′2 , y2′ ) =⇒ (x1 + y2 , y1 + x2 ) ∼ (x′1 + y2′ , y1′ + x′2 )

6.3.9.

α : Z × Z → Z, (x, y) 7→ α(x, y)
94

(i) x, y ∈ N α(x, y) = xy.

(ii) Z + xy = α(x, y)

. 5.2.6 (i), (ii) α x, y ∈ N z∈Z

α(z, 0) = α(0, z) = 0 (6.1)

α(x, −y) = α(−x, y) = −α(x, y) (6.2)
α(−x, −y) = α(x, y) (6.3)

(i) (6.1), (6.2), (6.3) α (ii)

Z Z

6.3.10 (Z ). Z a, b a = [(x1 , y1 )], b = [(x2 , y2 )]

def
a < b ⇐⇒ x2 + y1 > x1 + y2

a<b b>a
def
a ≤ b ⇐⇒ a = b a<b

b≥a Z ≤

6.3.11. a<b Z

6.3.12. a > 0 ⇐⇒ a ∈ N

6.3.13. Z a, b, c

(i) a > b a + c > b + c.

(ii) a > 0, b > 0 ab > 0.

. (i): a = [(x1 , y1 )], b = [(x2 , y2 )], c = [(x3 , y3 )] a>b x 1 + y2 >

x 2 + y1 . x 1 + y2 + x 3 + y3 > x 2 + y1 + x 3 + y3 .

a + c = [(x1 + x3 , y1 + y3 )] > [(x2 + x3 , y2 + y3 )] = b + c.

(ii) 6.3.12
 95

1.4
1.41
1.414
1.4142
1.41421
1.414213
1.4142135
1.41421356
...

√
1.41, 1.414, 1.4142, 1.41421, 1.414213, 1.4142135, 1.41421356, · · · −→ 2

p
96

7.1

7.1.1. {an }n=1,2,... (Cauchy*1 sequence)

ε N m, n ≥ N |am − an | < ε

∀ε > 0 ∃N ∀m, n (m, n ≥ N |am − an | < ε)

7.1.2. {an }

7.1.3. {an }
ε N n≥N |an − aN | < ε

Cauchy(Q)

Cauchy(Q) = {{an }n=1,2,... | }

{an }n=1,2,... {an } 2

{an }, {bn } ∼

def
{an } ∼ {bn } ⇐⇒ ∀ε > 0 ∃N s.t. n ≥ N |an − bn | < ε

7.1.4.

. {an }, {bn }, {cn }

{an } ∼ {bn }, {bn } ∼ {cn } ε

∃N1 s.t. n ≥ N1 |an − bn |p < ε/2

∃N2 s.t. n ≥ N2 |bn − cn |p < ε/2

N = max{N1 , N2 }

n≥N |an − cn |p ≤ |an − bn |p + |bn − cn |p < ε/2 + ε/2 = ε.

{an } ∼ {cn }

*1 Augustin Louis Cauchy, (1789 – 1857

 97

Cauchy(Q)
b
Q
b = Cauchy(Q)/∼
Q

7.1.5. {an }

. {an } ε0 N

m>n≥N |am − an | < ε0 .

m>N |am − aN | < ε0 .
m>N a N − ε0 < a m < a N + ε 0 .
m>N |am | < |aN | + ε0

K = max{|a1 |, |a2 |, . . . , |aN |, |aN | + ε0 } n |an | ≤ K

{an }

7.1.6. {an }, {bn } {an + bn }, {an bn }

. {an + bn } {an }, {bn }

ε M1 , M2

m, n ≥ M1 |am − an | < ε/2

m, n ≥ M2 |bm − bn | < ε/2

M = max{M1 , M2 } m, n ≥ M

|(am + bm ) − (an + bn )| = |(am − an ) + (bm − bn )|

≤ |am − an | + |bm − bn |
< ε/2 + ε/2 = ε

{an + bn }
{an bn } {an }, {bn }
n
|an | < K, |bn | < K

K {an }, {bn }
ε N1 , N2
ε
m, n ≥ N1 |am − an | <
2K
ε
m, n ≥ N2 |bm − bn | <
2K
98

N = max{N1 , N2 } m, n ≥ N

|am bm − an bn | = |am (bm − bn ) + (am − an )bn |

≤ |am (bm − bn )| + |(am − an )bn |
= |am ||bm − bn | + |am − an ||bn |
< K|bm − bn | + |am − an |K
ε ε
<K + K
2K 2K
=ε

{an bn }

7.1.7 ( b
). Q α = [{an }] β = [{bn }] α+β α·β

α + β : = [{an + bn }]
α · β : = [{an bn }]

(well-defined )
{an } ∼ {a′n },
{bn } ∼ {b′n }

{an + bn } ∼ {a′n + b′n }, {an bn } ∼ {a′n b′n }

{an + bn } ∼ {a′n + b′n } {an } ∼ {a′n }, {bn } ∼ {b′n }

ε M1 , M2

n ≥ M1 |an − a′n | < ε/2

n ≥ M2 |bn − b′n | < ε/2

M = max{M1 , M2 } n≥M

|(an + bn ) − (a′n + b′n )| = |(an − a′n ) + (bn − b′n )|

≤ |an − a′n | + |bn − b′n |
< ε/2 + ε/2 = ε

{an + bn } ∼ {a′n + b′n }

{an bn } ∼ {a′n b′n } {an }, {b′n }
n
|an | < K, |b′n | < K
 99

K {an } ∼ {a′n }, {bn } ∼ {b′n }

ε N1 , N2

n ≥ N1 |an − a′n | < ε/(2K)

n ≥ N2 |bn − b′n | < ε/(2K)

N = max{N1 , N2 } n≥N

|an bn − a′n b′n | = |an (bm − b′n ) + (an − a′n )b′n |

≤ |an (bn − b′n )| + |(an − a′n )b′n |
= |an ||bn − b′n | + |an − a′n ||b′n |
< K|bn − b′n | + |an − a′n |K
< Kε/(2K) + (ε/(2K))K = ε

{an bn } ∼ {a′n b′n }

b
7.1.8. Q α = [{an }], β = [{bn }], γ = [{cn }] ,

(i) : α + β = β + α.
(ii) : (α + β) + γ = α + (β + γ).
(iii) : α · β = β · α.
(iv) : α · (β · γ) = (α · β) · γ.
(v) : α · (β + γ) = α · β + α · γ, (α + β) · γ = α · γ + β · γ.

7.1.9. 7.1.8

7.1.10 ( b
). Q α = [{an }] β = [{bn }] α≤β

def
α ≤ β ⇐⇒ ∃N s.t. n ≥ N a n ≤ bn

7.1.11. well-defined b
Q

7.1.12 ( ). α = [{an }] |α|

(
α = [{an }] α≥0
|α| =
−α = [{−an }] α<0
100

7.2
b
Q
{an }
α := [{an }] R

7.2.1 ( ). p/q an = p/q, n =

1, 2, . . . {p/q}
f :Q→R f (p/q) = [{p/q}] f

(i) f (p/q) + f (p′ /q ′ ) = f (p/q + p′ /q ′ ),

(ii) f (p/q) · f (p′ /q ′ ) = f (p/q · p′ /q ′ ).
(iii) p/q ≤ p′ /q ′ f (p/q) ≤ f (p′ /q ′ ).

p/q p/q f (p/q) f (p/q) p/q

0 = f (0) = [{0}], 1 = f (1) = [{1}] α = [{an }]

α + 0 = 0 + α = α, α · 0 = 0 · α = 0, α·1=1·α=α

7.2.2. {αn }

∀ε > 0 ∃N ∀m, n (m, n ≥ N |αm − αn | < ε)

7.2.3 ( ). {αn } *2

. {αn } ε


∃N ∀m, n m, n ≥ N |αm − αn | < ε

αn {an,k }k=1,2,... αn =
[{an,k }k=1,2,... ]


∃N ∀m, n m, n ≥ N ∃M ∀k (k ≥ M |am,k − an,k | < ε)

∃N ∀m, n ∃M ∀k (m, n ≥ N, k ≥ M ) |an,k − am,k | < ε (7.1)

*2 (complete)
 101

bk = ak,k , k = 1, 2, . . . M1 = max{N, M }


∃N ∀n ∃M1 ∀k (n ≥ N, k ≥ M1 ) |an,k − bk | < ε

{bk }k=1,2,... β = [{bk }]

∃N ∀n n ≥ N |αn − β| < ε

{αn } β {bk }

{an,k }k=1,2,... ε>0

∃Nn ∀i, j i, j > Nn |an,i − an,j | < ε (7.2)

ε>0 (7.1) N N n (7.2) Nn

N∗ = max{N, Nn } i, j ≥ N∗

|bi − bj | = |ai,i − aj,j |

≤ |ai,i − an,i | + |an,i − an,j | + |an,j − aj,j |
< ε + ε + ε = 3ε

{bk }

7.2.4 ( ). (A|A′ ) (cut)

(i) A′ A A′ = Q \ A
(ii) a ∈ A, a′ ∈ A′ a < a′
(iii) A 6= ∅, A′ 6= ∅
A A′

(A|A′ ) 4 .

(1) A A′ .
(2) A A′ .
(3) A A′ .
′
(4) A A .
102

(4) A A A′
a+b a+b
B a<b a< 2 <b 2 A
′
A
(2) a = max A a (A|A′ ) A = {x ∈ Q z| x < a},
A′ = {x ∈ Q | x ≥ a} (A|A′ ) a
(3) (A|A′ ) a = min A′ A = {x ∈ Q | x ≤ a},
A′ = {x ∈ Q | x > a} (A|A′ ) a
′
(1) (A|A ) (3) (A|A′ )
a = max A (A \ {a}, A′ ∪ {a}) (2)
(3) (2)
(1) (2)

*3

{an } (A|A′ )

A = {a ∈ Q | ∃N ∀n ≥ N a < an }, A′ = Q \ A (7.3)

A′ = {a′ ∈ Q | ∀N ∃n > N an ≤ a′ }

7.2.5. 2 {an }, {bn } {an } ∼ {bn }

B = {b ∈ Q | ∃N ∀n ≥ N b < bn }, B′ = Q \ B (7.4)

A=B

(1) (2) (B|B ′ )

a1 ∈ X, a′1 ∈ X ′ a1 , a′1 a1 < a′1
ai ∈ X, a′i ∈ X ′ ai+1 , a′i+1
ai +a′i ai +a′i ′ ′
(i) 2 ∈B ai+1 = 2 , ai+1 = ai
ai +a′i a +a′
(ii) 2 ∈ B′ ai+1 = ai , a′i+1 = i 2 i

0 ≤ ai+1 − ai ≤ 12 (a′i − ai ) a1 , a′1

*3
 103

{an }, {a′n } n≤m

am − an =(am − am−1 ) + · · · + (an+1 − an )
1 1
≤ m−1 (a′1 − a1 ) + · · · + n−1 (a′1 − a1 )
2 2
′
a1 − a1 n−m a′1 − a1  1  a′1 − a1
= n−1 (2 + · · · + 1) < n−1 1 − =
2 2 2 2n
{an }
1
a1 ≤ a2 ≤ · · · ≤ an < a′n ≤ · · · ≤ a′2 ≤ a′1 , a′n − an = (a′1 − a1 ) (7.5)
2n−1
2 2

7.2.6. (7.3) (A|A′ ) A=B

. A⊂B : a∈A a < an an ∈ B (B|B ′ )

a ∈ B.
A⊃B : x∈B a′n B′ x < a′n
x ∈ A′ n an ≤ x (7.5)
an ≤ x < a′n x<y y 1 ′
2n−1 (a1 − a1 ) < y − x n
1
0 < a′n − x ≤ a′n − an = (a′1 − a1 ) < y − x
2n−1
a′n < y y ∈ B′ x B (B|B ′ ) (1)
(2) x ∈ A′ x∈A

7.2.7. {bn } (7.4) (B|B ′ ) (B|B ′ )

{an } {an } ∼ {bn }

. (B|B ′ ) {an }, {a′n } (7.5)

ε N m, n ≥ N
|am − an | < ε/3, |bm − bn | < ε/3, 0 < a′n − an < ε/3

an m ≥ Nn an < b m Nn
a′n ∈ A′ m bm ≤ a′n m
an ≤ am < b m ≤ a′n |am − bm | ≤ |a′n − an | n≥N
|an − bn | ≤|an − am | + |am − bm | + |bm − bn |
≤|an − am | + |a′n − an | + |bm − bn | < ε
104

7.3 p
2 p
p p

p 0 x∈Q x = pk m/n k m n
p x p |x|p

|x|p = p−k

x=0 p 0, |0|p = 0

7.3.1. x, y

|xy|p = |x|p |y|p , |x + y|p ≤ |x|p + |y|p

. x, y 0 x, y 0
x = pk q, y = pl r k, l q, r p
xy = pk+l (qr)

|xy|p = p−k−l = p−k p−l = |x|p |y|q

x y k≤l

|x + y|p = p−k ≤ p−k + p−l = |x|p + |y|p

p |x|p |x| Q

{xn } p
k∈N N n≥N |xn − xN |p < p−k
2 p {xn }, {yn } ∼p

|xn − yn |p < p−k

def
{xn } ∼p {yn } ⇐⇒ ∀k ∈ N ∃N s.t. n ≥ N

7.3.2. ∼p
 105

p p Qp
Qp p p Zp

7.3.3. {pn }n=1,2,... Zp 0

7.3.4. {an } 0, 1, . . . , p − 1

x n = a 0 + a 1 p + a 2 p2 + · · · + a n pn

N n>N

xn − xN = aN +1 pN +1 + · · · + an pn

|xn − xN |p ≤ p−N −1 {xn } p

p α ∈ Qp p

α = pk (a0 + a1 p + a2 p2 + · · · + an pn + · · · ), k ∈ Z, ai ∈ {0, 1, . . . , p − 1}, a0 6= 0

|α|p = p−k k≥0 α p α ∈ Zp

a 0 + a 1 p + a 2 p2 + · · · + a n p n + · · · n Z/pn+1 Z
p

x n = a 0 + a 1 p + a 2 p2 + · · · + a n pn + · · · (mod pn+1 )

n→∞
p p 7.1.7

xn ∈ Z/pn+1 Z (n = 0, 1, 2, . . . ) xk+1 = xk mod pk+1 (k = 0, 1, 2, . . . )

{xn } p x x = (xn )n=1,2,...

7.3.5. x0 6= 0 xy = 1 p y = (yn )n=1,2,...

. x0 y0 ≡ 1 mod p y0 x0 6≡ 0 mod p
xn−1 yn−1 ≡ 1 mod p n
yn−1 ∈ Z/pn Z xn yn = 1 mod pn+1
yn xn−1 , yn−1

xn = xn−1 + apn , yn = yn−1 + bpn , a, b ∈ {0, 1, . . . , p − 1}

xn−1 yn−1 p

xn−1 yn−1 = 1 + cpn mod pn+1 , c ∈ {0, 1, . . . , p − 1}

106

xn yn =(xn−1 + apn )(yn−1 + bpn ) = xn−1 yn−1 + (a + b)pn mod pn+1

=1 + (a + b + c)pn mod pn+1

a + b + c = 0 mod p b

p p Zp

a 0 + a 1 p + a 2 p2 + · · · + a n pn + · · · , ai ∈ {0, 1, . . . , p − 1}, a0 6= 0

|x|p = 1 p x x−1 Zp

7.3.6. 3 Z3 2 1

2−1 = 2 + 1 · 3 + 1 · 32 + 1 · 33 + 1 · 34 + 1 · 35 + · · ·

Z3 4−1 5−1

4−1 =1 + 2 · 3 + 0 · 32 + 2 · 33 + 0 · 34 + 2 · 35 + 0 · 36 + 2 · 37 + · · ·
5−1 =2 + 0 · 3 + 1 · 32 + 2 · 33 + 0 · 34 + 1 · 35 + 2 · 36 + 0 · 37 + · · ·

7.3.7. 5 Z5

2−1 =3 + 2 · 5 + 2 · 52 + 2 · 53 + 2 · 54 + 2 · 55 + 2 · 56 + 2 · 57 + · · ·
3−1 =2 + 3 · 5 + 1 · 52 + 3 · 53 + 1 · 54 + 3 · 55 + 1 · 56 + 3 · 57 + · · ·
4−1 =4 + 3 · 5 + 3 · 52 + 3 · 53 + 3 · 54 + 3 · 55 + 3 · 56 + 3 · 57 + · · ·

7.3.8. 7 Z7

2−1 =4 + 3 · 5 + 3 · 72 + 3 · 73 + 3 · 74 + 3 · 75 + 3 · 76 + 3 · 76 + 3 · 77 + · · ·
3−1 =5 + 4 · 5 + 4 · 72 + 4 · 73 + 4 · 74 + 4 · 75 + 4 · 76 + 4 · 76 + 4 · 77 + · · ·
4−1 =2 + 5 · 5 + 1 · 72 + 5 · 73 + 1 · 74 + 5 · 75 + 1 · 76 + 5 · 76 + 1 · 77 + · · ·
5−1 =3 + 1 · 5 + 4 · 72 + 5 · 73 + 2 · 74 + 1 · 75 + 4 · 76 + 5 · 76 + 2 · 77 + · · ·
6−1 =6 + 5 · 5 + 5 · 72 + 5 · 73 + 5 · 74 + 5 · 75 + 5 · 76 + 5 · 76 + 5 · 77 + · · ·

7.3.9. {1 + p + p2 + · · · + pn }n=1,2,... p Zp α
−1
α = (1 − p) {1 − p + p − · · · + (−1) p }n=1,2,...
2 n n
p
Zp β β = (1 + p)−1 .

7.3.10. Qp 0 p
 107

. 0 α ∈ Qp α = pk x (k ∈ Z, x ∈ Zp , |x|p = 1)
p−k x−1 ∈ Qp

7.3.11. p n p x20 ≡ n mod p x0 ∈ Z

x2 = n Zp x

. x20 ≡ n mod p x0 ∈ Z p 2−1 ∈ Zp

xi+1 = 2−1 (xi + nxi −1 ) (i = 0, 1, 2, . . . )

x−1
i
x2i − n ≡ 0 mod p2 i Zp

x2i+1 − n =4−1 (xi + nxi −1 )2 − n = 4−1 (xi − nxi −1 )2 = (2xi )−2 (x2i − n)2
i i+1
2xi 6≡ 0 mod p2 p2 0

|x2i+1 − n|p = |2xi |−2

p |xi − n|p = |xi − n|p
2 2 2 2
(|2xi |p = 1 )

|x20 − n| ≤ p−1 |x2i − n|p ≤ p−2

i
lim xi
i→∞
√
7.3.12. 12 ≡ 22 ≡ −2 mod 3 3 Z3 −2 2
n
3 3 (n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 34) 0

1, 1, 2, 0, 0, 2, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 2, 1, 2, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 2, 2, 0, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 0, 0, 0, 2, 1, 0, . . .
2, 1, 0, 2, 2, 0, 2, 1, 2, 2, 2, 0, 1, 0, 2, 1, 2, 1, 1, 2, 0, 0, 2, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 2, 2, 2, 0, 1, 2, . . .
√
7.3.13. 32 ≡ 42 ≡ 2 mod 7 7 Z7 2

3, 1, 2, 6, 1, 2, 1, 2, 4, 6, 6, 2, 1, 1, 0, 2, 1, 1, 4, 6, 1, 3, 2, 6, 6, 3, 5, 5, 6, 3, 4, 5, 0, 1, 6, 3, . . .
4, 5, 4, 0, 5, 4, 5, 4, 2, 0, 0, 4, 5, 5, 6, 4, 5, 5, 2, 0, 5, 3, 4, 0, 0, 3, 1, 1, 0, 3, 2, 1, 6, 5, 0, 3, . . .
f (x) x0

f (xi )
xi+1 = xi − , i = 0, 1, 2, . . . y = f (x)
f ′ (xi )
6xi
{xi } f (x) f (x) xi+1
(xi , f (xi ))
′
y = f (x) y = f (xi )(x − xi ) + f (xi ) x x
xi+1 xi xi+1 f (x)

f (x) = x2 − n f ′ (x) = 2x
x2i − n 1 n
xi+1 = xi − = xi + , i = 0, 1, 2, . . .
2xi 2 xi
7.3.11 p
108

Hensel Hasse-Minkowski p
Hensel 2 Hasse-Minkowski

7.3.14 (Hensel ). f (x) f (x0 ) = 0 mod p

′
f (x0 ) 6≡ 0 mod p x0 f (x) = 0 x ≡ x0 mod p
x ∈ Zp 1

7.3.15 (Hasse-Minkowski ). ai,j 2

X
ai,j xi xj = 0 (7.6)
i≤j

(x1 , . . . , xn ) = (0, . . . , 0) p
(x1 , . . . , xn ) = (0, . . . , 0) p (7.6) (x1 , . . . , xn ) =
(0, . . . , 0)

7.3.16. p = 3, 7, 11, 19 x2 + y 2 = pz 2 (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0)

p x = pa s, y = pb t, z = pc u (a, b, c ∈ Z,
|s|p = |t|p = |u|p = 1) p2a s2 + p2b t2 = p2c+1 u2 p
2 2 2
x + y = pz (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0) p
p x20 + y02 ≡ 0 mod p
x20 + y02 ≡ 0 mod p (x0 , y0 ) (0, 0)
x2 + y 2 = pz 2 (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0) p
Hasse-Minkowski x2 + y 2 = pz 2 (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0)

p = 3, 7 x2 + y 2 mod p

x\y 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0 1 4 2 2 4 1
x\y 0 1 2 1 1 2 5 3 3 5 2
0 0 1 1 2 4 5 1 6 6 1 5
1 1 2 2 3 2 3 6 4 4 6 3
2 1 2 2 4 2 3 6 4 4 6 3
5 4 5 1 6 6 1 5
6 1 2 5 3 3 5 2
 109

N A

f : N → A, x 7→ 2x

A N

Russel*1
Ω Ω 2 (
‘ ’ ), ( ‘ ’ )
Ω1 ‘ ’ Ω0 ‘ ’

Ω0 = {A | A ∈ A}
Ω1 = {A | A 6∈ A}

Ω = Ω0 ∪ Ω1 , Ω0 ∩ Ω1 = ∅. Ω1 ‘ ’ ‘
’ ?
Ω1 ‘ ’ Ω 1 ∈ Ω1 ‘ ’ Ω1 ‘ ’
Ω1 6∈ Ω1 ‘ ’
Russel

*1 Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell (1872 – 1970)

1950
110

,
“ ”
(axiomatic set theory)

1908 E. Zermelo , Russel

, Russel

2
a, x x∈a x a ( )
a x∈a x

: a = b ⇐⇒ ∀x (x ∈ a ⇔ x ∈ b)

2 a, b

( ): a x P (x) {x ∈
a | P (x)}

A.0.1.

. Ω Ω1 = {x ∈ Ω | x 6∈ x}
Ω Ω1 ∈ Ω
Ω 1 ∈ Ω1 Ω1 Ω1 6∈ Ω1 Ω1 6∈ Ω1
Ω1 Ω1 ∈ Ω1

: ∅
 111

: x, y {x, y}

{x, x} {x}

: a a S(a)

x ∈ S(a) ⇐⇒ ∃z [x ∈ z ∈ a]

S(a) ( ∪(a))

a {a, a} = {a} ,
′
a := {a, {a}} a′
, a+

a+ = S{a, {a}} = a ∪ {a}.

: a a P(a)

x ∈ P(a) ⇐⇒ ∀ z[z ∈ x → z ∈ a]

P(a)

SPa = a, PSa ⊃ a, PSPSa = PSa

. SPa ⊂ a : x ∈ SPa ⇐⇒ ∃z [x ∈ z ∧ z ∈ Pa]

⇐⇒ ∃z ∀w [x ∈ z ∧ (w ∈ z → w ∈ a)] =⇒ x ∈ a.
SPa ⊃ a : x ∈ SPa ⇐⇒ ∃z ∀w [x ∈ z ∧ (w 6∈ z ∨ w ∈ a)]
⇐= ∀w [x ∈ a ∧ (w 6∈ a ∨ w ∈ a)] ⇐⇒ x ∈ a.
PSa ⊃ a : x ∈ PSa ⇐⇒ ∀z [z ∈ x → z ∈ Sa] ⇐⇒ ∀z [z 6∈ x ∨ z ∈ Sa]
⇐⇒ ∀z ∃w [z 6∈ x ∨ (z ∈ w ∧ w ∈ a)] ⇐⇒ ∀z ∃w [(z 6∈ x ∨ z ∈ w) ∧ (z 6∈ x ∧ w ∈ a)]
⇐= ∀z [(z 6∈ x ∨ z ∈ x) ∧ (z 6∈ x ∨ x ∈ a)] ⇐⇒ ∀z [z 6∈ x ∨ x ∈ a] ⇐= x ∈ a.
PSPSa ⊂ PSa : x ∈ PSPSa ⇐⇒ ∀z [z ∈ x → z ∈ SPSa]
⇐⇒ ∀z [z 6∈ x ∨ z ∈ SPSa] ⇐⇒ ∀z ∃w [z 6∈ x ∨ (z ∈ w ∧ w ∈ PSa)]
⇐⇒ ∀z ∃w ∀z ′ [z 6∈ x ∨ (z ∈ w ∧ [z ′ ∈ w → z ′ ∈ Sa])]
=⇒ ∀z ∃w [z 6∈ x ∨ (z ∈ w ∧ [z ∈ w → z ∈ Sa])]
112

⇐⇒ ∀z [z 6∈ x ∨ (z ∈ Sa)] ⇐⇒ x ∈ PSa

: ∅∈a ‘x ∈ a x+ ∈ a’ a
von Neumann

0 = ∅, 1 = 0+ = {0}, 2 = 1+ = {0, 1}, 3 = 2+ = {0, 1, 2}, . . .

∈- : a

∀ x ∈ a P (x) =⇒ P (a)

a P (a)

x∈x x x ∈ y∧y ∈ x
x, y
Zermelo Z Frankel Zermero

: a x P (x, y) y ,
b a x P (x, y) y∈b

ZF ZF
ZFC ZFC
ZFC
 113

A α alpha N ν nu
B β beta Ξ ξ xi
Γ γ gamma O o omicron
∆ δ delta Π π, $ pi
E , ε epsilon P ρ rho
Z ζ zeta Σ σ, ς sigma
H η eta T τ tau
Θ θ, ϑ theta Υ υ upsilon
I ι iota Φ φ, ϕ phi
K κ kappa X χ chi
Λ λ lambda Ψ ψ psi
M µ mu Ω ω omega

α, β, γ, δ,  a, b, c, d, e γ g

p π r ρ σ, τ
s, t x, y, z ξ, η, ζ

fraktur
114

roman italic bold caligraphic (frc, wela) fraktur

Aa Aa Aa A A A `affl  €¡ Aa
Bb B b Bb B B B ˜b ‚ €b Bb
Cc C c Cc C C C `c ƒ €£ Cc
Dd D d Dd D D D `dffl „ €¤ Dd
Ee E e Ee E E E `e   Ee
Ff F f Ff F F F ˜f † €¦ Ff
Gg G g Gg G G G `g ‡ €§ Gg
Hh H h Hh H H H ˛hffl ˆ €¨ Hh
Ii I i Ii I I I ˚iffl ‰ © Ii
Jj J j Jj J J J ¯j Š ª Jj
Kk K k Kk K K K ˛kffl ‹ €« Kk
Ll Ll LL L L L ˜l Œ €¬ Ll
Mm M m Mm M M M ”mffl  ­ Mm
Nn N n Nn N N N ”nffl Ž ® Nn
Oo O o Oo O O O `o  €o Oo
Pp P p Pp P P P ¯pffl  ° Pp
Qq Q q Qq Q Q Q `q ‘ €± Qq
Rr Rr Rr R R R ˚rffl ’ r Rr
Ss S s Ss S S S ¯s “ €³ Ss
Tt T t Tt T T T ˚t ” ´ Tt
Uu U u Uu U U U ˚uffl • µ Uu
Vv V v Vv V V V ”v – v Vv
Ww W w Ww W W W ”w — w Ww
Xx X x Xx X X X ”x ˜ ¸ Xx
Yy Y y Yy Y Y Y ”y ™ ¹ Yy
Zz Z z Zz Z Z Z ˚z š º Zz

”wˆo˘r`dffl phra³  1

x x x
x x
 115

? 1 2
?
: 1 2 one hundred and twenty millions

one ten hundred thousand million milliard billion trillion

1 10 102 103 106 109 109 1012
1 10 102 103 106 109 1012 1018
quadrillion quintillion sextillion septillion octillion nonillion decillion
1015 1018 1021 1024 1027 1030 1033
1024 1030 1036 1042 1048 1054 1060

1000m 1km 0.001m 1mm

k( ) m( )

da deca- 10 d deci- 10−1

h hecto- 102 c centi- 10−2
k kilo- 103 m milli- 10−3
M mega- 106 µ micro- 10−6
G giga- 109 n nano- 10−9
T tera- 1012 p pico- 10−12
P peta- 1015 f femto- 10−15
E exa- 1018 a atto- 10−18
Z zetta- 1021 z zepto- 10−21
Y yotta- 1024 y yocto- 10−24
R ronna- 1027 r ronto- 10−27
Q quetta- 1030 q quecto- 10−30
116

1 9.5 × 1015 m
1.5 × 1011 m
7 × 108 m
6.4 × 106 m
4 1m
8 × 10−6 m
DNA 10−7 m
10−9 m
10−10 m
10−14 m
10−15 m
10−18 m *1

*2 ( )

1 10 102 103 104 108 1012 1016 1020 1024 1028 1032 1036

1040 1044 1048 1056 1064 1072 1080 1088

10−1 10−2 10−3 10−4 10−5 10−6 10−7 10−8 10−9 10−10

*1
*2 1977.
 117

TEX,

PC

GeoGebra

*1

GeoGebra

D.1 TEX
TEX(TeX; )
(Donald E. Knuth 1938 – ) TEX
1978 40
TEX TEX

TEX
PC *2

*1 GeoGebra
*2 TEX
118

D.1.1

Windows Mac PC
• Google TeX
OS TeX Windows10
TeX Mac
• TEX wiki
TEX
PC

TeX
PC TEX
TEX TeX Web

D.1.2 TEX

TEX *3 tex [Link]

TEX

TEX
- [Link] - [Link]

TEX TEX works, TEX Shop, TEXstudio, GNU

Emacs +YaTeX D.1.1
TEX works TEX Shop TEX

tex ( [Link]) TEX

tex [Link] pdf
TEX
[Link]

*3
 119

D.1.3

[Link]
\documentclass[12pt,dvipdfmx]{jsarticle}
% (preamble)
\begin{document}%
$a_1=1$, $a_2=1$, $a_{n+1}=a_n+a_{n-1}$ ($n=2,3,\dots$)

\[
a_n=\frac{1}{\sqrt{5}}
\biggl\{
\Bigl(\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}2\Bigr)^n
-\Bigl(\frac{1-\sqrt{5}}2\Bigr)^n
\biggr\} %
\]

\[
\sum_{i=1}^\infty\frac{a_n}{k^{n+1}}=\frac{1}{k^2-k-1}
\]
\end{document}

tex TEX

[Link]
a1 = 1, a2 = 1, an+1 = an + an−1 (n = 2, 3, . . . )
 √ √ 
1  1 + 5 n  1 − 5 n
an = √ −
5 2 2

X∞
an 1
=
i=1
k n+1 k2 − k − 1
120

D.1.4 TEX

TEX
Google
URL
• TEXWiki LATEX
• TEX
• LATEX

D.1.5


*4 .(period) 3
Windows Mac

tex pdf

(ascii code*5 )
Windows OS JIS
Unix EUC UNICODE utf-8
utf-16

utf-8


*4
*5 American Standard Code for Information Interchange
 121


backslash \ TEX TEX
\ ␣
Windows OS backslash \ Y
= \ ASCII
Y
= JIS X0201


TEX { }
{ } [Link] { }
{} \{ \}

$
a x ($a$ $x$ )
a x


\[ \] displaystyle
$$ $$ displaystyle
$$ $$ displaystyle
displaystyle
textstyle

tex TEX
1
\,, \␣, \quad, \qquad, \hspace{10pt} 1pt 0.35278mm
10pt 3.5278mm

\\ Enter Return
( ) TEX

% TEX
% \%

\begin{document}
AMS

\usepackage{amsmath,amssymb,amstext,amsfonts,amsthm,amscd}

∅ 1939
TEX ∅ \emptyset ∅
122

amssymb \varnothing

TEX pdf
pdf

LaTeX /

D.2
computer algebra system

PC

jupyter notebook jupyter

Python
• Sage: MathSage 2005

juypter
Maxima, Singular mathsage
• Maxima: LISP
Maxima
• Singular:

• Mathematica:
• Wolfram alpha:
Wolfram alpha
• Wolfram engine: 2019 Mathematica
Mathematica jyupter wolfram
engine jyupter
Wolfram
• Mathics: Mathematica Open source
 123

• 2018
• 1977.
• G
1999 2000.
• 1994.
•
1999.

• E /G
1997
• 1 1957
• I 1961.
• II 1965.

• 4 1985.
124

• 39 (1987), 276–281.
• 39 (1987), 348–354.
• How to write mathematics in English I, II, III, 43 (1991), 158–164,
248–253, 362–367.
1993
• Steven G. Krantz, A Primer of Mathematical Writing, Second Edition.
: 1999