CHAPTER 4

STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Subatomic particles
Particles present inside an atom.
They are protons, electrons and neutrons.
Discovery of electrons
• Discovered by J. J. Thomson.
• During discharge tube experiment he found negatively charged rays passing
from cathode (negative) to anode (positive).
• These rays contain negatively charged particles and are called cathode rays,
later given the name electrons.

Discovery of protons
• Discovered by Goldstein during discharge tube experiment.
• He observed positively charged particles as rays moving from anode to
cathode.
• These rays are also known as anode rays or canal rays
• The name proton was later given by Rutherford for canal rays.
Discovery of neutrons
o Discovered by Chadwick.
o Discovered by bombarding beryllium with alpha (α) particles.
o During that time, chargeless particles were emitted and are known as neutrons.
Properties of subatomic particles
Properties Protons Electrons Neutrons
-27 1 -27
Mass ~ 1 u (1.67 x 10 𝑢 (9.11 x 10-31 ~1u (1.67 x 10
2000
kg) kg)
kg)
Charge Positive Negative No charge
(1.602 x 10-19 C) (-1.602 x 10-19 C)
Representation p+ e- n0
Location in the Nucleus Shell or Orbit Nucleus
atom
Thomson’s model of atom
• It is also known as ‘plum pudding model’ or ‘watermelon model’.
 • He compared the structure of atom with plum pudding or watermelon.
Thomson proposed that:
(i) An atom consists of a positively charged sphere, and the electrons are embedded
in it.
(ii) The number of positive charges equal to number of negative charges. So, the
atom is electrically neutral.

Positive sphere like red flesh of watermelon and electrons as seeds in watermelon.

Limitations of Thomson’s model

• Failed to account for the observations of alpha particles scattering experiment,
which shows positive charge is not spread-out.
Rutherford model of atom
The Gold foil experiment or Alpha (α) particle scattering experiment
• In this experiment, fast moving alpha particles were made to fall on a thin gold
foil.
• The α particles has charge +2 and mass 4u, like He atom.
• He choose gold foil because, it is the most malleable metal and can be beaten
into a very thin foil.

His observations and conclusion

 Observation Conclusion

Most α-particles passed

The atom is mostly empty space.
straight through.

Some particles were deflected There is a positive charge in the atom that
at small angles. repelled the positive α-particles.

Very few (1 in 12,000) The positive charge and mass are concentrated
bounced back completely. in a tiny, dense center (the nucleus).
The Rutherford Atomic Model
• Based on these results, Rutherford proposed the Planetary Model of the atom:
• There is a tiny, dense, and positively charged center called the nucleus.
• Almost all the mass and total positive charge of the atom is concentrated in the
nucleus.
• Electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular paths called orbits or shells,
much like planets around the Sun.
• The nucleus is incredibly small compared to the total size of the atom.

Limitations of Rutherford model

• Could not explain stability of atom.
o According to the physics of the time, an electron moving in a circle should
constantly lose energy.
o If it lost energy, it would spiral inward and eventually crash into the
nucleus, destroying the atom.
o Since atoms are not undergoing this, Rutherford couldn’t explain the reason
behind it.
 emit energy
Bohr model of atom
o This model is also known as planetary model.
o Electrons revolve around the nucleus in definite circular paths called orbits or
shells.
o As long as an electron stays in its orbit, it does not radiate energy. This is why
the atom is stable.
o Each orbit has a fixed amount of energy. So, they are known as energy levels.
o Orbits closer to the nucleus have lower energy; those further away have higher
energy. They are named K, L, M, N... (or n = 1, 2, 3, 4).
o If an electron gains energy (like heat), it jumps to a higher orbit.
o When it falls back to a lower orbit, it releases that energy.
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
• The distribution of electrons into different orbits of an atom is known as
electronic configuration.
• It was suggested by Bohr and Bury.
Rules:
❖ The maximum number of electrons present in a shell is given by formula 2n2,
where ‘n’ is the orbit number or energy level or shell number.
Shell no: Shell Max electrons can be
accomodated
2
n=1 K shell 2 x 1 = 2 ``
n=2 L shell 2 x 22 = 8
n=3 M shell 2 x 32 = 18
n=4 N shell 2 x 42 = 32

❖ The electrons are distributed from the lowest energy shell (K shell) to the
higher energy shells.
❖ Electrons are not accommodated in a given shell, unless the inner shells are
filled.
❖ The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in the
outermost orbit is 8.

Element Atomic no: No of electrons Electronic configuration

Hydrogen 1 1 1
 Helium 2 2 2
Lithium 3 3 2,1
Beryllium 4 4 2,2
Boron 5 5 2,3
Carbon 6 6 2,4
Nitrogen 7 7 2,5
Oxygen 8 8 2,6
Fluorine 9 9 2,7
Neon 10 10 2,8
Sodium 11 11 2,8,1
Magnesium 12 12 2,8,2
Aluminum 13 13 2,8,3
Silicon 14 14 2,8,4
Phosphorous 15 15 2,8,5
Sulphur 16 16 2,8,6
Chlorine 17 17 2,8,7
Argon 18 18 2,8,8
Potassium 19 19 2,8,8,1 (exception)
Calcium 20 20 2,8,8,2 (expection)
Question: Draw the Bohr diagram for the following:
i) Hydrogen

ii) Chlorine

iii) Carbon

iv) Sodium
HW
i) Calcium
ii) Aluminium
iii) Oxygen
iv) Nitrogen
v) Magnesium
Questions:
If K and L shells of an atom are full, then what would be the total number of electrons in the
atom? Ans: 10
Valency
• The electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom are known as valence electrons.
• To attain stability for an atom, it must contain 8 electrons in their outermost shell. This is
known as octet configuration and the rule is octet rule.
• For helium maximum number of valence electrons will be 2, as it has only one shell. It is
also considered to be stable.
• To attain stability atom will lose, gain or share electrons based on the number of valence
electrons. That number of electrons shared, gained or lost is known as valency.
Number of Transfer or share Valency Example
valence electrons
1 Donate 1 electron 1 Li – 2,1 or Na – 2,8,1
2 Donate 2 electrons 2 Be- 2,2 or Mg – 2,8,2
3 Donate 3 electrons 3 B – 2,3 or Al – 2,8,3
4 Share 4 C – 2,4 or Si – 2,8,4
5 Accept 3 electrons 3 N- 2,5 or P – 2,8,5
6 Accept 2 electrons 2 O – 2,6 or S – 2,8,6
7 Accept 1 electron 1 F – 2,7 or Cl – 2,8,7
8 Stable 0 He – 2, Ne – 2,8, Ar- 2,8,8
NOTE:
• If atoms donate electrons, they will get positive charge.
Eg: 13Al – 2,8,3 after donating 3 electrons, it will get +3 charge.
So Al3+ - 2,8
Al → Al3+ + 3e-
(2,8,3) (2,8)
• If atoms accept electrons, they will get negative charge.
Eg: 8O after accepting 2 electrons, it will get -2 charge.
So O2- - 2,8
O + 2e- → O2-
(2,6) (2,8)
Question: Find out the valency of:
i) Oxygen – 8O – 2,6 Valency is 2
ii) Sulphur – 16S – 2,8,6 Valency – 2
iii)Sodium – 11Na – 2,8,1 Valency – 1

Question:
1. Why do atoms take part in chemical reactions?
During chemical reactions, atoms donate, accept or share electrons and attain octet
configuration, thereby stability.
2. What are nucleons?
Particles present inside the nucleus are called nucleons. eg: protons and neutrons.

Atomic Number (Z)

Atomic numbers are represented by the letter Z.
Atomic number = Number of protons = Number of electrons.

Mass number (A)

Mass number is represented by the letter A.
Inside an atom, neutrons and protons possess significant mass (1u). Therefore, the number of
protons or neutrons will be same as mass of neutrons or protons.
Mass number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons
OR
Mass number = Atomic number + Number of neutrons.
Also, Number of neutrons = Mass number – Atomic number.
In the notation for an atom, the atomic number, mass number and symbol of the element are to
be written as:

Intext question:
[Link] number of electrons in an atom is 8 and number of protons is also 8, then (i) what is the
atomic number of the atom? and (ii) what is the charge on the atom?
Answer: i) 8 ii) -2
2. Calculate the mass number of
i) Oxygen (Given no: of protons = 8, no: of neutrons = 8)
Mass no: = 8+8 =16
ii) Sulfur (Given no: of protons = 16, no: of neutrons = 16)
Mass no: 16+16 =32
3. HW
Isotopes
• Atoms of the same element with the same atomic number but different mass numbers due
to varying neutron counts.
• They share identical chemical properties (same electronic configuration) but differ in
physical properties (due to different mass).
• Discovery of isotopes contradicts with Dalton’s theory that state atoms of same element
has same mass.
• Examples
Symbolic Representation Name Protons (p⁺) Neutrons (n⁰) Electrons (e⁻)
¹₁H Hydrogen-1 (Protium) 1 0 1
²₁H Hydrogen-2 (Deuterium) 1 1 1
³₁H Hydrogen-3 (Tritium) 1 2 1
¹²₆C Carbon-12 6 6 6
¹³₆C Carbon-13 6 7 6
¹⁴₆C Carbon-14 6 8 6
³⁵₁₇Cl Chlorine-35 17 18 17
³⁷₁₇Cl Chlorine-37 17 20 17
¹⁶₈O Oxygen-16 8 8 8
¹⁸₈O Oxygen-18 8 10 8

Applications of isotopes
• Medicine:
o Iodine-131 is used for treating goitre and thyroid cancer.
o Cobalt-60 is used for cancer treatment.
• Fuel: Uranium-235 is used as fuel in nuclear reactors.
• Dating: Carbon-14 is used for radioactive carbon dating to determine the age of fossils.
Calculation of average atomic mass of an element from their isotopes.
• If an element has no isotopes, then the mass of its atom would be the same as the sum of
protons and neutrons in it.
• But if an element occurs in isotopic forms, then we have to know the percentage of each
isotopic form and then the average mass is calculated.
Example: - Chlorine occurs in nature in two isotopic forms, with masses 35 u and 37 u in the
ratio of 3:1.

Isobars
• Atoms of different chemical elements that have the same mass number (total number of
protons and neutrons) but different atomic numbers (number of protons).
 • They differ in neutron numbers.
• They show similar physical properties but different chemical properties.
Symbolic Representation Atomic Number (Z) Mass Number (A) Protons (p⁺) Neutrons (n⁰) Electrons (e⁻)
⁴⁰₁₈Ar 18 40 18 22 18
⁴⁰20Ca 20 40 19 21 19