• 7.
Topographic and Geologic Maps
• Tmaps
he knowledge and understanding the topographic and
assess in putting the suitable design for engineering projects. geologic
• 7.1 Topographic (Contour) Maps
• Ahorizontal
topographic map
projectionis a two
of dif dimensional
fe rent diagram
elevations ofrepresenting
an area withthe
a
speci c scale.
• 7.1.1 Impo ance of Topographic Maps
• e impo ance of topographic maps in civil engineering are:
• 1- For proper
construction evaluation
project in of
civilan area as
engineering regards its
practice, suitability
it is for
essential any
to
prepare a detailed topographic map.
• 2- For such
understand map,
the a
subsurcross-sections
f
a ce geological are drawn
status as at
to chosen
how the sites
variousto
formations continue with depth
avoiding highly-cost ea h works sites. in order to estimate cut and ll and
• 3- T h
e y
engineeringare impor t
a
structuresnt for
such f i
n
asding
dams,the most
rese suitable
oirs, sites
highways, for large
railways,
pipe lines and water canals.
• 4- T h
e y
rese oirs. are used for calculating the amount of water in lakes and
• 5- Also, they are ve essential for milita purposes.
• 7.1.2 Components of Topographic Maps
• 1- Contour line: It is a line connecting points of equal elevation above sea
level (a.s.l.).
• 2- Contour Inter val (C.I): It is the ver tical dif ference in elevation between any
two adjacent contour lines in the topographic map.
• 3- Topographic Prof ile: It represents a ver tical view of landscape as seen
directly from above and give an excellent perspective for regional relations.
• 4- Relief: It is the dif ference in elevation between higher and lower points in
the area represented by the topographic map.
• 5- Legend: It is the key of the map explains the symbols which are used as an
abbreviations to indicate both natural and cultural features.
• 6- Scale of the map: It is the distance on the map to that on the ground which
is:
• a- Simple fraction scale: It is a f ixed ratio between linear measurements on the
map and corresponding distances on the ground. \it is sometimes called
• the representative fraction or R.F, such as 1 / 100 000.
• b- Propor tion scale: such as 1: 100 000. For both simple and propor tion this
means that
on the ground. 1unit of distance on the map represents 100 000 of the same unit
• c- Absolute scale: such as 1cm = 1000 m.
• d- Bar or graphic scale : It consists of a line divided into number of segments,
for example 0 50 100m
• 7- Coordinates (latitudes and longitudes).
• 8- No h direction: N
• 7.1.3 Contour Lines and their Characteristics
• Topographic maps are essential tools in geologic studies because they show the
conf iguration of the ear th sur face in remarkable details. T his is accomplished by
means of carefully sur veyed contour lines. T he contour line is a line connecting
points of equal elevation above sea level (a.s.l.).
• A careful study of topographic map reveals the following characteristics of
contour lines:
• 1- All points located on the same contour line have the same elevation.
• 2- Contour lines do not cross or divide.
• 3- All contour inter vals in the middle of the map must be closed except those
located in the edges of the map.
• 4- A contour line with a specif ic value must not lie between two other contour
lines with higher or lower value.
• 5- Closely spaced contour lines represent steep slopes , while contours spaced
far a pa represent gentle slopes.
• 6- Equal distances between contours indicate regularity of the ea h su ace.
• 7- Contour lines trend upvalley, cross the stream and return down the valley on
the opposite side. us, contours form a V-shape which point upstream.
• 8- Mountain and depression areas represented by closed contours where
highest value in the interior for mountains while the lowest value in the interior
for depressions.
• 7.1.4 Determining Elevations
• Elevation
on refers
topographic to the
maps height
in dif above
f
e rent sea
ways, level (a.s.l.).
e.g., bench Speci
mark.c elevations
Elevations aremayshown
be
shown
by by color
interpolation. patterns.
For Elevations
example, a between
point mid-way contour
between lines can
the be approximated
contours 40m and
60m
line would
would most
be likely
probably be 50m
close and
to a
59m. point
T h
e located
local adjacent
relief of an to the
area 60m
may contour
easily be
determined
dif f
e rences. by f
Height i
n ding
and the highest
depth are and lowest
measurements elevations
made and
relative subtracting
to some the
other
features,
ofis 1000m for
the topaboveexample, a
of theseamonument monument
is 1175m is 175m
because abovethe the
area ground
upon but
which the
it elevation
is located
level.
• 7.1.5 Topographic Pro le
• Topographic
accurate profmaps
i
le mayrepresent
be a view
constructed of landscape
quickly across as seen
any directly
straight from
line on above.
a map An
by
following the procedure outlined below:
• 1- Lay
constructed.a strip of paper along the line across which the prof i
l e is to be
• 2- Mark on the paper the exact place where each contour cut the strip.
• 3- Label each mark to correspond with the elevation of the
If contour lines are closely spaced ,it is su cient to label only the index contours. contour it represents.
• 4- Prepare a ver t
i cal scale on prof
corresponding to the elevation of each contour line. il e paper by labeling horizontal lines
• 5- Place the paper with the labeled contour lines
paper, and project each contour to the horizontal line of the same [Link] the bottom of the prof i
l e
• 6- Connect all points with a smooth line .
• Obviously the appearance of
the horizontal lines on the graph paper. the prof i
l e will var ydepending on the spacing of
• 7.1.6 Gradients
• T he gradient of a stream may easily be determined by measuring a
representative
into the ver t
i section
cal dif f
e of
rencethe
(instream
meters)and dividing
between thethis distance
star t
i ng (in
point kilometers)
and ending
point.
kilometer T he result
(m/km). is
Riversan expression
with higher of decrease
gradients and of elevation
higher in
discharge meter
are per
more
potent
discharge. in eroding their beds than rivers with lower gradients and lower
• EXAMPLE 7.1: On a cer tain map, 2.8 cm is equal to 1 km on the ground.
Express this absolute scale as an R.F.
• R.F.= distance on map / distance on ground
• R.F.= 2.8 cm on the map / 1km on the ground
• It is necessar yto change the denominator of the equation to centimeters,
because both terms in R.F. must be expressed in the same units, so
• 1km * 100 000 = 100 000 cm
• Now the relation is
• R.F.= 2.8cm / 100 000
• T hen , we need to express the numerator as unity , and so the numerator must
be
alsodivided
divide by
the itself. In
dominatororderby not
theto change
same the
number, value
2.8. of
So the
the fraction,
problem we must
resolves
itself into
• R.F.= (2.8 / 2.8) / (100 000 / 2.8) = 1 / 35714
• or rounded o to 1 / 36000
• EXAMPLE 7.2: Figure below (7.1) shows a map of an area with heights values
area, it is required to draw a topographic map with contour inter
draw its topographic pro le along the line A-B using ve ical scale 1cm = 10 m. v
a l 10 m. and
• 7.2 Geological Maps
• A geological map (Fig.7.3) gives the details of the occurrences of geological
formations , where the boundaries of the various formations and their attitude
(strike and dip) are represented. Also it shows the geologic structures for strata
as symbols. T he direction of dip, the nature of folding of the strata and the
amount of displacement across faults may be recognized quickly by inspection of
a geological map of the area and used as a rst step in analyzing the geology.
• 7.2.1 Impo ance of Geologic Maps in Civil Engineering
• 1- Giving a complete understanding of the characteristic features of a site. T he
direction of dip , the nature of folding of the strata and the amount of
displacement across faults may be recognized quickly by inspection of a
geological map of the area and used as a rst step in analyzing the geology.
• 2- It is essential prior to embarking on a civil engineering construction project.
• 3- Knowing the features including topography, nature and distribution of rocks,
geologic formations, on the su ace and at various depths.
• 4- Using such map in searching for rocks for building and industrial purposes
(bricks and cement manufactures).
• 5- Indicating the occurrences of weak zones , nature and thickness of weathered
zones and soil cover.
• 6- Identifying the drainage pattern in the area and the situation of the
groundwater table.
• 7- Reducing investigation processes to its minimum.
• 8- Choosing the best site for a suggested project or refusing it prior construction.
• 7.2.2 Components of the Geologic Maps
• T he outcrop of a body of rock, such as a layer of shale, is the area that emerges at the
sur face where the rock is present, or lies immediately below a cover of vegetation, soil, or
other super ficial deposit. T hose par ts of the outcrop where rock is visible at the sur face, and
where obser vations may be made, are called exposures. Exposures are usually found in the
banks of streams, in road cuttings, on cli or scarp faces, and in quarries. A geological map is
an Ordnance Sur vey map, showing locations and topography, on which is superimposed
geological information. Large geological depar tm ents in commercial companies and
government scientif ic bodies, such as the British Geological Sur vey (BGS), have a prescribed
set of geological symbols for use in their repor ts and maps. Each is known as the standard
legend of the par ticular organization. T he geologic maps characterize by presence the
following components:
• 1- Contour lines which usually appear as dashed lines.
• 2- Geologic boundaries which are represented as solid lines intersect the contours for
inclined beds but are parallel for horizontal beds.
• 3- Each geologic bed is expressed by a symbol indicating its type. For examples see the
Figure (7.4).
• 4- Legend: It is the key of the map explain the symbols .
• 5- Scale of the map: which is
• Simple fraction scale: such as, 1 / 100 000 .
• Propo ion scale: such as 1 : 100 000 .
• Absolute scale :(1cm = 1000 m).
• Bar scale: for example 0 50 100m
• 6- Coordinates (latitudes and longitudes).
•