Scope
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2 Environmental Science and Engineering
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Environmental Studies—A Multidisciplinary Subject 3
Need for Public Awareness
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4 Environmental Science and Engineering
QUESTIONS
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5
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6 Environmental Science and Engineering
2.1 FOREST RESOURCES
USES OF FORESTS
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Natural Resources 7
OVER EXPLOITATION OF FORESTS
DEFORESTATION
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8 Environmental Science and Engineering
Major Causes of Deforestation
Major Consequences of Deforestation
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Natural Resources 9
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10 Environmental Science and Engineering
Major Activities in Forests
DAMS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON FORESTS AND PEOPLE
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Natural Resources 11
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12 Environmental Science and Engineering
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Natural Resources 13
2.2 WATER RESOURCES
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14 Environmental Science and Engineering
WATER USE AND OVER-EXPLOITATION
Water: A Precious Natural Resource
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Natural Resources 15
Groundwater
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16 Environmental Science and Engineering
Unconfined aquifer recharge area
Evapo-transpiration
Precipitation from croplands Evaporation
Evaporation from stream
from lake
Confined
aquifer
recharge
area Infiltration
Permeable
rock
Infiltration Unconfined
aquifer
(Water table)
Confined
Less permeable Impermeable aquifer
material rock layer
Fig. 2.2.1. The groundwater system. An unconfined aquifer
(water table) is formed when water collects over a rock or
compact clay. A confined aquifer is formed sandwitched
between two layers having very low permeability.
Effects of Groundwater Usage
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Natural Resources 17
Surface Water
FLOODS
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18 Environmental Science and Engineering
DROUGHTS
CONFLICTS OVER WATER
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Natural Resources 19
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20 Environmental Science and Engineering
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Natural Resources 21
Traditional Water Management System
BIG DAMS- BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS
Benefits
Environmental Problems
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22 Environmental Science and Engineering
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Natural Resources 23
2.3 MINERAL RESOURCES
USES AND EXPLOITATION
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24 Environmental Science and Engineering
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Natural Resources 25
Some Major Minerals of India
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF MINERAL EXTRACTION
AND USE
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26 Environmental Science and Engineering
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Natural Resources 27
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28 Environmental Science and Engineering
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Natural Resources 29
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30 Environmental Science and Engineering
2.4 FOOD RESOURCES
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Natural Resources 31
WORLD FOOD PROBLEMS
IMPACTS OF OVERGRAZING AND AGRICULTURE
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32 Environmental Science and Engineering
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Natural Resources 33
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34 Environmental Science and Engineering
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Natural Resources 35
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36 Environmental Science and Engineering
Evaporation and transpiration
Salt
crust Upper soil profile
containing salts
Percolation
of saline
irrigation
water
Less permeable
Salinization clay layer
Addition of salts with saline
Waterlogging
irrigation water
Evapo-transpiration leaves Rain water and irrigation
behind salts water percolate down
Salt-build up occurs in upper Water table rises
soil profile
Fig. 2.4.1. Salinization and water logging.
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Natural Resources 37
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38 Environmental Science and Engineering
2.5. ENERGY RESOURCES
GROWING ENERGY NEEDS
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Natural Resources 39
600
UAE
450
Canada USA
300 Kuwait Norway
Sweden
Russia Germany
150
UK
Greece Switzerland
50
China Argentina Denmark
Japan
Egypt
India
0
10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000
Ethiopia
Gross National Product (GNP)
$ per capita
Fig. 2.5.1. Per capita energy use and GNP
(Data from World Resources Institute, 1997)
RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
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40 Environmental Science and Engineering
Boron enriched
silicon
Solar
Phosphorus radiations
enriched
silicon
Electric
bulb
Junction
DC electricity
Solar cell (PV cell)
Fig. 2.5.2. ( ) Solar cell.
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Natural Resources 41
Solar
radiations
Solar cell
Electric Solar cell
motor Battery panel
Water pump
Fig. 2.5.2. ( ) A solar pump run by electricity produced by solar cells.
Solar
radiations
Plane mirror
(reflector)
Inside
blackened
metallic box
Glass
cover
Blackened
metallic container
for cooking food
Fig. 2.5.3. Simple box-type solar cooker.
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42 Environmental Science and Engineering
WIND ENERGY
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Natural Resources 43
HYDROPOWER
TIDAL ENERGY
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44 Environmental Science and Engineering
Tidal barrage
Sea (High tide)
Reservoir
(a)
Water stored
at high tide
in reservoir
Turbine
Sea
Low
tide
(b)
Fig. 2.5.4. Water flows into the reservoir to turn the turbine
at high tide ( ), and flows out from the reservoir to the
sea, again turning the turbine at low tide ( ).
OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY (OTE)
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Natural Resources 45
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
BIOMASS ENERGY
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46 Environmental Science and Engineering
BIOGAS
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Natural Resources 47
Mixing Floating
Slurry Biogas
tank biogas holder Overflow
(Cattle dung + water) supply outlet
tank
Ground
level
Outlet Spent
Inlet slurry
pipe pipe
Underground
digester tank
Fig. 2.5.5. Floating gas holder type biogas plant.
Mixing
tank Slurry Fixed Biogas supply
dome outlet
Slab cover
Overflow tank
Ground level
Biogas
Inlet Spent
chamber slurry
Outlet
chamber
Underground
digester tank
Fig. 2.5.6. Fixed dome type Biogas plant.
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48 Environmental Science and Engineering
BIOFUELS
HYDROGEN AS A FUEL
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Natural Resources 49
COAL
PETROLEUM
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50 Environmental Science and Engineering
NATURAL GAS
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Natural Resources 51
NUCLEAR ENERGY
Kr n
Energy n
Kr
Ba
n
Kr
n
235
n U
nucleus Ba n
n
Kr
Ba n
Ba n
n
Fig. 2.5.7. ( ) Nuclear fission—a chain reaction initiated
by one neutron that bombards a Uranium (U235) nucleus,
releasing a huge quantity of energy, two smaller nuclei
(Ba, Kr) and 3 neutrons.
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52 Environmental Science and Engineering
n
+
Hydrogen-2
+ +
(Deuterium)
Energy
+ + +
1 billion °C
Hydrogen-2
(Deuterium) Helium-3
nucleus
Fig. 2.5.7. ( ) Nuclear fusion reaction between two
hydrogen-2 nuclei, which take place at a very high
temperature of 1 billion °C; one neutron and one fusion
nucleus of helium-3 is formed along with a huge amount
of energy.
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Natural Resources 53
2.6. LAND RESOURCES
LAND AS A RESOURCE
LAND DEGRADATION
SOIL EROSION
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54 Environmental Science and Engineering
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Natural Resources 55
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56 Environmental Science and Engineering
Plate I(a) Terrace farming Plate I(b) Strip cropping
Water Logging
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Natural Resources 57
LANDSLIDES
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58 Environmental Science and Engineering
DESERTIFICATION
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Natural Resources 59
CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES: ROLE OF AN
INDIVIDUAL
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60 Environmental Science and Engineering
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Natural Resources 61
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62 Environmental Science and Engineering
EQUITABLE USE OF RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE LIFE
STYLE
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Natural Resources 63
QUESTIONS
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64 Environmental Science and Engineering
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CONCEPT OF ECOSYSTEM
65
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66 Environmental Science and Engineering
ECOSYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS
STRUCTURAL FEATURES
I. Biotic Structure
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Ecosystems 67
II. Abiotic Structure
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68 Environmental Science and Engineering
Nutrient cycling
Abiotic
component
Energy Biotic
flow compo-
nent
Nutrient
flow Bacteria
Plants Animals
Abiotic
component
Nutrie
nt Cycling
Fig. 3.1. Nutrient cycling and energy flow mediated through food-
chain. The flow of energy is unidirectional while the nutrients
move in a cyclic manner from the abiotic to biotic (food chain)
to abiotic and so on.
FUNCTIONAL ATTRIBUTES
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Ecosystems 69
TROPHIC STRUCTURE
FOOD CHAINS
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70 Environmental Science and Engineering
Small fish
Phytoplanktons Zooplanktons
(Algae, diatoms)
Cornivorous
fish
Fig. 3.2. A grazing food chain in a pond ecosystem.
Dead mangrove
tree leaves
Detritus feeders
Phytoplanktons Carnivores
Decomposers (Bacteria, fungi)
Fig. 3.3. A detritus food chain in an estuary based on dead
leaves of mangrove trees.
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Ecosystems 71
FOOD WEB
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72 Environmental Science and Engineering
Fig. 3.4. A simplified food web in Antarctic ecosystem.
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Ecosystems 73
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
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74 Environmental Science and Engineering
Top carnivores Top carnivores
Hawks, Lion, Tiger
other birds
Carnivores Frogs, birds Snakes, foxes,
Carnivores
lizards
Herbivores Insects Herbivores Insects, birds
Producers Grasses Producers Trees
(a) (b)
Hyper parasites Fleas, microbes
Parasites Lice, bugs
Herbivores Birds
Producers Trees
(c)
Fig. 3.5. Pyramid of numbers ( ) grassland ( ) forest ( ) Parasitic food chain.
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Ecosystems 75
Tertiary Carnivores Big fish
Carnivores Small fish
Snakes, frog, birds
Herbivores Insects
Squirrel, rabbit,
Herbivores
insects
Phytoplanktons
Producers Grasses,
herbs
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.6. Pyramid of biomass ( ) Grassland ( ) Pond.
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76 Environmental Science and Engineering
Top carnivores
Carnivores
Herbivores
Producers
Fig. 3.7. Pyramid of energy.
ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM
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Ecosystems 77
NU
Energy
storage
Input I P Output
A
energy energy
Standing Biomass
Respiration
Fig. 3.8. Universal energy flow model applicable to all living
components (I = Energy input; A : assimilated energy ; P =
Production ; NU = Energy not used.
NU NA NU NA
Sunlight
I GPP NPP
Carnivores
Herbivores
Producers
R R R
Heat loss
Fig. 3.9. One-way energy flow model showing unidirectional flow
through primary producers, herbivores and carnivores. At each
successive trophic level there is huge loss of energy (I = Solar
energy input ; GPP = Gross primary production ; NPP = Net
primary production ; NU = Energy not used ; NA = Energy not
assimilated e.g. excretion ; R = Respiratory loss).
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78 Environmental Science and Engineering
Respiration
R R R R
R
s Carnivores
ivore
Herb
Tree Grazing food chain
canopy ( in forest canopy)
Ground R
level Litter,
roots etc. D
Producers D D
(Trees)
Detritus food chain
(in soil)
Detritivores
Decomposers
Fig. 3.10. Y-shaped or 2-channel energy flow model showing energy
flow through the grazing food chain and the detritus food chain (R =
Respiration, D = Detritus or dead matter).
NUTRIENT CYCLING
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Ecosystems 79
Nitrogen cycle
Atmosphere
Nitrogen
Volcanic NOX Acid rain
eruptions N2
Biological Electrification
N2 fixation Acid
rain
Fertilizer
Runoff Hydro-
(Eutrophication) sphere
Litho- Animal Animals
protoplasm Shallow marine
sphere Nitrates sediments
(soil)
Industrial Plant
activities protoplasm Nitrites
Loss to deep
Nitrification sediments
Death
and Deacy Ammonia
Ammonification Denitrification
Excretion Organic
(Urea, uric Nitrogen
acid)
(Proteins, amino acids)
Fig. 3.11. Nitrogen cycle—a gaseous cycle with major reserve
as N2 (78%) in the atmosphere. Circulation of N- between living
components and soil/atmosphere is mediated by a group of
micro-organisms which convert one form of N into another.
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80 Environmental Science and Engineering
Carbon Cycle
n Atmospheric
ati
pir
r es Carbondioxide
al t n
m (CO2)
a n io
Pl i r a t
i
An
y
pl rest on b
s p
re
i
ts l
te ixat
an ria
Fossil fuel
2 f
CO
burning
r
Direct
CO2 fixation absorption
(by aquatic plants)
Carbonates, CO2
Dead organic
matter
(Organic
carbon)
Microbial
action
Fig. 3.12. Carbon cycle.
Phosphorus cycle
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Ecosystems 81
P-reserves
Death and
Excreta Guano(P-rich) decay
deposits
Sea birds
Phosphate Bones and Animal
rocks teeth protoplasm
Eutro- Runoff
phication fossil, bones,
teeth Plant
Marine
protoplasm
fish etc. Fertilizers
Mining
(PO4)
Erosion
Loss to deep
marine sediments p
Plant Ph
Dissolved phosphate
uptake
Fig. 3.13. Phosphorus cycle—a sedimentary cycle with major
reserves of phosphorus in the sediments.
PRIMARY PRODUCTION
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82 Environmental Science and Engineering
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Ecosystems 83
Secondary Production
ECOSYSTEM REGULATION
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84 Environmental Science and Engineering
Death or
collapse
+ ve
Feedback
– ve – ve Homeostatic
Feedback Feedback plateau
+ ve Feedback
Death or collapse
(–) O (+)
Stress conditions
Fig. 3.14. Ecosystem regulation by homeostasis. On application of a
stress, the negative feedback mechanisms start operating, trying to
counter the stress to regulate the system. But beyond the homeostatic
plateau, positive feedback starts which further accelerate the stress
effects causing death or collapse of the organism/system.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
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Ecosystems 85
Process of Succession
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86 Environmental Science and Engineering
Free floating stage
( ) Open water body (lake), sediment brought in by river.
Rooted floating stage
Sediment
( ) Sediment accumulation continues, organic debris from plants too
add to soil formation and shrinking of water body occurs.
Marshy vegetation
Soil with standing water
( ) A mat of vegetation covers the water which is mostly a
marshy habitat now, with a small part as aquatic system.
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Ecosystems 87
Woodland Stage
Soil
( ) Eventually the former lake is covered by climax woodland
community, representating a terrestrial ecosystem.
Fig. 3.15. Ecological succession: A hydrach—from lake
to woodland community.
MAJOR ECOSYSTEM TYPES
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88 Environmental Science and Engineering
FOREST ECOSYSTEM
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Ecosystems 89
Plate II. Tropical rain forest.
Plate III. Rafflesia—the biggest flower.
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90 Environmental Science and Engineering
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Ecosystems 91
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEMS
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92 Environmental Science and Engineering
DESERT ECOSYSTEMS
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
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Ecosystems 93
Littoral zone
Rooted
plants Euphotic zone
Limnetic zone (High productivity)
Compensation
level
Profundal zone Aphotic zone
(Dark) (Little productivity)
Fig. 3.16. Zonation in a lake ecosystem.
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94 Environmental Science and Engineering
Streams
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Ecosystems 95
Oceans
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96 Environmental Science and Engineering
Intertidal
Neritic Oceanic
Euphotic zone
Aphotic zone Mid oceanic ridges
Bathyal zone
Trench
Continental
shelf
Continental
Abyssal plain
rise
Fig. 3.17. Vertical and horizontal zonation of a marine ecosystem.
Estuary
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Ecosystems 97
QUESTIONS
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