Definition
Pearson’s r is a statistical measure that describes the
strength and direction of a linear relationship
between two quantitative (interval or ratio)
variables.
It indicates how closely the data points fit a straight line
when plotted on a scatter diagram. The value of r ranges
from −1 to +1.
Formula
Where:
x = values of the first variable
y = values of the second variable
n = number of paired observations
Steps in Computing Spearman
Correlation
[Link] the data into paired x and y values.
[Link] additional columns for x2, y2, and xy.
[Link] the totals: ∑x, ∑y, ∑ x2, ∑ y2, ∑xy, and determine n.
[Link] the totals into the Pearson correlation formula.
[Link] the numerator and denominator separately, then
divide to obtain r.
[Link] the result based on the sign (direction) and magnitude
(strength) of the correlation.
Strength of Correlation
rho Value Strength
0.90 to 1.00 Very Strong Positive
0.70 to 0.89 Strong Positive
0.40 to 0.69 Moderate Positive
0.10 to 0.39 Weak Positive
0 No correlation
–0.10 to –0.39 Weak Negative
–0.40 to –0.69 Moderate Negative
–0.70 to –0.89 Strong Negative
–0.90 to –1.00 Very Strong Negative
When to use
• Pearson’s r is used when:
[Link] variables are quantitative
(e.g., height, weight, scores, time, income).
[Link] relationship is linear
The points on a scatter plot roughly form a straight line.
[Link] are measured at interval or ratio level
Not suitable for purely ordinal data.
[Link] the strength and direction of relationships
Used in education, psychology, business, health, and social sciences.
[Link] and analytical studies
Often used before regression analysis to check linear association.
When Pearson’s r Is NOT Appropriate
• When variables are ordinal or ranked only
• When the relationship is monotonic but not linear
• When extreme outliers distort the linear pattern
• In these cases, Spearman’s rank correlation is more
appropriate.
Definition
• Spearman Rank-Order Correlation, denoted by ρ (rho), measures the
strength and direction of the monotonic relationship between two variables
based on their ranked values.
• A monotonic relationship means that as one variable increases, the other
variable either consistently increases or consistently decreases.
• The value of ρ ranges from −1 to +1:
• ρ = +1 → perfect positive correlation
• ρ = −1 → perfect negative correlation
• ρ = 0 → no correlation
Formula
• When there are no tied ranks, Spearman’s rho is computed using the formula:
6Σ𝑑2
𝜌 =1−
𝑛(𝑛2 − 1)
• Where:
ρ = Spearman rank correlation coefficient
d = difference between the ranks of each pair
∑d2= sum of the squared rank differences
n = number of paired observations
Steps in Computing Spearman
Correlation
[Link] the data for each variable separately.
[Link] the difference d between
corresponding ranks.
[Link] each difference to obtain d2.
[Link] the sum ∑d2.
[Link] the values into the formula and
compute ρ.
Strength of Correlation
rho Value Strength
0.90 to 1.00 Very Strong Positive
0.70 to 0.89 Strong Positive
0.40 to 0.69 Moderate Positive
0.10 to 0.39 Weak Positive
0 No correlation
–0.10 to –0.39 Weak Negative
–0.40 to –0.69 Moderate Negative
–0.70 to –0.89 Strong Negative
–0.90 to –1.00 Very Strong Negative
When to Use Spearman Rank-
Order Correlation
Spearman correlation is most appropriate when:
• Data are ordinal (ranked data such as class rank, survey ratings, or
preference order).
• The relationship is monotonic but not linear.
• Data are not normally distributed.
• Outliers are present, making Pearson correlation unreliable.
• Exact numerical differences are not meaningful, but order is
important.
When to Use Spearman Rank-
Order Correlation
Appropriate
Relationship Type Pattern
Correlation
Linear Straight line Pearson r
Curved but one
Monotonic, not linear Spearman ρ
direction
Increases then
Non-monotonic Neither
decreases
Comparison with Pearson
Correlation
Aspect Spearman ρ Pearson r
Type Nonparametric Parametric
Data Ranked / Ordinal Interval / Ratio
Relationship Monotonic Linear
Sensitive to Outliers No Yes
Uses Raw Values No Yes