2

UNIT – I- ELECTROSTATICS

FORMULAE SYMBOLS APPLICATION

S.
No
1 Q=±Ne Q = Charge N = Number of Quantization of charges
electrons

2 𝑄1 𝑄2 Q1 , Q2 are point charges F= To find force between two

𝐹=𝑘
𝑟2 Force point charges

3 F=QE E = Electric field Relation between F and E

𝑄 1
4 𝑘 = 4𝜋∈ , r= distance Electric field due to a
𝐸=𝑘 0
𝑟2 point charge.
ϵ0= electric permittivity

5 ds = small area To find electric flux

∅𝐸 = ∮→ .→ = 𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐸 𝑑𝑠
6 𝑞 ∅𝐸 = Electric Flux Gauss Theorem
∅𝐸 =
∈0
7 ∆V=potential difference To find the potential
difference using Work
𝑊𝐴𝐵 VA=Electric potential at A
𝛥𝑉 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = done from a point A to a
𝑞
VB=Electric Potential at B point B

q=charge

8 𝑞 1 Electrostatic potential due

𝑉=𝑘 𝑘=
𝑟 4𝜋 ∈0 to a point charge
r= distance

9 𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 p = dipole moment Electric potential due to a

𝑉=𝑘
𝑟2 dipole
−𝑑𝑉 dV / dr=potential gradient Relation between electric
𝐸=
𝑑𝑟 field and potential
10

11 𝑞1 𝑞2 U = Potential Energy Potential energy of a

U=W=k
𝑟12 system of two point
W = Work done
charges
 3

12. 𝜆 λ=linear charge density Field intensity due to

𝐸=
2𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 infinitely long straight
uniformly charged wire

13. a) outside the shell: r=radius of Gaussian Field intensity due to

𝑞 surface(outside the shell) uniformly charged
𝐸=𝑘 𝑟2 spherical shell
R=radius of shell
b) on the shell:
σ =surface charge density
𝑞
𝐸=𝑘 As q=4πR2.σ
𝑅2

E= σ/ϵ0
a) inside the shell: E=0

14. 𝜎 E = Electric field Field intensity due to thin

𝐸=
2 ∈0 infinite plane sheet of
ϵ0= electric permittivity
charge

15. C=4πϵ0r C=capacitance Capacity of isolated

spherical conductor
r=radius of conductor

16. ∈0 𝐴 A = area of plates Capacitance of a parallel

𝐶=
𝑑 plate capacitor
d = distance between the
plates

17. Grouped capacitors: Cs= equivalent capacitance To calculate equivalent

in series capacitance of a circuit
a) In series:
1 1 1 1 Cp=equivalent capacitance
= + +
𝐶𝑠 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 in parallel
b) In parallel:
Cp=C1+C2+C3

18. 1 𝑄2 1 2 1 U = Electrostatic energy Energy stored in a

𝑈= = 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑄𝑉
2 𝐶 2 2 stored in capacitor capacitor

19. 1 E= electric field strength Energy density of a

𝑢= ∈ 𝐸2
2 0 parallel plate capacitor

20. 𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2 V = Common potential To find Common

𝑉=
𝐶1 + 𝐶2 potential due to sharing of
charge

21. 𝐶1 𝐶2 (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2 𝐸1 − 𝐸2 = Loss of energy Loss of energy due sharing

𝐸1 − 𝐸2 =
2(𝐶1 + 𝐶2 ) charges
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22. K=1+χ K=dielectric constant Relation between

dielectric constant &
χ =electric susceptibility
electric susceptibility

23. 𝐶0 t=thickness of slab Capacitance of parallel

𝐶= 𝑡
(1 − ) plate capacitor with
𝑑 d=distance between the
conducting slab in
plates
between
C0=capacitance with
vacuum in between

24. ∈0 𝐴 K=dielectric constant Capacitance of parallel

𝐶=
1 plate capacitor with
𝑑 − 𝑡(1 − 𝐾 )
dielectric slab in between

25 • Values of Different quantities after Introducing dielectric slab between the plates of
the charged capacitor:
Description When Battery connected When Battery disconnected
Charge K Q0 Q0
Potential V0 V0/K
difference
Electric E0 E0/K
Field
Capacitance KC0 KC0
1 1
Energy K times 2 𝜀0 𝐸 2 [Energy is 1/K times 2 𝜀0 𝐸 2 [Energy used
supplied By battery for Polarization

UNIT- II CURRENT ELECTRICITY

S. FORMULAE SYMBOL APPLICATION

No

1 I=current, Q=charge , t=time, To find the current in a

e= charge of electron current carrying wire.

2 V= Potential difference, Relation between V and I

(Ohms law)
R= resistance

3 I=neAVd V d= Drift velocity Relation between current

and drift velocity
(n = number density of free A=area of cross section
 5

electron)

4 Relation between (i) R and

= R = Resistance , = Resistivity ρ (ii) R and relaxation time

τ = relaxation time, m= mass of

electron

5 e = charge of electron Relation for resistivity and

ρ= =
relaxation time τ

= Resistivity

6 C= conductance, σ = conductivity To find C and σ

C = and σ = =

7 j = current density , Relation between j with vd

=ne Vd
and j with E
σ = conductivity

8 μ = mobility of electron To find μ from Vd

=

9 ρ = ρ0 [ 1 + α(T – T0)] α = temperature coefficient of Variation of ρ with

resistance temperature

10 T1 – T2 = temperature difference Formula for α

α=

11 RS = R1 + R2 + R3 +…. Rs = equivalent resistance in series Series combination

combination

12 1/RP = 1/R1 + 1/R2+.. RP = equivalent resistance in series Parallel combination

combination

13 P = VI =I2 R = V2/R P= Electrical power Relation for P with V,I and R

14 E = emf of cell , Relation for E and V

15 r = internal resistance (i) Current is drawn

V = Potential difference (ii) cell is being charged

𝐸
16 𝑟 = ( 𝑉 − 1)𝑅 r = internal resistance To find internal resistance
of cell
R = External resistance
 6

17 n = number of cells in series Current drawn when n cells

I= are connected in series
R = External resistance

18 m = number of cells in parallel Current drawn when m cells

I= are connected in parallel

19 ΣI = 0 (loop rule) ΣI = algebraic sum of CURRENT Kirchhoff’ s law

ΣΔV = 0 (junction rule) ΣV = algebraic sum of potential
difference

20 Drift velocity of electron Vd = e E τ/m E – Electric field

Vd = e τ V/m l

MINIMUM LEARNING MATERIAL

• Electric current is defined as the amount of charge flowing through any cross section of the conductor in
unit time. The rate of flow of chrge through the conductor is called electric current. I = Q/t. SI Unit Ampere
(A).
• The electric current flowing through the conductor is said to be one ampere when one coulomb charge
flows through it in one second.
• Current density |J| = I/A.
• Ohm’s law: The electric current passing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference applied across it provided the physical conditions such as temperature, pressure etc., remain
constant. V α I i.e. V = IR, Where R is the resistance of the conductor. Resistance R is the ratio of V & I
• The device which opposes the flow of electric current through it is called resistor. Resistance is the
characteristic property of the conductor which offers opposition for the flow of electric current.
• Resistance R = ρl/A= ml/ne2τA where ρ is the resistivity of the material of the conductor- length and A
area of cross section of the conductor. If l is increased n times, new resistance becomes n 2R. If A is increased n
1
times, new resistance becomes 2 R .
n
• Resistivity is the characteristic property of the material which is the resistance of the conductor of unit
length and unit area of cross section.
• Resistivity ρ = m/ne2τ, Where m, n, e are mass, number density and charge of electron respectively, τ-
relaxation time of electrons. ρ is independent of geometric dimensions.
• Relaxation time is the average time interval between two successive collisions
• Conductance of the material G =1/R and conductivity σ=1/ρ
• Drift velocity is the average velocity of all electrons in the conductor which drift in opposite direction to
the applied electric field. Drift velocity Vd = (eE/m)τ also I = neAvd
V
• Mobility (μ) of a charge carrier is the ratio of its drift velocity to the applied electric field  = d
E
• Effect of temperature on resistance: Resistance of a conductor increase with the increase of
temperature of conductor RT = Ro (1 + T ) , where α is the temperature coefficient of resistance of the
 7

conductor. α is slightly positive for metal and conductor, negative for semiconductors and insulators and highly
positive for alloys.
Kirchhoff’s Laws
(i) Junction Rule

The algebraic sum of all currents meeting at a junction in a closed circuit is zero, i.e., Σ I = O.
This law follows law of conservation of charge.
(ii) Loop Rule
The algebraic sum of all the potential differences in any closed circuit is zero, i.e.,

ΣV = 0 ⇒ ΣE = ΣIR
This law follows law of conservation of energy
. Wheatstone bridge (balanced) – Let i be the current from battery E .At point A , current i1 flows through
resistance P and current i−i1flows through R. In balanced state , no current flows through BD , hence point B and
D are at same potential .Therefore current i1 flows through resistance Q also and current
i−i1flows through S.
Applying Kirchhoff's loop rule in closed mesh ABDA , I1 P−(i−i1)R=0
or i1P=(i−i1)R..................eq1
In closed mesh BCDB , i1Q−(i−i1)S=0
Or i1Q=(i−i1)S ...................eq2
Dividing eq1 from eq2 , we get
P/Q=R/S This is the condition for balance in a Wheatstone's bridge .

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UNIT III -MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF CURRENT AND MAGNETISM

SL.N FORMULAE SYMBOLS APPLICATIONS

O

1 Biot- Savart Law dB = magnetic field at a point at To find magnetic field at a

distance r due to a current element. point due to current element .

µ 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 µ0 = permeability of free space To find magnetic field due to

dB = 4𝜋0 x a straight conductor.
𝑟2
I = current through wire

 = angle between current element

Idl and position vector r.
 8

2 µ0 𝑁𝐼 𝑎2 B= magnetic field due to a circular Magnetic field at centre, x= 0

B= 3
2(𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 )2 coil of N turns at distance 𝑥 from its µ 𝑁𝐼
centre. B= 02 𝑎

a = Radius of coil

3 µ0 𝐼 B = magnetic field magnetic field due to a

B= 2𝜋 𝑟
straight conductor of infinite
r = perpendicular distance from wire
length
to point of observation.

4 Ampere’s circuital law ∮𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = Line integral of magnetic Magnetic field due
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 to a
field in a closed path . solenoid B = 𝜇0 n I
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 I
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
∮𝐵

5 ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗)
𝐹 = q (𝑣 X 𝐵 F = Force Force acting on a charge
particle in magnetic field.
F=B q v sin v = velocity of charge particle
q = charge of the particle

6 ⃗⃗⃗ =q [𝐸
𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ + (𝑣 X 𝐵
⃗ )] Force on charged particle in Lorentz force
simultaneous Electric and magnetic
fields

7 ⃗⃗⃗ = I (𝑙 X 𝐵
𝐹 ⃗) F = Magnetic force on a current To find force acting on a
carrying conductor of length l current carrying conductor in
F = B I L Sin θ a magnetic field.
B = magnetic field.
𝐹 µ0 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐹
8 = = Force per unit length between Force per unit length
𝑙 2𝜋 𝑟 𝑙
two parallel current carrying I1 and I2 between two parallel current
carrying conductors.
r = distance between the conductors.

9  = B I N A Sin θ  = torque experienced by a current Principle of Moving coil

loop of area A in magnetic field B galvanometer

N = Number of turns of coil.

I = current

10 𝒊
S = ( 𝒊−𝒈𝒊 ) G S = shunt required , G = Conversion of Galvanometer
𝒈 Galvanometer Resistance , into Ammeter.
𝑖𝑔 = maximum current through
galvanometer
(0 – i) = range of ammeter
 9

11 R = (V/𝒊𝒈 ) − 𝑮 R = High resistance in series Conversion of Galvanometer

into Voltmeter.

12 r = radius of circular path in magnetic To find the radius of circular

𝒎𝒗 field path of charged particle
r = 𝑩𝒒
moving perpendicular to the
magnetic field.

13 B Magnetic intensity
H=
0
14 M= m Intensity of magnetism
V
15 =
M Magnetic Susceptibility
H
16  = 1+  Magnetic permeability

17 m = NIA Magnetic Moment of a current

carrying loop
18 B = (μ0/4π) 2m/r3 Magnetic field on the axis of the
magnet
19 B=(μ0/4π) m/r3 Magnetic field on the equatorial axis
of the magnet
20 U= -mB cos θ Potential energy of a magnetic
dipole
MINIMUM LEARNING MATERIALS

1. BIOT – SAVART’S LAW:-

Magnetic field due to current carrying element, at a point at a distance r from it is given by:

dB= μ0 Idl x r
4π r3
Direction of dB is that of Idl x r and is given by Right hand thumb rule.
2. RIGHT HAND THUMB RULE:-
The rule states that if we hold the conductor in palm of our right hand such that thumb gives
direction of current then curling of fingers gives the direction of magnetic field.
3. MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO CURRENT CARRYING CIRCULAR COIL
B = μ0 N I R 2 on its axis
2(R2 + x 2)3/2
B= μ0 N I, at its centre

2R
A current loop of N turns having area A carrying current I behaves like magnetic dipole.
Magnetic moment m= N I A ; Unit = (A m-2)
 10

4. MAGNETIC LORENTZ FORCE:-

It is the force experienced by moving charge in magnetic field (B); F = q (V x B)
i.e., F = q V B sin θ [F perpendicular to V and B]
F = Maximum when sin θ = 1 or θ = 90 0
F = Minimum when sin θ = 0 or θ = 00 (or) 1800

F = 0, when V = 0, charged particle is at rest.;

S.I unit of Magnetic Field (B) is Tesla (T); C.G .S unit of B is Gauss (G); 1 T = 10 4 G
5. LORENTZ FORCE:-
Total force experienced by moving charge inside electric field (E) and magnetic field (B)
F = q [E + V x B]

Velocity selector : Electric force =magnetic force

i.e qE = qvB ; v = E/B This condition can be used to select charged particles of a particular velocity
out of a beam containing charges moving with different [Link] crossed E and B fields, therefore, serve as a
velocity selector

6. Work done by magnetic Lorentz force on moving charge = 0

7. FORCES BETWEEN TWO INFINITELY LONG PARALLEL CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTORS:
F = μ0 I1 I 2
2πr

Force is attractive if currents are in the same direction and repulsive if current are in the opposite
direction.
8. AMPERES CIRCUITAL LAW:
It states that line integral of magnetic field B around a closed circuit is μ0 times the current
threadlike the closed circuit..ei.e ∫B. dl = μ0 I

9. MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO STRAIGHT SOLENOID : B = μ0 nI, (inside the solenoid)

B = 1/2μ0 nI, (at its ends) & B= 0 (outside the core of the solenoid)
10. Force per unit length between two parallel current carrying conductors &DEFINITION OF AMPERE:
F = μ0 I1 I2

2πr If I 1 = I 2 = 1 A & r=1m Then,

F = 2 x 10-7 N/m
One ampere is the current which when flowing through each of two parallel wires of infinite length (in free
space) and separated by a distance of 1 m attracts or repels each other by a force of 2 x 10 -7 N/m per metre.
 11

11. TORQUE ON A CURRENT CARRYING COIL PLACED IN MAGNETIC FIELD

τ = N B I A sin θ Where θ = Angle between magnetic field and normal to the plane of coil.
12. PRINCIPLE OF GALVANOMETER
A rectangular current carrying coil placed in magnetic field (B) experiences a torque.
ɸ =NBAI
k Where k= Torsional constant of spring,
Current is directly proportional to ɸ

13. SENSITIVTY OF A GALVANOMETER:-

A Galvanometer is said to be sensitivity, if it gives a large deflection, even when a small current is
passed through it (or) when a small voltage is applied across its coil.
14. CURRENT SENSITIVITY:-
It is defined as the deflection produced in the Galvanometer on passing unit current through its coil.
Current sensitivity of Galvanometer = ɸ = N B A
I k Unit = rad A -1
15. A small resistance usually put in parallel to the coil of a galvanometer is called
Shunt. The most part of the current in the circuit passes through the shunt and thus shunt allows only
a very small part of current to pass through the Galvanometer.
Ammeter: -
It is an instrument used to measure current. A Galvanometer is converted into an Ammeter by
placing a small resistance (shunt) in parallel with it.

S = Ig x G , R= GxS is the resistance of the ammeter.

I–Ig G+S
Ammeter is always connected in series due to its small resistance. Resistance of ideal ammeter is 0.
16. VOLTAGE SENSITIVITY:-

It is defined as the deflection produced in the Galvanometer, when a unit voltage is applied across its
coil.
Voltage sensitivity of Galvanometer = = ɸ = NBA
V kR Unit = rad V -1

Voltage sensitivity = current sensitivity

Resistance (R)
For a Galvanometer to be sensitive the conditions are:
1. Number of turns -large , 2. Area of the coil-large ,3. Magnetic field (B)-large & 4. k-small
 12

17. VOLTMETER: -
It is used to measure potential difference. A Galvanometer is converted into Voltmeter by placing a
high resistance (R) in series with it. R = V / Ig - G
It is the current for full-scale deflection in Galvanometer. Rv = R + G is resistance of Voltmeter.
Because of this high resistance, Voltmeter is always connected in [Link] of ideal
Voltmeter is infinity.
18. MOTION OF CHARGE PARTICLE UNDER MAGNETIC FIELD (B),
F = q (V x B)
➢ SPECIAL CASES: -
Trajectory is Circular if V is perpendicular to B,
Radius (r) = mV
Bq
T = 2πm
Bq Trajectory is helical if V is inclined at an arbitrary angle with B,
Radius (r) = m V sin θ

Bq
19 . MAGNETIC DIPOLE:-
It is a system of two unlike poles of equal strength and separated by some distance.
Magnetic dipole moment (m) =q .2 l,

Where, q = pole strength. Unit = A m

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO BAR MAGNET:-
At a point on the axial line: At a point on the equatorial line:
B= 2 µ0 m B= µ0 m
4π (r2 –l2) 2 4 π (r2 +l2) 3/2
20. TORQUE ACTING ON MAGNET IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD
τ =m x B; i.e. τ = m .B .sin θ where m = NIA
21 . POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A MAGNETIC DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD.: U = - [Link] θ
22. CURRENT LOOP AS A MAGNETIC DIPOLE:-

Magnetic moment = current x area of the loop; m= IA

23. GAUSS THEOREM IN MAGNETISM:-∫ [Link] = 0
It implies that “No magnetic monopole can exist”.
 13

24. Difference Between Dia. Para and Ferromagnetism:

DIA PARA FERRO

[Link] substances are Paramagnetic substances are Ferromagnetic substances are
those substances which are those substances which are those substances which are
feebly repelled by a magnet feebly attracted by a magnet. strongly attracted by a magnet.
Eg. Antimony, Bismuth, [Link], Chromium, Eg. Iron, Cobalt, Nickel,
Copper, Gold, Silver, Alkali and Alkaline earth Gadolinium, DysprosiumETC
Quartz, Mercury, Alcohol, metals,Platinum, Oxygen, etc.
water,Hydrogen,Air,
Argon, etc.
2. When placed in The lines of force prefer The lines of force tend to
magnetic field, the lines to pass through the crowd into the specimen.
of force tend to avoid the substance rather than air.
substance.

3. When placed in non- When placed in non- When placed in non-

uniform magnetic field, it uniform magnetic field, it uniform magnetic field, it
moves from stronger to moves from weakerto moves from weakerto
weaker field (feeble stronger field (feeble stronger field (strong
repulsion). attraction). attraction).
4. When a diamagnetic rod is When a paramagnetic rod is When a paramagnetic rod is
freely suspended in a freely suspended in a uniform freely suspended in a uniform
uniform magnetic field, it magnetic field, it aligns itself in magnetic field, it aligns itself in a
aligns itself in a direction a direction parallel to the field. direction parallel to the field very
perpendicular to the field. quickly.

5. If diamagnetic liquid If paramagnetic liquid If ferromagnetic liquid

taken in a watch glass is taken in a watch glass is taken in a watch glass is
placed in uniform placed in uniform placed in uniform
magnetic field, it collects magnetic field, it collects magnetic field, it collects
away from the centre at the centre when the at the centre when the
when the magnetic poles magnetic poles are closer magnetic poles are closer
are closer and collects at and collects away from and collects away from
the centre when the the centre when the the centre when the
magnetic poles are magnetic poles are magnetic poles are
farther. farther. farther.
 14

6. Induced Dipole Moment Induced Dipole Moment Induced Dipole Moment

(M) is a small – ve value. (M) is a small + ve value. (M) is a large + ve value.
7. Intensity of Intensity of Magnetisation Intensity of Magnetisation (I)
Magnetisation (I) has a (I) has asmall + ve value. has alarge + ve value.
small – ve value.

8. Intensity of Intensity of Magnetisation Intensity of Magnetisation (I)

Magnetisation (I) has a (I) has asmall + ve value. has alarge + ve value.
small – ve value.

9. Magnetic permeability µ is Magnetic permeability µis Magnetic permeability µ is large

always less than unity. more than unity. i.e. much more than unity.
[Link] susceptibility Magnetic susceptibility Magnetic susceptibility
has asmall – ve value. has a small +ve value. has a large + ve value.

[Link] do not obey They obey Curie’s Law. They obey Curie’s Law.
Curie’s Law. i.e. their They lose their magnetic At a certain temperature
properties do not change properties with rise in called Curie Point, they
with temperature. temperature. and behave like paramagnetic
substances.

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 15

Unit IV: Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Currents

IMPORTANT FORMULAE IN EMI & AC

S:No Formula Name Formula

1 Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic E ∝ dφ / dt ⇒ E = – dφ / dt
Induction

2 Induced EMF and Current Induced e.m.f = Rate of change of flux link = dφ/ dt
Magnitude of induced emf
E = – dφ/ dt
E = – d/ dt (NBA cos ωt)
E=NABω sin ωt
E=Eo sin ωt
I = [NBAω]sin ωt /R
I= Iosin ωt

3 Coefficient of Self-Induction φ = LI

4 Induced emf in the coil E = – L (dI/dt)

5 Self – inductance of a long solenoid L = μo N2A/L = μon2Al

6 core of the solenoid is of any other L = μoμrN2A/L

magnetic material
7 Energy stored in an inductor E = (½) LI2
8 If two coils are coupled with each other φ = MI
then magnetic flux linked with a Coil
(secondary coil)
9 induced emf in the secondary coil E = – M (dI/dt)

10 Coefficient of coupling K = √M / L1 L2
11 Mutual Inductance M=√L1L2
12 Mutual inductance of two long coaxial M = μo N1 N2A/L = μon1n2AL
solenoids

S:No Formula Name Formula

1 Instantaneous emf V=V0sinωt
Instantaneous current I=I0cosωt
2 Average Value of Alternating Current
 16

3 RMS value of alternating current

4 Inductive Reactance XL=ωL

5 Capacitive Reactance Xc=1/ωC

6 Phase difference Between the EMF V=V0sin(ωt)

(Voltage) and the Current in an AC
Circuit
6a) For pure resistance: I=I0sin(ωt)
The voltage and the current are in same
phase i.e. phase difference  = 0

6b) For pure inductance: I=I0sin(ωt-π/2)

The voltage is ahead of current by π/2
i.e. phase difference  = +π/2.
6c) For pure capacitance: I=I0sin(ωt+π/2)
The voltage lags behind the current by
π/2 i.e. phase difference  = -π/2

SERIES LCR CIRCUIT

7
7a Instantaneous emf V=V0sin(ωt)
7b Instantaneous current I=I0sin(ωt ± ϕ)

Impedance
7c

Phase
7d

8 Resonant frequency

Average Value of Power of an A.C. Pav= (½)E0 I0 cosϕ

9 Circuit
Pav=Erms Irms cosϕ

10 Power Factor
 17

cosϕ=R/Z

11 Transformer

12 Step-Up transformer (Ns > Np), (Vs > Vp), (Is < Ip).

13 Step-Down transformer (Ns < Np), (Vs< Vp), (Is > Ip).

14 Efficiency of a transformer

1. Electromagnetic Induction
Whenever the magnetic flux linked with an electric circuit change, an emf is induced in the circuit. This
phenomenon is called electromagnetic induction.

[Link]’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

(i) Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an induced emf is produced in it. (ii) The induced
emf lasts so long as the change in magnetic flux continues. (iii) The magnitude of induced emf is directly
proportional to the rate of change in magnetic flux, i.e.,
E ∝ dφ / dt ⇒ E = – dφ / dt
where constant of proportionality is one .Here, flux = NBA cos θ,
SI unit of φ = weber, CGS unit of φ = maxwell, 1 weber = 10 8 maxwell,
Dimensional formula of magnetic flux [φ] = [ML2T-2A-2]
[Link]’s law

The direction of induced emf or induced current is always in such a way that it opposes the cause due to which
it is produced.
Lenz’s law is in accordance with the conservation of energy.
[Link] EMF and Current:Induced e.m.f = Rate of change of flux link = dφ/ dt
Magnitude of induced emf E = – dφ/ dt ; E = – d/ dt (NBA cos ωt); E=NABω sin ωt
E=Eo sin ωt where, Eo =NABω
If R is the electrical resistance of the circuit, then induced current in the circuit is given by I = E/R
 18

If induced current is produced in a coil rotated in uniform magnetic field, then I = [NBAω]sin ωt /R
I= Iosin ωt ; where, Io = NBAω/R = peak value of induced current,
N = number of turns in the coil , B= magnetic induction, ω = angular velocity of rotation and A = area of cross-
section of the coil.
[Link]-Induction
The phenomena of production of induced emf in a circuit due to change in current flowing in its own, is called
self-induction.

Coefficient of Self-Induction
The magnetic flux linked with a coil φ = LI where, L = coefficient of self-induction.
The induced emf in the coil E = – L (dI/dt) ; Unit of self-induction is henry (H) and its
Dimensional formula is [ML2T -2 A-2].
Self – inductance of a long solenoid is given by
L = μo N2A/L = μon2Al
where, N = total number of turns in the solenoid, L = length of the coil,
n = number of turns per unit length in the coil and A = area of cross-section of the coil.
If core of the solenoid is of any other magnetic material, then

L = μoμrN2A/L
Energy stored in an inductor E = (½) LI2
[Link] Induction The phenomena of production of induced emf in a circuit due to the change in magnetic
flux in its neighbouring circuit, is called mutual induction.

Coefficient of Mutual Induction

If two coils are coupled with each other then magnetic flux linked with a Coil (secondary coil) φ = MI
where M is coefficient of mutual induction and
I is current flow in through primary coil.
The induced emf in the secondary coil E = – M (dI/dt)
where dI/dt is the rate of change of current through primary coil.
The unit of coefficient of mutual induction is henry (H)
The coefficient of mutual induction depends on geometry of two coils, distance between them and orientation
of the two coils. Coefficient of Coupling Two coils are said to be coupled if full a part of the fuse produced by
 19

one links with the other..

.Mutual inductance of two long coaxial solenoids is given by

M = μo N1 N2A/L = μon1n2AL
where N1 and N2 are total number of turns in both coils, n1 n2 are number of turns per unit length in coils, A is
area of cross-section of coils and L is length of the coils.
MINIMUM LEARNING MATERIALS-ALTERNATING CURRENT
1. The Alternating Current
The magnitude of alternating current changes continuously with time and its direction is reversed periodically.
It is represented by
I=I0sinωt or
I=I0cosωt
where, Io is termed as peak value of an alternating current and
ω=2π/T=2πv

2. Average Value of Alternating Current

The mean or average value of alternating current over any half cycle is defined as that value of steady current
which would send the same amount of charge through a circuit in the time of half cycle (i.e.T/2) as is sent by
the alternating current through the same circuit, in the same time.

Hence, mean or average value of alternating current over positive half cycle is 0.637 times the peak value of
alternating current, i.e., 63.7%63.7% of the peak value.
[Link] value of alternating current
The steady current which, when flows through a resistor of known resistance for a given period of time than as
a result the same quantity of heat is produced by the alternating current when flows through the same resistor
for the same period of time is called R.M.S or effective value of the alternating current.

In other words, the R.M.S value is defined as the square root of means of squares of instantaneous values.
 20

[Link] & Impedance

Reactance
Reactance is the opposition offered to flow of alternating current. This opposition may either be due to
inductor (L) and or capacitor (C). The value of reactance due to inductor having inductance L is ωL whereas its
value is (1/ωC) for capacitor having capacitance C.
Impedance:
Impedance in alternating current circuit is defined as the net opposing factor to flow of current. This opposition
may be due to Resistance & Inductance or Resistance & Capacitance or Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance.
It is denoted by symbol Z.
Reactance values depend on frequency while resistances don't. Reactance resist currents without dissipating
power, unlike resistors.
Inductive reactance increases with frequency and inductance(XL=ωL =2πfL)
Capacitive reactance decreases with frequency and
capacitance(XC=1/ωC=1/2πfC)

Impedance represents total opposition provided by reactance and resistance.

[Link] difference Between the EMF (Voltage) and the Current in an AC Circuit
Alternating source of voltage V =V0sinωt is applied across
a)For pure resistance:
The voltage and the current are in same phase i.e. phase difference  = 0; I=I0sin(ωt)
b) For pure inductance:
The voltage is ahead of current by π/2 i.e. phase difference  = +π/2; I=I0sin(ωt-π/2)
c) For pure capacitance:
The voltage lags behind the current by π/2 i.e. phase difference  = -π/2; I=I0sin(ωt+π/2)
[Link] LCR CIRCUIT :

Suppose resistance R, inductance L and capacitance C are connected in series and an alternating source of
voltage V =V0sinωt is applied across it. (fig. a)On account of being in series, the current (i ) flowing through all of
them is the same. Suppose the voltage across resistance R is VR, voltage across inductance L is VL and voltage
across capacitance C is VC.

The voltage VR and current i are in the same phase, the voltage VL will lead the current by angle 90° while the
voltage VC will lag behind the current by angle 90° (fig. b). Clearly VC and VL are in opposite directions, therefore
their resultant potential difference =VC -VL (if VC >CL ). Thus VR and (VC - VL) are mutually perpendicular and the
phase difference between them is 90°. As applied voltage across the circuit is V, the resultant of VR and (VC -
VL) will also be V.
 21

[Link] Resonant Circuit

A circuit in which inductance L capacitance C and resistance R are connected in series, and the circuit admits
maximum current corresponding to a given frequency of a.c., is called series resonance circuit.

The impedance (Z) of a LCR circuit is given by

i)When the inductive reactance (XL) becomes equal to the capacitive reactance (XC) in the circuit, the total
impedance becomes purely resistive (Z=R).In this state voltage and current are in same phase (  = 0), the
current and power are maximum and impedance is minimum. This state is called resonance.
ii) At resonance,
 22

iii) In resonance the power factor of the circuit is one.

[Link] Value of Power of an A.C. Circuit

Average power/cycle in an inductive circuit is

P=Erms Irms cosϕ

[Link] Factor

• The power factor of an alternating current is defined as the ratio of the true power flowing through the
circuit to the apparent power present in the circuit.
• It is usually in the interval of -1 to 1 and is dimensionless.

Also, cosΦ =R/Z

[Link] Current The current in an AC circuit when average power
consumption in AC circuit is zero, is referred as wattless current or idle current.
The component Irms sinϕ is called wattless current because it does not consume any power in a.c. circuit.
[Link] Generator:
AC generator is the one which
produces a current that alternates or
changes its direction regularly after a fixed interval of time, i.e., it is a device
 23

which converts mechanical energy into the alternating form of electrical [Link] generators work on the
principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, which states that electromotive force – EMF or voltage
– is generated in a current-carrying conductor that cuts a uniform magnetic field.

Parts of an AC Generator

An Ac generator consists of two poles i.e is the north pole and south pole of a magnet so that we can have a
uniform magnetic field. There is also a coil which is rectangular in shape that is the armature. These coils are
connected to the slip rings and attached to them are carbon [Link] slip rings are made of metal and are
insulated from each other. The brushes are carbon brushes and one end of each brush connects to the ring and
other connects to the circuit. The rectangular coils rotate about an axis which is perpendicular to the magnetic
field. There is also a shaft which rotates rapidly.

Working of an AC Generator
When the armature rotates between the poles of the magnet upon an axis perpendicular to the magnetic field, the
flux which links with the armature changes continuously. Due to this, an emf is induced in the armature. This
produces an electric current through the galvanometer and the slip rings and brushes.
The galvanometer swings between the positive and negative values. This indicates that there is an alternating
current flowing through the galvanometer. The direction of the induced current can be identified using Fleming’s
Right-Hand Rule.
[Link]
A transformer is an electrical device used for converting low
alternating voltage into a high alternating voltage and vice versa. It transfers
electric power from one circuit to another. The transformer is based on the
principle of electromagnetic induction.

A transformer consists of primary and secondary coils insulated from each

other, wound on a soft iron core To minimize eddy currents a laminated iron core is used. The a.c. input is
applied to the primary coil. The continuously varying current in the primary coil produces a varying magnetic
flux in the primary coil, which in turn produces a varying magnetic flux in the secondary. Hence, an induced emf
is produced across the secondary.
One of the coils called the primary coil has Np turns. The other coil s called the secondary coil; it has Ns turns.
Often the primary coil is the input coil and the secondary coil is the output coil of the transformer. Since same
flux links with the primary and secondary, the emf induced per turn of the two coils must be the same.
 24

Step-Up transformer:
if the secondary coil has a greater number of turns than the primary (Ns > Np), the voltage is stepped up
(Vs > Vp). This type of arrangement is called a step-up transformer. However, in this arrangement, there is less
current in the secondary than in the primary (Np/Ns < 1 and Is < Ip).
Step-Down transformer:
If the secondary coil has less turns than the primary (Ns < Np), we have
a step-down transformer. In this case, Vs < Vp and Is > Ip. That is, the voltage is stepped down, or reduced, and
the current is increased.

Efficiency of a transformer

The efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output power to the input power.
 25

The efficiency η = 1 (ie. 100%), only for an ideal transformer where there is no power loss. But practically there
are numerous factors leading to energy loss in a transformer and hence the efficiency is always less than one.
Reasons -Energy Loss in Transformer:

[Link] loss: It is due to the resistance of copper wire.

[Link] loss : It is due to the formation of eddy current.
[Link] of magnetic flux : It occur due to lose winding of primary or secondary coil.
iv. Hysteresis loss : It is due to the continuous magnetization and demagnetization of the
iron.
v. Humming noise.

Applications Of Transformer
• The transformer transmits electrical energy through wires over long distances.
• Transformers with multiple secondary’s are used in radio and TV receivers which require
several different voltages.
• Transformers are used as voltage regulators.
************************************

UNIT 5 ELECTRO MAGNETIC WAVES

26
 27

ELECTRO MAGNETIC SPECTRUM, ITS PRODUCTION, DETECTIONAND USES IN GENERAL

Wave lengthRange
Type Frequency Production Detection Uses
Range

Radio 10⁻¹ to 1 x 10⁴m Rapid acceleration / Receiver’s Radio, TV

109 to 105Hz deceleration of aerials Communic
electrons in aerials ation

10-1-10-3 m
Micro- Klystron valve or Point contact Radar, TV
wave 1012 to1010 Hz magnetron diodes communication
valve
10-4-10-6 m Thermopiles, Green House effect,
Infrared Vibration of atomor Bolometer looking through haze,
1012 to 1014Hz molecules Infrared fog and mist, Ariel
PhotographicFilm mapping.

700nm to Eye, Photocell, Photography,

Light 400nm 8x1014 Electron in an atom Photographic Film Illuminations,Emit &
Hz during transition reflect by the objects.
 28

Preservation of food
10-6-10-9 m Inner Shell electron in Photocell & items, Detection of
Ultra- atom moving from photographic film invisible writing, finger
violet one energy level to a print in forensic
1015 to 1017Hz lower energy level laboratory.
Determination of
Structure of
molecules& atoms.
10-8-10-12 m X-ray tube or inner Photographic Study of crystal
shell Electrons film, Geigertube, structure& atom,
X-rays 1016 to 1021Hz ionization fracture of bones.
chamber.

Radioactive decayof Nuclear reaction &

<10-11 the nucleus Photographic structure of atoms &
Gamma film, Geigertube, Nuclei.
ray 1018 to 1026Hz ionization To destroy cancer cells.
chamber

Electromagnetic Waves -Minimum Learning material

Ampere-Maxwell’s Circuital law:- It states that the line integral of the magnetic field along a closed is equal to
μ₀ times the total current linked with the surface bounded by that closed path.

Where

This equation is known as Maxwell’s fourth equation. It signifies that a conduction current, as well as a changing
electric field, produces a magnetic field.
Electromagnetic Waves
An EM wave consisting of fluctuating electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to each other and also
perpendicular to the propagation of the wave. Such waves can actually propagate in space without any material
medium called electromagnetic waves.
A graphical representation of electromagnetic waves is shown in fig. In this electric field vector E and the
magnetic field, vectors B are vibrating along the Y- and Z-
directions respectively and the wave is propagating along the X-
direction. Both vector E and vector B are varied with time and
space and have the same frequency.
Relation Between Magnitudes of Vector E and Vector B in Free
Space

Let a sinusoidal electromagnetic wave is propagating in free

space along with the positive directions o the X-axis with
wave no. k and angular frequency 𝜔. Then, the magnitudes of vector E and vector B acting along Y- and Z-axis
respectively, vary with x and t and can be written as
 29

Where E₀ and B₀ are the maximum values of E and B respectively.

Here λ is wavelength and v is the frequency of the wave.

c is the speed of the electromagnetic wave which is the speed of light in free space.

Since E and B are in the same phase.

At any point in space. Thus, the ratio of the magnitude of electric field and magnetic field equals the speed of
light in free space.

Energy Density in Electromagnetic Waves

The energy density in an electric field E in a vacuum is ϵ0E2/2, and that in a magnetic field B is B2/2μ0. Thus, the
energy density is associated with an electromagnetic wave is

An electromagnetic wave propagating along the X-axis and the magnitude of vector E and vector B, acting along
the Y- and Z- axis respectively can be written as

Where E₀ and B₀ are the maximum values of E and B respectively. Putting these values in eqn (i), we get

The time average of sin² over any whole number of cycles is ½. Therefore the average energy density of an e.m.
wave is

Here ϵ0E2/2 is the average kinetic energy density ue and B2/2μ0 is the average magnetic density um.
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
 30

1. The electromagnetic waves are produced by accelerated charge.

2. In free space, these waves travel with the speed of light.
3. No medium is required for the propagation of Electromagnetic waves.
4. The electric and magnetic fields have perpendicular variations in their direction of variation.
5. The electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature.
6. The variations in the electric and magnetic fields occur simultaneously and the field acquires their
maximum values E₀ and B₀ at the same place and same time.
7. In free space, the magnitudes of the electric and magnetic fields in electromagnetic waves are
related by E/B = c.
8. Electromagnetic waves, being uncharged, are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.

UNIT VI - OPTICS CHAPTER -9 –RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL

INSTRUMENTS

RTANT FORMULAE IN RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

[Link] FORMULAE SYMBOL APPLICATIONS

1 Mirror formula f -focal length, u is object distance To find the focal
and v is image distance length of a mirror
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 (For concave mirror f is negative) if u and v are
= +
𝒇 𝒗 𝒖 (For convex mirror f is positive) known.
Convex produces only virtual Concave produces both real and
For real image u is negative and v virtual image.
is negative.
For virtual image u is negative
and v is positive

2 𝑰 𝒗 m- magnification, I- size of the To find the

𝒎= =−
𝒐 𝒖 image, O- size of the object magnification of
f – focal length, u – object distance, the mirror
𝒇−𝒗 𝒇 v – image distance
𝒎= ,𝒎 =
𝒇 𝒇−𝒖
3 𝒄 𝝀 μ- absolute refractive index, c- To find the
𝝁= =
𝒗 𝝀𝒎 speed of light in air, v- speed of absolute refractive
light in medium index.
λ is the wavelength of light in air (refractive index of
λm is the wavelength of light in the medium with
medium respect to air)
 31

1μ
4 2 =v2/v1 Refractive index of medium 2 with To find the relative
respect to medium 1. refractive index of
V2 speed of light in medium 2,V1 a one medium
speed of light in medium 1 with respect to
another
1μ
5 it is the refractive index of the
2 To find the
𝟏 medium2 with respect to medium refractive index of
𝟐𝝁 = real depth/ apparent depth
1 the medium using
real depth and
apparent depth
6 Normal shift t is the thickness of the medium To find the normal
𝟏 and μ is the refractive index. shift ( how much
N = t (𝟏 − 𝝁)
image appears to
shifted)
7. 𝟏 𝟏 Ic is the critical angle and μ is the To find the value
𝟐𝝁 = sin 𝒊
𝒄
refractive index of refractive index
if the critical angle
is known in total
internal reflection.
8 𝝁𝟐 𝝁𝟏 𝝁𝟐 − 𝝁𝟏 μ2 and μ1 are the refractive indices Refraction in a
− =
𝒗 𝒖 𝑹 and R is the radius of curvature. convex spherical
surface when the
object lies in a
rarer medium and
the image formed
is real.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 f is the focal length μ is the Lens marker’s
= (𝝁 − 𝟏)( − )
9 𝒇 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 refractive index and R1 and R2 are formula
the radius of curvature

10 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 f is the focal length and v is the Lens formula

=𝒗−𝒖
𝒇
distance from the lens to the image To find the focal
(image distance) and u is the length if u and v
For concave lens f is negative
distance from the lens to the object are known
For convex lens f is positive
(Object distance)
For real image u is negative and v
is positive
For virtual image u is negative
and v is negative
11 sin(𝜹𝒎𝒊𝒏 + 𝑨) δmin is the angle of minimum Prism formula to
𝝁= 𝟐 deviation and A is the angle of find the refractive
sin 𝑨/𝟐 prism and μ is the refractive index index

12 𝜹𝒎 = (𝝁 − 𝟏)𝑨 δm is the minimum deviation , A is Relation between

the angle of the prism and μ is the angle of deviation
refractive index , refractive index
and angel of the
 32

prism
13 Mo is the magnification of objective Magnification
,Me is the magnification of formula for
eyepiece,v0 is the image distance of compound
the objective and uo is the object microscope.(when
distance of the objective the final image is
D is 25 cm ,least distance of distinct formed at D)
vision
fe is the focal length of the eyepiece
14 NORMAL ADUJSTMENT Mo is the magnification of objective, Magnification
POSITION (when the final image Me is the magnification of eyepiece formula for
is formed at infinity L is the length of the compound compound
microscope(L= vo+ue) microscope
fe is the focal length of the
eyepiece,
fo is the focal length of the objective
15 fe is the focal length of the Magnification for
eyepiece, Astronomical
(NORMAL ADJUSTMENT fo is the focal length of the objective telescope when
POSITION) (when the final image the final image is
is formed at infinity formed at infinity
16 fe is the focal length of the Magnification for
eyepiece, Astronomical
fo is the focal length of the objective telescope when
D is 25 cm ,least distance of distinct the final image is
vision formed at D

IMPORTANT TOPICS TO BE REVISED( MINIMUM LEARNING MATERIAL)

Image formation by a concave mirror:-

[Link]. Position of object Position of image Nature of image Size of image

1 Infinity At F Real and inverted Highly diminished

2 Beyond C Between F & C Real and inverted Diminished

3 At C At C Real and inverted Same size

4 Between C & F Beyond C Real and inverted Magnified

 33

5 At F At infinity Real and inverted Highly magnified

6 Between F & P Behind the mirror Virtual & erect Magnified

Image formation by a convex mirror:-
[Link]. Position of object Position of image Nature of image Size of image

1 Infinity At F Virtual & erect Highly diminished

2 Between and P Between P and F Virtual & erect Diminished

• Methods to Determine Refractive Index of a Medium: Refractive index of a medium can also be
determined from the following:

(i)

(ii)
Where c is the critical angle.
• Critical Angle: The Critical angle is the angle of incidence in a denser medium corresponding to
which the refracted ray just grazes the surface of separation.
Total internal reflection: When light travels from an optically denser medium to a rarer medium at
the interface, it is partly reflected back into the same medium and partly refracted to the second
medium. This reflection is called the internal reflection.
In total internal reflection phenomenon there is no refraction and the entire incident ray will get
reflected.

Conditions for Total Internal Reflection are as follows:-

• Light ray travels from denser to rarer medium.

• The angle of incidence should be greater than the critical angle.

The angle of incidence corresponding to angle of refraction = 90 0 is called

Critical angle.
 34

Applications of Total Internal Reflection

Optical Fibres:-

They are used in telecommunication industries.

Optical fibres work on the phenomenon of total internal reflection.
Working of Optical fibres:
Optical fibres are fabricated with high quality composite glass/quartz fibres.

Each fibre consists of a core and cladding. The refractive index of the material of the core is
higher than that of the cladding.
As there is difference in the refractive index of
core and denser; core acts as a denser medium
and cladding acts as a rarer medium.
When a signal in the form of light is directed at one end of the fibre at a suitable angle, it
undergoes repeated total internal reflections along the length of the fibre and finally comes out
at the other end.
Since light undergoes total internal reflection at each stage, there is no appreciable loss in the
intensity of the light signal.
Prisms make use of total internal reflection which makes it useful in binoculars.
Prisms designed to bend light by 90º or by 180º make use of total internal reflection.
Such a prism is also used to invert images without changing their size.

In the first two cases, the critical angle ic for the material of the prism must be less than 45º.

• Apparent Depth of a Liquid: If the object be placed at the bottom of a transparent medium, say
water, and viewed from above, it will appear higher than it actually is.
 35

The refractive index in this case is:

Refractive index of the medium, =

• Normal shift: The height through which an object appears to be raised in a denser medium is
called normal shift.

• Refraction through a Single Surface: If are refractive indices of rare and denser media
respectively, R is the radius of curvature of spherical surface.

When object is in rare medium:

When object is in denser medium:

where u and v are the distances of the object and the image from the centre of the refracting
surface of radius of curvature R respectively.
• Refraction through a Thin Lens (Lens maker’s formula): If R1 and R2 are radii of curvature of first
and second refracting surfaces of a thin lens of focal length f, then lens-makers formula

is

If the lens is surrounded by air, and , then

Image formation by a convex lens:-

[Link]. Position of object Position of image Nature of image Size of image

1 Infinity At F Real and inverted Highly diminished

2 Beyond 2F Between F & 2F Real and inverted Diminished

3 At 2F At 2F Real and inverted Same size

4 Between 2F & F Beyond 2F Real and inverted Magnified

5 At F At infinity Real and inverted Highly magnified

6 Between F & O Same side Virtual & erect Magnified

Image formation by a concave lens:-
[Link]. Position of object Position of image Nature of image Size of image

1 Infinity At F Virtual & erect Highly diminished

2 Between and O Same side Virtual & erect Diminished

• Thin lens formula:

• Magnification Produced by a Lens:
 36

Where I is the size of image and O is the size of object.

• Power of a Lens: The power of a lens P is its ability to deviate the ray towards axis.

• Focal Length of Thin Lenses: The focal length ( ) of thin lenses of focal

lengths placed in contact of each other is

• Refraction Through Prism: When a ray of monochromatic light is refracted by a prism, the
deviation produced by the prism is
Where i = angle of incidence
e = angle of emergence
A = angle of the prism

• Angle of Deviation: The minimum value of the angle of deviation suffered by a ray on passing
through a prism is called the angle of minimum deviation and is denoted by .

• Optical Instruments: Optical instruments are the devices which help human eye in observing
highly magnified images of tiny objects, for detailed examination and in observing very far
objects whether terrestrial or astronomical.
• Microscope:
a) A simple microscope is a short focal length convex lens.

b) The magnifying power of a simple microscope is

 37

Compound Microscope

In order to have large magnifications

compound microscope is used.

The lens nearest the object, called the

objective, forms a real, inverted,
magnified image of the object. This
serves as the object for the second lens,
the eyepiece, which functions essentially like a simple microscope or magnifier, produces the
final image, which is enlarged and virtual.

• The first inverted image is thus near (at or within) the focal plane of the eyepiece, at a
distance appropriate for final image formation at infinity, or a little closer for image
formation at the near point.
• Clearly, the final image is inverted with respect to the original object.
• c) The magnifying power, M of a compound microscope when final image is formed at

least distance of distinct vision-

When image is formed at infinity(NORMAL ADJUSTMENT POSITION)

• & when image is formed at infinity-

Where Mo and Me denotes the linear magnification of the objective and eye lens.

Telescope
An instrument used to view distant objects clearly.
It consists of:- (a) Objective lens (b) Eyepiece

Working of Telescope
The telescope is used to provide angular magnification of distant objects.
 38

The objective has a large focal length and a much larger aperture than the eyepiece because
object is very far away.
Light from a distant object enters the objective and a real and inverted image is formed at its
second focal point.
This image acts as an object for the eyepiece; it magnifies this image producing a final inverted
image.
When the final image is formed at infinity (NORMAL ADJUSTMENT POSITION)

a) The magnifying power, M of refracting telescope is , Where L is

the length of the telescope.

When the final image is formed at D (Least distance of distinct vision)

b) For the final image is formed at the least distance of distant vision, the magnifying power

is

REFLECTING TELESCOPES:- (Cassegrain Type)

 39

Advantages ( Over Refracting Type) :

1. No Spherical Aberration 2. No Chromatic aberration 3. Less mechanical support is required

4. Polishing and Grinding from one side only 5. Resolvng power is high

************

WAVE OPTICS

S. No Physical quantity / Law / Principle Formulae

1 Refractive index of a medium with respect to µ=𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎 =𝒄
𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒊𝒅𝒖𝒎 𝒗
vacuum
any medium is optically denser than
vacuum.
µ>1 so c>v.
2 Relation between wave length of light in v1=𝝂λ1 v2=𝝂λ2
medium, speed of the wave and refractive index v1 = 𝝂λ1 = λ1
v2 𝝂λ2 λ2
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎
µ=
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒊𝒅𝒖𝒎
frequency of light remains
unchanged during its reflection or
refraction .
3 First law of reflection ∠𝒊 = ∠𝒓
4 Snell’s law of refraction sin 𝒊
= 1µ𝟐
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒓
+5 Relation between refractive index of the µ= 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎𝝀
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒊𝒅𝒖𝒎 𝝀′
medium µ wave length of light in vacuum λ
wavelength of light in medium λ’
6 Principle of Superposition (𝟏). ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝒚 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒚𝟏 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒚𝟐 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒚𝟑+ ….𝒚𝒏⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
 40

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒚𝟏, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒚𝟐, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒚𝟑+ ….𝒚𝒏⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ displacements due
to the different waves acting
separately
⃗ the resultant displacement
𝒚
(2) Amplitude of the resultant wave
A2 =𝒂𝟐𝟏 +𝒂𝟐𝟐 + 2𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 cos∅
𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 amplitudes of two light waves
from two coherent sources
∅ the constant phase difference
between the two waves
(3) Intensity of the wave 𝜶
(amplitude)2
𝟐
I𝜶𝑨
I1 𝜶 𝒂𝟏 𝟐
I2 𝜶 𝒂𝟐 𝟐
(4) Total intensity at a point where
the phase difference ∅ is
I = I1 + I2+2 √𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 cos

7 Relation between phase difference and path ∅ = 𝟐𝝅 ∆𝒙

𝝀
difference

8 Young’s double slit experiment 𝝀𝑫

(1) Fringe width 𝜷 = 𝒅
(2) Wavelength of the light used
𝜷𝒅
λ= 𝑫
3) If the apparatus is immersed in
any other medium (other than air)
𝝀′𝑫 𝝀𝑫
𝜷′ = 𝒅 = µ𝒅
µ𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎> µ𝒂𝒊𝒓

𝜷′ < 𝜷

9 Variation in intensity in the (1) 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 = K (a+a) 2 =4 𝒂𝟐

interference pattern due to two coherent
sources (2) 𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏= K (a-a) 2 =0 (dark fringes
are perfectly dark)
 41

10 Diffraction at a single slit Positions of Secondary minima

Path difference dsinθ = nλ
n-1,2,3…
Positions of Secondary maxima
Path difference
𝝀
dsinθ =( (2n+1)𝟐
n-1,2,3…
d width of the slit
11 Central maxima
𝟐𝝀𝑫
Linear width= 𝑫
𝟐𝝀
Angular width= 𝒅
D the distance between the screen
and the slit

Wavefront:
A wavefront is defined as the continuous locus of all the particles of a medium, which are vibrating in the same
phase.
These are three types
(i) Spherical wavefront,(ii) Cylindrical wavefront & (iii) Plane wavefront
Light travels in a medium in the form of wavefront.
A wavefront is the locus of all the particles vibrating in same phase.
All particles on a wavefront behaves as a secondary source of light, which emits secondary wavelets.
The envelope of secondary wavelets represents the new position of a wavefront.
When source of light is a point source,the wavefront is spherical.
Amplitude (A) is inversely proportional to distance (x) A ∝ 1 / x .
∴ Intensity (I) ∝ (Amplitude)2
 42

Huygens’s Wave Theory

Huygens’s Principle
(i) Every point on given wavefront (called primary wavefront)
acts as a fresh source of new disturbance called secondary
wavelets.
(ii) The secondary wavelets travel in all the directions with the
speed of light in the medium.
(iii) A surface touching these secondary wavelets tangentially
in the forward direction at any instant gives the new
(secondary) wave front of that instant.
Laws of reflection on the basis of Huygens’ wave theory

Consider a plane wave front AB incident on the reflecting

surface XY, both the wave front and the reflecting surface being perpendicular to the plane of paper.

First the wave front touches the reflecting surface at B and then at the successive points towards C. In
accordance with Huygens’ principle, from each point on AB, secondary wavelets start growing with the speed c.
During the time the disturbance from A reaches the point C the secondary wavelets from B must have spread
over a hemisphere of radius BD.
BD = AC = c t,
where t is the time taken by the disturbance to travel from A to C.
The tangent plane CD drawn from the point C over this hemisphere of radius c t will be the new reflected wave
front.
Let angles of incidence and reflection be i and r, respectively .
In ∆ABC and ∆ DCB, we have

The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. The proves the first law of reflection.
Further, since the incident ray SB, the normal BN and the reflected ray BD are all [Link] the same plane. This
proves the second law of reflection
Law of refraction on this basis of Huygens’ wave theory
 43

Consider a plane wavefront AB incident on a plane surface XY, separating two media 1 and 2, as shown in
Figure.
Let v1 and v2 be the velocities of light in two media, with v1 > v2.
The wave front first strikes at point A and then at the successive points towards C. According to Huygens’
principle, from each point on AC, the secondary wavelets starts growing in the second medium with speed v 2.
Let the disturbance take time t to travel from B to C, then BC = v 1t.
During the time the disturbance from B reaches the point C, the secondary wavelets from point A must have
spread over a hemisphere of radius AD = v 2t in the second medium. The tangent plane CD drawn from point C
over this hemisphere of radius v2t will be the new refracted wave front.
Let the angles of incidence and refraction be i and r, respectively.
From ∆ABC 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆ADC we have

Thus Snell’s law is [Link] incident ray, the normal and the refracted ray are all [Link] the same plane.

Intesity Curve in Interference and Diffraction:

Important Points
(a) A soap bubble or oil film on water appears coloured in white light due to interference of light reflected
from upper and lower surfaces of soap bubble or oil film.
(b) In interference fringe pattern all bright and dark fringes are of same width,
(c) In diffraction fringe pattern central bright fringe is brightest and widest. and I remaining secondary
maximas are of gradually decreasing intensities.
 44

(d) The difference between interference and diffraction is that the interference is the superposition
between the wavelets coming from two coherent sources while the diffraction is the superposition
between the wavelets coming from the single wavefront

Distinguishing features between a diffraction pattern due to a single slit and the interference fringes
produced in Young’s double slit experiment?

No Interference of light Diffraction of light

1 Interference is due to superposition of Diffraction is due to superposition of the

two secondary wavelets coming from different sf
distinct waves coming from two coherent parts of the same wavefront.
sources.

2 Interference fringes are of the same Diffraction fringes are not to be of the same
width. width.

3 The intensity of minima is zero. The intensity of minima is never zero.

4. Good Contrast betweem dark and bright Poor Contrast betweem dark and bright
fringes. fringes.

Unit VII: Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

Chapter–11:
Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

[Link]. FORMULAE SYMBOL APPLICATIONS

𝑐
1 E=hν=h E= energy of photon, h= Plank’s To find the energy of photon
𝜆
constant, ν = frequency

2 W0 = h ν0 = h𝑐/𝜆0 W0 = work function Relation between work function

and ν0 , 𝜆0 .
ν0 = threshold frequency
𝜆0 = threshold wavelength
1
3 Kmax = 2 m 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 Kmax = Maximum kinetic energy Einstein’s photoelectric
of emitted electrons equation.
= hν – W0
Vmax = maximum velocity
 45

= h (ν – ν0 )
1
4 Kmax = 2 m 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 = eV0 e = charge of electron Relation between maximum
kinetic energy and stopping
V0 = stopping potential
potential.

5 ℎ ℎ λ = wave length of matter wave De Broglie wavelength for

λ = 𝑚𝑣 or λ = 𝑝
matter wave.
h = Plank’s constant

6 ℎ ℎ E = kinetic energy Relation between λ and E , V.

λ= =
√2𝑚𝐸 √2𝑚𝑞𝑉
V = accelerating potential

7 ℎ 12.27 V = accelerating potential De Broglie wavelength for

λ= , λ= A0
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉 √𝑉
electron

STUDY MATERIAL

Photon
Photons are the packets of energy emitted by a source of radiation. The energy of each photon
is, E = hv
Where h is Planck’s constant and v is frequency of radiation.
The rest mass of a photon is zero & The momentum of a photon p = hv / c = h / λ
Dynamic or kinetic mass of photon m = hv / c2 = h / cλ where c is speed of light in vacuum and λ is
wavelength of radiation. Photons are electrically neutral.
A body can radiate or absorb energy in whose number multiples of a quantum hv, 2hv, 3hv ….
nhv, where n is positive integer.
Photoelectric Effect :
The phenomena of emission of electrons from a metal surface, when radiations of suitable frequency is incident
on it, is called photoelectric effect.
Work Function(φ) The minimum amount of energy required to eject one electron from a metal surface, is
called its work function.
Threshold Frequency (vo) The minimum frequency of light which can eject photo electron from a metal surface
is called threshold frequency of that metal.
Threshold Wavelength (λmax) The maximum wavelength of light which can eject photo electron from a metal
surface is called threshold wavelength of that metal. Relation between work function, threshold frequency and
threshold wavelength φ = hvo = hc / λmax

Laws of Photoelectric Effect

1. For a given metal and frequency of incident light, the photo electric
current (the rate of emission of photoelectrons) is directly proportional to the
intensity of incident light.
2. For a given metal. there is a certain minimum frequency, called threshold frequency, below which there
is no emission of photo electrons takes place. Above threshold frequency the maximum kinetic energy of photo
electrons depends upon the frequency of incident light.
3. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process.
 46

4. At a given frequency all the photons have same energy irrespective of their intensity and with increases
in intensity saturation current increases whereas Stopping potential and max KE remains constant.

Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation

The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons (Ek)max = hv – φ = h(v – vo)

where v is frequency of incident light and v o is threshold frequency.
Stopping Potential
The minimum negative potential given to anode plate at which photoelectric current becomes zero is called
stopping potential (Vo).
Maximum kinetic energy of photo electrons
(Ek)max = 1 / 2 mv2max = eVo

Hallwasch & Lenard’s Observation :

Lenard observed that when ultraviolet radiation were allowed to fall on emitter plate of an evacuated glass
tube enclosing two electrodes, current flows. As soon as, the ultraviolet radiations were stopped, the current
flows also stopped. These observations indicate that when ultraviolet radiations fall on the emitter plate,
electrons are ejected from it which are attracted towards the positive plate by the electric field.
Graphs related to Photoelectric Effect:
 47

UNIT 8 . ATOMS & NUCLEI

[Link]. FORMULAE SYMBOL APPLICATIONS

1
1 r0 = k4Ze2 k = 4𝜋𝜀 , Z = Atomic number To find the distance of closest
0
approach
mv2 of element. m = mass of
r0.
electron, v = velocity of
electron.

2 b = k Ze2cot𝜃/2 b = impact parameter To find the impact parameter

1
m v2 θ = scattering angle
2

3 𝑛2 ℎ2 rn = Radius of nth orbit Bohr’s radius (Z =1, n =1) r0 =

rn =
4𝜋2 𝑚𝑘𝑍𝑒 2
0.53 A0

4 v =
2𝜋𝑘𝑧𝑒 2 v = speed of an electron in nth v = 𝑐 , c = speed of light
𝑛ℎ 137 𝑛
orbit

5 En= -
2𝜋2 𝑚𝑘 2 𝑍 2𝑒 4 En = Total energy of electron En = - 13.6 eV Total energy of
𝑛2 ℎ2 𝑛2
in nth orbit. electron in nth orbit for
= - 13.6 Z2/n2 hydrogen.
𝑘𝑍𝑒 2 1
6 K.E = k = 4𝜋𝜀 , Z = Atomic number Kinetic energy of electron
2𝑟 0
of element Relation between K.E and total
K.E = - En
energy

7 𝑘𝑍𝑒 2 Potential energy of electron

P.E = - 𝑟
Relation between P.E and total
P.E = 2 En = -2K.E
energy
1 1 1 1
8 = R [𝑛 2 − ] λ = Wavelength of emitted = Wave number
𝜆 1 𝑛22 𝜆
radiation.
Wave number = 1/λ Lyman series : n1 = 1, n2 = 2,3,4…
R = Rydberg’s constant
Balmer series : n1 = 2, n2 =3,4
,5…

9 R = R0 A1/3 R0 = 1.2 x 10-15 m Relation between Radius of

nucleus and mass number
𝑚
9 𝜌 =4 𝜌 = Nuclear density , m = 𝜌 is independent of mass
𝜋𝑅0 3
3 average mass of a nucleon. number.

10 BE = m c2 EB = Binding Energy Relation between binding

energy and mass defect.
m= mass defect
1 a.m.u.= 931.5 Mev
 48

MINIMUM LEARNING MATERIAL

A graph is plotted between the scattering angle θ and the number of alpha particles N(θ)

BOHR MODEL OF HYDROGEN ATOM:

POSTULATES:

(i) Every atom consists of a central core called nucleus, in which entire positive charge and almost entire
mass of the atom are concentrated. A suitable number of electrons revolve around the nucleus in a
circular orbit. The centripetal force required for revolution is provided by the electrostatic force of
attraction between the electron and the nucleus.
(ii) An electron can revolve only in certain discrete non radiating orbits, called stationary orbits, for which

total angular momentum of the revolving electron is an integral multiple of .

(iii)The emission/absorption of energy occurs only when an electron jumps from one of its specified non
radiating orbits to another. The difference in the total energy of electron in the two permitted orbits
is absorbed when the electron jumps from an inner to an outer orbit, and emitted when electron
jumps from outer to the inner orbit.
Isobar: They are atoms of the element having same mass number (A) but different atomic number (Z).
E.g.: 1H3, 2He3
Isotope: They are atoms of an element having same atomic number (Z) but different mass number (A).
E.g.: 1H1, 1H2, 1H3
Isotones: They are atoms of the elements whose nuclei have the same number of neutrons.
E.g.: 4Be9, 5B10
Atomic Mass Unit: It is defined as 1/12th of the mass of one 6C12 atom. 1 amu = 931 Mev
Mass Defect: It is given by the difference between the sum of mass of nucleons and the mass of the
nucleons. Δm = [Zmp + (A-Z)mn – M]
 49

Binding energy: It is defined as the energy required to break up a nucleus into its constituent protons and
neutrons.
B.E = [Zmp + (A-Z)mn – M] c2 ; B.E = mc2
Binding energy per nucleon: It is the average energy required to extract one nucleon from the nucleus. It is
given by BE/mass number (A).
BINDING ENERGY CURVE:
The value of binding energy per nucleon of a nucleus gives a measure of the stability of that nucleus. Greater
is the binding energy per nucleon of a nucleus, more stable is the nucleus. Figure shows the graph of binding
energy per nucleon drawn against mass number A. The binding energy curve reveals the following important
features:

Variation of potential energy between a pair of nucleons as a function of their separation.

Conclusions: ( Abput Nuclear forcs)
1. Nuclear force follow saturation property as
2. Nuclear forces are short ranged.
3. Nuclear force is attractive for distance larger than rO = 0.8 fm and nuclear
force is repulsive if two are separated by distance less than
rO = 0.8 fm.
4. Nuclear force do not follow inverse square law.
 50

Chapter–14
Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuit
(i) Metals: ( Eg = 0 eV)

when the conduction band is partially filled and the balanced band is partially empty or when the
conduction and valance bands overlap. When there is overlap electrons from valence band can easily move
into the conduction band. This situation makes a large number of electrons available for electrical
conduction. When the valence band is partially empty, electrons from its lower level can move to higher
level making conduction possible. Therefore, the resistance of such materials is low orthe conductivity is

high.
(ii) Insulators:

A large band gap Eg exists (Eg > 3 eV). There are no electrons in the conduction band, and therefore no

electrical conduction is possible.

(iii) Energy Band Diagram of Intrinsic Semiconductor: ( PURE semiconductor like Ge and Si)
 51

At T = 0 K at T >0K

Types of Extrinsic Semicnoductors:

n- type Semicondcutors p- type Semicondcutors
Dopant/Impurity : Dopant/Impurity :
Pentavalent (valency 5); like Arsenic (As), Antimony(Sb), Trivalent (valency 3); like Indium (In),
Phosphorous(P), etc. Boron (B), Aluminium (Al), etc.

Majority Charge Carriers – electrons Minority Charge Majority Charge Carriers – holes Minority
Carriers – holes Charge Carriers – electrons

In a n type semiconductor the total number density of In a p type semiconductor , the total
conduction electrons ne is due to the electrons number density of holes nh is only due to
contributed by donors and those generated intrinsically, the Acceptor atom and electrons generated
while the total number density of holes nh is only due from the intrinsic source while the total
to the holes from the intrinsic source. number density of conduction electrons ne
Therefore ne ~ND >> nh is due to the electrons from the intrinsic
source. Therefore nh ~NA >> ne
Overall Charge : Neutral Overall Charge : Neutral
since the charge of additional charge carriers is just since the charge of additional charge
equal and opposite to that of the ionised cores in the carriers is just equal andopposite to that of
lattice. the ionised cores in the lattice.
Energy Band Diagram: Energy Band Diagram:

The electron and hole concentration in a both types of

extrinsicsemiconductor in thermal equilibrium is given by
𝑛𝑒𝑛ℎ = 𝑛2
 52

p-n junction formation:

Two important processes occur during the formation of a p-n junction:
Diffusion : During the formation of p-n junction, due to the concentration gradient across p-, and n- sides,
holes diffuse from p-side to n-side (p n) and electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side (n p). This motion of
charge carries gives rise to diffusion current across the junction.
Drift : Due to the positive space-charge region on n-side of the junction and negative space charge region on
p-side of the junction, an electric field directed from positive charge towards negative charge develops. Due
to this field, an electron on p-side of the junction moves to n-side and a hole on nside of the junction moves
to p-side. ( Minority Charges). This motion minority charge carriers is called Drift. This motion gives rise to a
drift current, which is opposite in direction to the diffusion current .
Two Important Definitions:
Depletion region: space-charge region on either side of the junction together is known as depletion
region as the electrons and holes taking part in the initial movement across the junction depleted the
region of its free charges.

(The thickness of depletion region is of the order of one-tenth of a micrometre.)

Barrier potential (V0) : Potential difference developed across the junction of the two regions due to loss
of electrons from the n-region and the gain of electron by the p-region is called barrier potential as it
tends to prevent the movement of electron from the n region into the p region.
Note : Initially, diffusion current is large and drift current is small. As the diffusion process continues, the
space-charge regions on either side of the junction extend, thus increasing the electric field strength and
hence drift current. This process continues until the diffusion current equals the drift current. Thus a p-n
junction is formed. In a p-n junction under equilibrium there is no net current.

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE:
A semiconductor diode is basically a p-n junction with metallic contacts provided at the ends for the
application of an external voltage ( called Biasing). It is a two terminal device.

Semiconductor diode Symbol for p-n junction diode

p-n junction diode under forward bias:

 53

When an external voltage V is applied across a

semiconductor diode such that p-side is connected
to the positive terminal of the battery and n-side to
the negative terminal it is said to beforward biased.

The applied voltage mostly drops across the

depletion region and the voltage drop across the p-
side and n-side of the junction is negligible. (This is
because the resistance of the depletion region – a
region where there are no charges – isvery high
compared to the resistance of n-side and p-side.)
Barrier potential
The direction of the applied voltage (V ) is opposite
(1) without battery, (2) Low battery voltage, and
to the built-in potential V0.
(3) High voltage battery.
As a result, In Forward Bias: (with increase in
forward voltage)
(i) the depletion layer width decreases
(ii) the barrier height is reduced .The effective
barrier height under forward bias is (V0 – V ).
(iii) Resistance of junction reduces.

p-n junction diode under reverse bias:

When an external voltage (V ) is applied across the

diode such that n-side is positive and p-side is
negative, it is said to be reverse biased

The applied voltage mostly drops across the depletion

region and the direction of applied voltage is same as
the direction of barrier potential. therefore
In Reverse Bias: (with increase in reverse voltage )
(i) the depletion layer width Increses
(ii) the barrier height is Increased .The effective
barrier height under Reverse bias is (V0 + V ). Barrier potential
(iii) Resistance of junction Increases. (1) without battery, (2) Reverse battery voltage
Thus, diffusion current, decreases enormously
compared to the diode under forward bias.
V-I characteristics of a (Si) Diode:
(the variation of current as a function of applied voltage on a diode)
 54

Circuit Diagram:

Typical V-I characteristics of a silicon diode:

Explanation of the Graph:

In forward bias, the current first increases very slowly, almost negligibly, till the voltage across the diode
crosses a certain value called Cut-in or threshold voltage ( i.e when barrier potential is completely
overcome). After Threshold voltage, the diode current increases significantly (exponentially), even for a
very small increase in the diode bias voltage.

Threshold Voltage : voltage applied across diode in forward bias after which the diode current increases
significantly (exponentially). (~0.2V for germanium diode and ~0.7 V for silicon diode)

Reverse Saturation Current:For the diode in reverse bias, the current is very small (~µA) and almost
remains constant with change in bias. It is called reverse saturation current.

Breakdown Voltage ( Vbr): very high reverse bias at which the current increases suddenly/abruptly.
 55

Explanation of Sudden increase in current at Breakdown Voltage:

We know that reverse current is due to the flow of electrons (minority carriers) from p n and holesfrom n
p. As the reverse bias voltage is increased, the electric field at the junction becomes significant. When
the reverse bias voltage V = Vz, then the electric field strength is high enough to pull valence electrons from
the host atoms on the p-side which are accelerated to n-side. These electrons account for high current
observed at the breakdown. The emission of electrons from the host atoms due to the high electric field is
known as internal field emission or field ionisation. The electric field required for field ionisation is of the
order of 106 V/m.

Dynamic resistance: The ratio of small change in voltage ∆V to a small change in current ∆I:

Note: The above discussion shows that the p-n junction diode primarily allows the flow of current only in one
direction (forward bias). The forward bias resistance is low as compared to the reversebias resistance. This
property is used for rectification of ac voltages.

p-n JUNCTION DIODE AS A RECTIFIER:

Rectifiers are the circuits which are used to convert AC voltage to (pulsating) dc voltage. Principle:
p-n junction diode allows the flow of current only when it is forward biased as its resistance is low
and it does not allow the current to pass through it when reverse biased.

Half wave Rectifier Full wave rectifier

Are the circuits in which a pulsating voltage will Are the circuits in which a pulsating voltage will appear
appear across the load only during the positive across the load during full cycles (both the positive as
half cyclesof the input ac voltage. well as negative half of the ac cycle)of the
input ac voltage.
Efficiency : 40.6% Efficiency : 81.2%
frequency of output pulsating voltage= frequency of output pulsating voltage= 2( Frequency of
Frequency of input ac voltage input ac voltage)
Circuit Diagram: Circuit Diagram:
 56

Input and Output Waveform: Input and Output Waveform: