Inheritance

Chromosomes, Genes and Proteins

• Chromosomes: made of DNA, which contains genetic information in the

form of genes

• Gene: a length of DNA that codes for a protein

• Allele: an alternative form of a gene

• Inheritance of sex in humans is used with X and Y chromosomes.

• Haploid nucleus: a nucleus containing a single set of unpaired

chromosomes (e.g., sperm and egg)

• Diploid nucleus: a nucleus containing two sets of chromosomes (e.g., in

body cells)

• The sequence of bases in a gene determines the sequence of amino acids

used to make a specific protein.

• Different sequences of amino acids give different shapes to protein

molecules.

DNA and Protein Synthesis

DNA: controls cell function by controlling the production of proteins, including

enzymes, membrane carriers, and receptors for neurotransmitters

• DNA has 2 long strands and 4 nucleotides, AT and CG

• mRNA has AU and CG bases

• Overall, protein synthesis occurs outside of the nucleus in the cytoplasm

• Protein synthesis has two stages:

o Transcription (rewriting the base code of DNA into bases of mRNA)

o Translation (using mRNA base sequence to build amino acids into a

sequence in a protein)

• How proteins are made:

o the gene coding for the protein remains in the nucleus

o messenger RNA (mRNA) is a copy of a gene

 o mRNA molecules are made in the nucleus and move to the cytoplasm

o the mRNA passes through ribosomes

o the ribosome assembles amino acids into protein molecules

o the sequence determines the specific order of amino acids of bases

in the mRNA

• All body cells in an organism contain the same genes, but many genes in a
particular cell are not expressed because the cell only makes the specific
proteins it needs

Cell Division: Mitosis

Mitosis: The nuclear division gives rise to genetically identical cells

• Mitosis is needed for:

o Growth: in animals, each tissue provides its own new cells when
needed.

o Repair damaged tissues: for example, when you cut your skin, mitosis
provides new cells to cover up cuts.

o Replacement of worn-out cells

o Asexual reproduction: in plants

• The exact replication of chromosomes occurs before mitosis

• During mitosis, the copies of chromosomes separate, maintaining the

chromosome number in each daughter cell

Stem Cells: unspecialised cells that divide by mitosis to produce daughter cells
that can become specialised for specific functions
 Cell Division: Meiosis

Meiosis: Reduction division in which the chromosome number is halved from

diploid to haploid

• Meiosis is involved in the production of gametes.

• Meiosis results in genetic variation, so the cells produced are not all
genetically identical.

• Gametes such as sperm and ovum are produced via meiosis.

Monohybrid Inheritance

Inheritance: The transmission of genetic information from generation to generation.

• Here are some common terminologies you should know to understand

monohybrid inheritance.

Terminologies

• Genotype: the genetic makeup of an organism in terms of the alleles present

(e.g. Tt or GG)

• Phenotype: the observable features of an organism (e.g. tall plant or green

seed)

genotype + environment + random variation → phenotype

• Homozygous: having two identical alleles of a particular gene (e.g. TT or gg).

Two identical homozygous individuals that breed together will be pure-
breeding

• Heterozygous: having two different alleles of a particular gene (e.g. Tt or Gg),

not pure-breeding

• Dominant: an allele that is expressed if it is present (e.g. T or G)

• Recessive: an allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant allele
of the gene present (e.g. t or g)

Pedigree Diagram

• Pedigree diagrams trace the inheritance pattern of a specific characteristic

(usually a disease) through generations of a family.

• Pure Breeding: The individual is homozygous for that characteristic

• This can determine the probability that someone in the family will inherit the
genetic disorder.

Genetic Diagrams

• Monohybrid Inheritance can be determined using a genetic diagram known

as a Punnett square.

• A Punnett square diagram shows the possible combinations of alleles that

could be produced in the offspring.

• The dominant allele is shown using a capital letter, and the recessive
allele uses the same letter but lowercase.

• If you are asked to use your own letters to represent the alleles in a Punnett
square, try to choose a letter that is obviously different as a capital than the
lowercase so the examiner is not left doubt as to which is dominant and
which is recessive.

1:1 Monohybrid Crosses

• In this cross, there is a 1:1 ratio of boy to girl, meaning a 50% chance of the
offspring being a boy and a 50% chance of the offspring being a girl.
3:1 Monohybrid Crosses

• There is more variation in this cross, with a 3:1 ratio of brown eyes: blue eyes,
meaning each offspring has a 75% chance of having brown eyes and a 25%
chance of having blue eyes

Example: Inheritance of flower colour

• Let the Purple flower (P) be dominant, and the White flower (p) be recessive
 • First Cross (Parent Generation): Parent 1 (PP) x Parent 2 (pp)

o All offspring will be Pp, which are all purple flowers

o This is the F1 generation

• Second cross: Pp x Pp

o Possible Allele Combinations:

▪ PP (homozygous dominant)

▪ Pp (heterozygous)

▪ pp (homozygous recessive)

o Phenotypes

▪ 3 Purple-flowered plants (PP, Pp, Pp)

▪ 1 White-flowered plant (pp)

Modification of Mendelian Genetics

Codominance

Codominance: a condition where two alleles of a gene are equally dominant (50%)

• Both alleles are equally expressed in the phenotype of the heterozygote.

• For example, if the parent phenotype is red and white, a co-dominant will
have both red and white colour in the offspring.

ABO Blood Group (Codominance and Multiple Allele)

• Inheritance of blood group is an example of codominance

• There are three alleles for the blood group given by the symbols IA, IB and IO.

• IA and IB are co-dominant giving blood group AB or IAIB, and both dominant to
IO.
 Sex-Linked Characteristics

Sex-linked characteristic: a characteristic in which the gene responsible is located

on a sex chromosome, making it more common in one sex than in the other.

• Generally, in the IGCSE syllabus, the most common is X-linked recessive

trait.

• X-linked recessive disorders are more common in males than in females.

Syllabus 17.4.18: You must be able to use genetic diagrams to predict the results of
monohybrid crosses involving codominance or sex linkage and calculate phenotypic
ratios.