Light

Light travels in wave-packets like photons, thus displaying the characteristics of both
particles and waves.
Light is a stream of photons which travel in straight lines called rays at a speed of 3 x
8 2
10 m/ s . Light rays in reality do not come in the form of arrows, but on diagrams light
rays are drawn with arrows to show the direction in which light is travelling. A bundle
of rays is known as a beam of light

A parallel beam Divergent beam

Convergent rays
An object that gives out light on its own is called a luminous body, e.g.) the sun, a
lighted candle and a filament lamp. Conversely, an object that does not give light on
its own is called a non-luminous body, e.g.) a table a picture, a book etc. the eye is
able to see a luminous body due to the light emitted by it which enters the eye
directly. The non-luminous bodies are seen by the eye when light from the luminous
body falls on them and is reflected to the eye, if there is no light from the luminous
body then no object will be seen. That is why it is difficult to see at night.
a) Reflection of light
When light strikes an object several things may happen. Firstly the light may be
absorbed by the object. A piece of rough dark cardboard or black body will absorb all
the light which falls on it. This energy in this light is changed to internal energy in the
absorbing substance. Secondly, the light maybe reflected (bounce back) with regular
or spectacular reflection. The reflection of light from a shiny surface such as a mirror
is regular and the beam which leaves the mirror surface is similar to the beam
striking it. when we look along this reflected beam towards the mirror we feel as if we
are looking directly at the source and we do not see the mirror surface, this is why
the word is spectacular is the alternative word for this kind of reflection. Thirdly the
light maybe reflected by rough surface such as clothes or paper with diffused or
scattered reflection. Each small part of such a surface reflects light in a different
direction, so a beam of light falling from the source onto such a surface is scattered
through a wide range of angles. The picture below shows the three things that
happen when light falls on an object. However note that the three things above are
by no means exhaustive.
Properties of images on Plane mirrors
 It is virtual this means that it is not really there a virtual image cannot be
formed on a screen and is produced by rays, which appears to come from it
but does not pass through it. A real image is one which can be produced on a
screen (as in a pinhole camera) and is formed by rays that actually pass
through it
 It is the same size as the object
 It is the same distance behind the mirror as the object in front of the mirror
and the line joining the object and the image is perpendicular to the mirror.
 It is laterally inverted the left and the right side of the image appear to be
interchanged.
 It is upright. The image is right way up as it is not upside down.

b) Refraction
Rays of light can travel through certain materials such as glass air water and vacuum
these materials are called transparent. Materials which do not allow light to pass
through them are called opaque. When light travels from one transparent medium to
another its speed and direction changes. This process is called refraction. When a
ray of light travels from air (optically more denser medium) its speed is reduced and
changes direction (i.e. it bends) similarly when a ray of light travels from water or
glass (optically more denser medium) into air (optically less denser medium) its
speed Is increased and changes direction (i.e. it bends). In a vacuum and air, light
travels at almost the speed of 3 x 108 m/ s2 in other media such as water and glass,
light travels slower e.g.) the speed of light in water is approximately 2.2 x 108 m/ s2.
Real and apparent depth
A bending of light can give you a false impression of depth. A swimming pool
appears less deep than it really is and a pencil looks bend when it is placed in water.
These are all effects of refraction.

real depth
Refractive index (n) =
apparent depth

speed of light ∈a vacuum

Refractive index (n) =
speed of light ∈ a medium

sine of angle of incidence

Refractive index (n) =
sine of angle of refraction

Properties of images refracted

 The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal all lie in the same plane i.e.
can be drawn on a piece of paper
 The incident ray, the refracted ray are on opposite sides of the normal at a
point of incidence.
 The light is bent towards the normal when it enters an optically denser
medium at an angle e.g.) from air to glass so the angle of refraction r is less
than the angle of incidence i.
 Light is bent away from the normal when it enters an optically less dense
medium e.g. from glass to air so r is greater than i

C) Lenses
A lens is a trans-missive optical device that focuses or disperses light beams
using refraction
Lenses consist of pieces of glass whose surfaces are sections of a sphere of
varying thickness from the middle to the edges
There are used in spectacles to correct defects of vision and enable people to
see to comfortable. There are also used in optical microscopes for looking at
objects too small to be seen by the naked eye. Furthermore, lenses are also used
in telescope and prism binoculars for seeing distant objects and in cameras and
film projectors. Lenses have been used to concentrate light since ancient times
and they were called burning glasses.

Types of lenses

Concave lens/Diverging lens

 Convex lens/Converging lens

Refraction of light through triangular Prism

When you pass light through a parallel- side block of glass, the direction in which it
emerges is not changed. If the block of glass is triangular prism (Perspex glass
block) then the sides are at an angle to each other and the direction of travel is
changed. The light is deviated away from its original direction. This is quite different
from refraction through a parallel-sided block where the emergent ray is parallel to
the incident ray. This is best shown using a prism with 60° angles. If light of a single
colour is shone through the prism, it is refracted towards the normal at (M) and away
from the normal when it leaves the prism at (N).
If white light is shone through the prism the effect is quite spectacular. The white light
is split up into colours of the rainbow. This shows that white light is not a single
colour but is made up from the colours of the spectrum. The glass of the prism has a
slightly different index for different wavelengths of light.
The splitting of white light into its colours in this way is called dispersion and the
spread of colours is called a spectrum.
White light passing through a prism produces a light of different colours. Light that is
made up of one colour is called a monochromatic light.
d) Electromagnetic spectrum
The EM spectrum is a range of frequencies that corresponds to all different forms of
electromagnetic radiation in the universe. It begins at the highest frequencies, where
the waves are most stretched out (low frequency) to very tightly packed waves (high
frequency).
Characteristics of electromagnetic waves
 All electromagnetic waves are transverse waves travelling in straight lines at
the speed of light through a vacuum at 3 x 108 m/ s2
 They obey the wave equation c=f λ where c is the speed of light in a vacuum f
is frequency and λ is the wavelength. As c is constant, it follows that the
higher the frequency of a wave the shorter its length.
 They all carry the energy from one place to another and can be absorbed by
matter to cause heating and other effects, the higher the frequency, the
greater the energy carried
 All electromagnetic waves undergo interference, diffraction and polarization
which shows there are progressive transverse ways.

The electromagnetic spectrum can be depicted as follows:

Let us look into the uses of electromagnetic waves in our daily life.

Radio: A radio basically captures radio waves that are transmitted by radio stations.
Radio waves can also be emitted by gases and stars in space. Radio waves are
mainly used for TV/mobile communication.

Microwave: This type of radiation is found in microwaves and helps in cooking at

home/office. It is also used by astronomers to determine and understand the
structure of nearby galaxies and stars.

Infrared: It is used widely in night vision goggles. These devices can read and
capture the infrared light emitted by our skin and objects with heat. In space, infrared
light helps to map interstellar dust.

X-ray: X-rays can be used in many instances. For example, a doctor can use an X-
ray machine to take an image of our bones or teeth. Airport security personnel use it
to see through and check bags. X-rays are also given out by hot gases in the
universe.

Gamma-ray: It has a wide application in the medical field. Gamma-ray imaging is

used to see inside our bodies. Interestingly, the universe is the biggest gamma-ray
generator of all.

Ultraviolet: The Sun is the main source of ultraviolet radiation. It causes skin
tanning and burns. Hot materials that are in space also emit UV radiation.
Visible: Visible light can be detected by our eyes. Light bulbs, stars, etc., emit visible
light.

Spectroscopy: Spectroscopy is used to study the way different electromagnetic

waves interact with matter.

We can learn about a substance by analysing the EM spectrum given by it. When
light scatters or passes through matter, it tends to interact with molecules and atoms.
Since atoms and molecules have resonance frequencies, they directly interact with
those light waves having the exact frequencies. When collisions occur in an excited
state, the atoms and molecules emit light with a certain set of characteristic
frequencies. This further results in a line spectrum. Here, only light with detached
wavelengths is produced. The spectrum is also not continuous, but it consists of a
set of emission lines.

In cases where light with continuous wavelengths passes through a low-density

material, the atoms and molecules of the material will absorb light waves with the
same set of characteristic frequencies. This results in the production of the
absorption spectrum, which is a nearly continuous spectrum with missing lines.

Significance of the Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic waves in these different bands have different characteristics

depending upon how they are produced, how they interact with matter and their
practical applications. Maxwell’s equations predicted the existence of an infinite
number of frequencies of electromagnetic waves, all travelling with the speed of light.
This is the first indication of the existence of the entire electromagnetic spectrum.

Nonetheless, the main significance of the electromagnetic spectrum is that it can be

used to classify electromagnetic waves and arrange them according to their different
frequencies or wavelengths.

Practical Applications of Electromagnetic Waves

● The radio waves and microwaves discovered by Hertz paved the way for wireless
television, radio and mobile communication.

● The visible light portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is the reason for all visual
aids in daily life. This is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that helps us to
see all objects, including colours.

● The X-rays discovered by Roentgen proved to be useful in medicine for detecting

many ailments or deformities in bones.
● The high ultraviolet radiation has energies to ionise the atoms causing chemical
reactions.

● The gamma rays discovered by Paul Villard are useful for ionisation purposes and
nuclear medicine.

Formulas for the Electromagnetic Radiation

The frequency (f), speed(c), energy (E) and wavelength (λ) of electromagnetic waves
are related as