2012 E.

C DEBRETABOR UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

Chapter one

Introduction to computer

1.1 Overview of Computer and Information Technology

A computer is an electronic machine, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own memory
that can accept data, manipulate the data according to specified rules, produce results, and store the results
for future use. Computers process data to create information.

Data- is a collection of facts, unprocessed datum. It cannot give a meaning by itself. When symbols
(numbers, pictures, figures etc.) are represented based on a certain rules and standards, it forms data. Data
is an input for information system.
Information-is a processed data that has a meaning to its users. It is informative about something.
Information needs cognitive states of its users i.e. demands awareness of data.

Data Computer Information

Fig. 1.1 shows how data is converted into information

 What is information technology?

Information Technology (IT) is a generic term that covers the acquisition, processing, storage and
dissemination of information.

It involves the application of computers and communication technology in the task of information handling
from the generation to the utilization levels.

It is also a set of tools, processes, and methodologies such as programming, data communications, data
conversion, storage and retrieval, System analysis and design, system control and associated equipment
employed to collect, process and present information.

IT encompasses all forms of technology to create, store, exchange information (such as business data,
video, audio, images, motion pictures, etc.) with high-speed communications links.

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Information Technology has been defined differently by different people, some of them are:-

• IT, as defined by the Information Technology Association of America (ITAA), is "the study, design,
development, implementation, support or management of computer-based information systems,
particularly software applications and computer hardware." It deals with the use of electronic
computers and computer software to convert, store, protect, process, transmit and retrieve information,
securely.
• The British Department of Industry considers IT as science of information handling, particularly by
computers, used to support the communication of knowledge in technical, economic and social fields.
It defines IT as, “the acquisition, processing, storage and dissemination of vocal, pictorial, textual and
numerical information by microelectronics based combination of computing and telecommunication”.
• UNESCO defines IT, “Scientific technology and engineering disciplines and the management
techniques used in information handling and processing their application, computers and their
interaction with men and machines and associated social, economic and cultural matters”

1.2 History and Generations of computer

The history of computer development is often referred to the different generations of computing devices.
Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development that fundamentally
changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, and more powerful, and
more efficient and reliable devices. Therefore computers passes so many generations to
1. First Generation (1940-1956): Vacuum Tubes
The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were
often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to
using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.
The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices.
2. Second Generation (1956-1963): Transistors
Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The
transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster,
cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors.
3. Third Generation (1964-1971): Integrated Circuits
The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.
Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically
increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
4. Fourth Generation (1971-Present): Microprocessors:
The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits
were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now
fit in the palm of the hand.
5. Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond): Artificial Intelligence:
Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence , are still in development,
though there are some applications, such as voice recognition , that are being used today. The use
of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.

 Assignment 1:- Write the major technologies and changes take place in each
generation history of computers.

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1.3 Characteristics of computer

The characteristics of computers that have made them so powerful and universally useful are speed,
accuracy, diligence, versatility and storage capacity. Let us discuss them briefly.
 Speed: - A computer is a very fast device and works at an incredible speed. A powerful computer is
capable of performing about 3-4 million simple instructions per second. Their speed is measured by
the amount of time it took to perform or carry out a basic operation. Computer speed measured in
terms of microsecond (10-6 one millionths), nanosecond (10-9 one billionths), and Pico second (10-12
one trillionths).
 Accuracy: - computers are accurate. Unless there is an error in the input data or unreliable program
the computer processes with a very high accuracy.
 Diligence: - Unlike human beings, computers are highly consistent. They do not suffer from human
traits of boredom and tiredness resulting in lack of concentration. Computers, therefore, are better than
human beings in performing voluminous and repetitive jobs and can work for hours without creating
any error and without grumbling.
 Versatility: - Computers are versatile machines and are capable of performing any task as long as it
can be broken down into a series of logical steps. The presence of computers can be seen in almost
every sphere – Railway/Air reservation, Banks, Hotels, Weather forecasting and many more.
 Automatic: - Once necessary information and program is fed, the computer performs processing
without human intervention.
 Storage capacity: - Today’s computers can store large volumes of data. A piece of information once
recorded (or stored) in the computer, can never be forgotten and can be retrieved almost
instantaneously. And the time it took to retrieve or process single information is not more than a micro
or nanoseconds.
 Power of Remembering: - A computer can store and recall huge amount of information because of its
secondary storage capability.
 No I.Q:- A computer is not a magical device. It can only perform tasks that a human being can. The
difference is that it performs these tasks with unthinkable speed and accuracy. It possesses no
intelligence of its own. Its I.Q. is zero. It has to be told what to do and in what sequence. Hence, only
the user can determine what tasks a computer will perform.
 No Feelings: - Computers are devoid of emotion. They have no feelings and no instincts because they
are machines. Computers cannot make judgments on their own. Their judgment is based on the
instructions given to them in the form of programs that are written by us.

In general a computer has a capacity to store a very large amount of information in organized manner so
that accessing information is very fast.

1.4 Computers Vs Human beings

Humans have rather poor memory, he needs certain support apart from his abilities and capacities. Because
of poor memory and mental tiredness humans lack in accuracy, speed, and reliability, that is why, human
needs computer as their additional support.

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Differences between Human Attitude and computer Attitudes

Human Computer
Can Think Cannot think by itself
Gets Mental Tiredness Never gets Tiredness
May do mistake Can’t do mistake by itself
Has limited speed Very High Speed
Has limited Memory More Amount of memory
Accuracy may be missing Never missing

“Human can do anything computer can do but a computer cannot do everything a human can do” is a true
statement based on the following table.
Operations Performed by a Computer Corresponding Actions Performed by a Human
Hold instruction in internal storage Remember a set of instructions
Read data in machine readable form Read data in written or printed form and memorize it or
file it.
Perform arithmetic Computations Can perform arithmetic operations
Make comparisons Can make comparisons
Retrieve any data from internal memory or Remember data or retrieve data from file
secondary storage
Output the results on an output device Speak or Write the result on paper
1.5 Classification of Computers
Computers can be classified into different categories based on different characteristics.
1. Based on type of data they process

Based on the type of data they process computers can be classified as:
✓ Analog computers
✓ Digital computers
✓ Hybrid computers
Analog
Analog computers operate by measuring physical properties. They deal with continuous variables; they
don’t compete directly with numbers, rather, they operate by measuring physical magnitude such as
pressure, temperature, voltage, current etc.
Examples: Thermometer, Voltmeter, Speedometer

Digital

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Digital computers deal with discrete variables; they operate by counting rather than measuring. They operate
directly up on numbers (or digits) that represent numbers, letters, or other special symbols.
Examples: Abacus, Desk & pocket calculators, general purpose computers
Hybrid
Hybrid computers inherit the best features of both analog and digital computers. Usually the Input is
continuous data (analog). Since Digital Processing is more accurate, processing takes place digitally. The
processed information – the output – could be either digital or analog, depending on the user preference or
the type of application.
Examples: digital camera, health monitoring machines in some hospitals,
2. Based on Size, Capacity and price
Size and capacity are also the other characteristics of computers that can be used to categorize computers.
Based on these characteristics computers can be classified as:
Super computer
The term supercomputer has been coined to describe a category of extremely powerful computer designed
for high-speed processing. A supercomputer is generally characterized as being the fastest, most powerful,
and most expensive computer.
Generally, Supercomputers are:
➢ The largest and the most efficient computers
➢ Very expensive
➢ very fast and
➢ Supports hundreds of users at different locations
Mainframe computer
Mainframe computers are large, powerful computers that are physically larger than micros and minis and
usually have processors with faster instruction processing speeds. For example, they may be able to process
from 10 to 200 million instructions per second (MIPS). Mainframe computers also support multiple users
and are expensive.
Mini computer
Minicomputers are midrange computers that are larger and more powerful than most microcomputers but
are smaller and less powerful than mainframe computer systems. Minicomputers are being used for a large
number of business and scientific applications. They are popularly used in scientific laboratories, research
centers, universities and colleges, engineering firms, industrial process monitoring and control, etc.
Micro computers
The smallest computers ever produced in the history of computers are microcomputers. Since they are
designed to be used by a single user, they have the least capacity as compared to the other types of
computers. They are also the least expensive of all types. There two different types of microcomputers are
desktop computers and portable computers (laptops, notebook computers and palmtops)

3. Classification by purpose of application

Computers can be applied or used for different purposes. Based upon their application, they are classified
as special purpose or general purpose computers.

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1. Special purpose computers: - They are designed to solve a single type of problem (task), that is their
components and their functions are uniquely adapted to a specific situation involving specific
application.

Example:
 The public telephone box
 Traffic control system
 Ticket machines (used in grocery, super market etc.)
 Pocket-calculators etc.
 Most analog computers are special purpose computers.
Special purpose computers:
 Designed to perform one specific task
 Instructions is built into, or permanently stored in the machine
 Specialization results in the given task being performed very quickly and efficiently
 It is inflexible and cannot be easily used to perform other operations.
 Past, it was expensive.
2. General purpose computers

They are designed to solve variety of problems (purposes) through the use of “store program concept”.
A program or set of instructions designed to solve a problem is read and stored into the memory and
then executed by the computer one by one. The same computer can be applied to solve another set of
problem using different program. General computers are more flexible and versatile. For example, the
personal computers (PCs) currently in wide use are general-purpose computers.
✓ A general purpose computer is one that has the ability to store different programs of instructions
✓ Performs a variety of operations
✓ It is designed to do a wide variety of jobs rather than perform a specific activity.
✓ It is also called personal computers (PC’s)
1.6 Limitation of computers
Computers have the following limitations:-
1. Cannot decide how to be programmed
2. Does not provide its own inputs, unless people provide with the input
3. Interpretation of data and implementation of decision is left for human beings
4. Unlike human beings, computers are incapable to:
• Think
• Create
• Judge and
• Motivated
1.7 Application of Computer
➢ Why we use computers?

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What do we usually think of when we hear the word computer? Well most of us think that it is some kind
of a machine that just simply calculations, make and run programs and that's it. The computer is one of the
best inventions that anyone has ever come up with, why our whole world is practically run by them. From
the increasing use of computers in our lives, we might expect a totally computerized future, as these
machines can perform tasks, better and faster, that even a human being cannot do. These tasks are related
to different fields, which directly or indirectly have a great impact on our livings, but without the use of
these computers, it would have been extremely difficult or even impossible for us to perform them. The
importance of computers in our lives today is almost an essential key part of the way our lifestyles have
evolved. The followings are some of the capabilities and potential of computers that are reasons for using
computers:

 To store and process large amount of information with high speed and accuracy;
 To transmit information across continents via communication channels;
 To perform complex mathematical computations and make comparisons;
 To perform repetitive process with great ease, speed and reliability;
 For research purposes;
 For diagnostic purposes;
 For weather forecasts etc.

Some Application areas of computers

Computer can be applied in the following areas:-
a. Commercial or business applications
Covers the use of computers for office work, administrative, production and business use.
Examples are:
✓ Text processing
✓ Accounting and Finance management
✓ Inventory control
✓ Database management
✓ Statistical analysis
b. Scientific, Engineering and Research applications
Using computers for scientific research, complex mathematical calculations, design work, and analysis and
control of physical systems.
Examples are:
✓ Space technology
✓ Meteorological observatory systems
✓ Astronomical investigations
✓ Design of machines and
✓ Control of manufacturing process
✓ Nuclear control systems

c. Computers in education
✓ For instruction and administration purpose.
✓ Can guide a user through a course of instruction.

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✓ Can guide /provide instruction and ask questions of the user.

✓ CAE (Computer Assisted Education), online teaching, training, conferencing, and distance
learning are good examples of computer applications in the fields of education.
d. Computers in Medicine
✓ Used as an aid to medical research by analyzing data produced from the trial of drugs.
✓ Used as an aid for diagnosis.
✓ Used to hold details of patients (to maintain detailed records of the medical history of
patients)
✓ Medical imaging is the process of creating a picture of the inside of a human (or animal)
body. Ex X-rays
e. Computers in manufacturing
✓ Stock and production control
✓ Engineering design
✓ Design, manufacturing and testing processes are all in computerized.
f. Computers in Biology
✓ Biological simulations, like molecular scale the design of therapeutic drugs, predictions of
protein structure or microscopic exercises
✓ Collection and analysis of biological data
✓ Bioinformatics: It involves using computers in the analysis of DNA, RNA and protein
sequences. It is part of a larger field of biology called Computational Biology.
✓ Implantable device that is mainly used for tasks like monitoring the body’s activities or
inducing therapeutic effects, all at the molecular or cellular level.
Review questions
1. Define the term computer and IT.
2. Differentiate computer generations based on the characteristics.
3. State types of computers.
4. List and explain the computer characteristics.
5. What are the applications of your mobile?
6. What are the applications areas of computers?
7. List some limitations of computers.

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Chapter two

Organization of Computer Systems

2.1 What are Computer systems?

Recall from your previous studies that you know systems like Digestive system, Circulatory system and so
on. What similarity can you understand from these systems? For example, digestive system is composed of
a group of components like mouth, stomach, and intestine and so on. You can also see that the output of one
of the components will become the input of the other component. For example, in digestive system, mouth
partly digests, lubricates and pushes the food to the stomach as input. The stomach then performs digestion
and sends its output to the intestine which in turn does the same. From this you can understand that the
components work together in coordination in such a way that the input of one component is the output of
the other until a common goal is achieved. For example: in digestive system, the common goal is digestion
of food. Likewise, a computer system is also composed of physical components (hardware) and non-
physical component (software) that work together in coordination to achieve a common goal (data
processing).
In general, a system is a group of components that work together in coordination to achieve a common goal.

Generally, a computer system is composed of two main components:

1. Computer hardware and
2. Computer software
2.2 Computer Hardware
Computer hardware is the physical part of the computer system that can be seen and felt. The hardware part
of a computer system is composed of a number of interacted physical parts. E.g. keyboard, mouse, CPU

2.2.1 Types of Computer Hardware

The hardware part of a computer system is composed of a number of interacting physical parts based on the
need of the information flow. Information flows in the computer hardware. There are several criteria by
which computer hardware can be categorized.
Based on information processing, we can divide computer hardware into four:
i) Input devices
ii) Storage devices
iii) Output devices
iv) Processing devices (CPU)

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i) Input Devices
Input devices are used to enter data into computer. They convert the data we given to them into the form
that can be manipulated in the computer (electronic format).
Some examples of input devices are Keyboard, mouse, scanner, Bar Code Reader, mice, etc.
ii) Central Processing Unit
CPU executes instructions and performs the computer's processing activities. It is also known as processor
or microprocessor. It functions the same purpose as the human brain for human being. It is called the brain
of the computer.
One of the basic features of a computer that affects its entire performance is the CPU speed. CPU speed is
measured in Hertz (Hz).
CPU has three sub-components:
✓ Control Unit (CU)
✓ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
✓ Memory
Control Unit: - It controls the overall operations of the computer system. As human brain controls the body,
control unit controls the computer hardware. Control Unit does not execute instruction by itself, i.e. does
not carry out instruction processing, but it directs other processing elements to execute instructions.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): The purpose of ALU is to execute instruction. It performs two operations:
✓ Arithmetic operation
✓ Logic Operation
Arithmetic operation: this includes mathematical operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, etc. If you give your computer the instruction 2+3, this will be included in
arithmetic operation and it is executed by Arithmetic Unit.
Logical Operation: this is concerned with the comparison of data and it is called logical operation.
It includes operators like less than, greater than, equal to, less or equal to, greater or equal to, different
from, etc. e.g. if mark>80, grade is 'A'.
Memory (Register) -is the memory found in CPU which store intermediate results of ALU

iii) Output Devices

Output devices are used to get data out of a computer so that it can be examined, analyzed or distributed to
others. It converts information from machine-understandable form to a human understandable form. The
outputs are of two types: Softcopy: displayed on monitor, projector, or similar devices and Hardcopy: printed
on paper
Examples
✓ Monitor or screen
✓ Printers
✓ Plotters
✓ Speaker
✓ LCD projector.

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iv) Storage Devices

One of the unique features of computers is storage. Data can be stored on different storage media temporarily
or permanently. Storage devices can be categorized into to as:
1. Primary storage device
2. Secondary storage device
1. Primary Memory / Main Memory
Primary memory, also called Main memory, refers to integrated circuit that stores program instructions and
data. The CPU closely works with the main memory to perform its activities. Memory stores three things:
✓ Operation system software instructions
✓ Application software instruction
✓ Data that is being processed
Depending on the type of information they store and the technology used, the primary memory can be
categorized into three:
✓ RAM (Random Access Memory)
✓ ROM (Read Only Memory)
a. RAM (Random Access Memory)
✓ Is volatile i.e. if you turn off the computer, the program & information are lost.
✓ Used to temporarily store the programs and data currently being used so that the computer can
quickly accesses the information.
✓ It is read/write memory. I.e. data/ information can be written into or read from any internal memory
address at any time.
b. ROM ( read only memory)
✓ is static, not volatile
✓ Can be read by computer but its contents can’t be changed by the user.
✓ Used to store programs and instructions that the computer frequently needs for its operations.
✓ Its content is not lost when power to the computer is turned off.
2. Secondary Storage
Secondary storage (also called auxiliary storage) supplements the primary memory. They are devices that
permanently hold data and information as well as programs.
Examples:- Floppy disk, Hard disk, Flash disk, Optical disk (CD, DVD, VCD)

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2.3. Computer Software

Computer hardware is directed by a set of instructions. Without these instructions, computers can do
nothing. These set of instructions are called software (also called programs). Software - is a set of
instructions called, a program, which tells the computer how to processes data into appropriate form or
information. We use programming languages to write these instructions. Examples of programming
languages include C, C++, Visual Basic, Java, etc.
Software is categorized into two:
❖ System Software and
❖ Application Software
2.3.1. System Software
System software - is “background” software that helps the computer manage its own internal resources.
Example: Operating systems, Utility software, Language translator software..etc.
Operating system: - is system software that controls and coordinates the use of hardware among the
different application software and users. OS intermediates between the user of computer and the computer
hardware. The users give a command and the OS translates the command into a form that the machine can
understand and execute.

→ Examples of operating systems—MS-DOS, Windows 7, Linux

❖ Functions of OS
Main functions of the operating system are as follows:
 Process management, memory management, file management, device management, protection and
security, user interface

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Device Management— The device management tasks handled by OS are—(1) open, close and write device
drivers, and (2) communicate, control and monitor the device driver.
User Interface or Command Interpreter— Operating system provides an interface between the computer
user and the computer hardware. The user interface is a set of commands or a graphical user interface via
which the user interacts with the applications and the hardware.
Process Management— The process management activities handled by the OS are—(1) control access to
shared resources like file, memory, I/O and CPU, (2) control execution of applications, (3) create, execute
and delete a process (system process or user process), (4) cancel or resume a process (5) schedule a
process.
Memory Management — the activities of memory management handled by OS are—(1) allocate memory,
(2) free memory, (3) re-allocate memory to a program when a used block is freed, and (4) keep track of
memory usage.
File Management— The file management tasks include—(1) create and delete both files and directories,
(2) provide access to files, (3) allocate space for files, (4) keep back-up of files, and (5) secure files.
Protection and Security— OS protects the resources of system. User authentication, file attributes like read,
write, encryption, and back-up of data are used by OS to provide basic protection.
2.3.2. Application Software
Application software performs useful work for the user. These useful works could be:
✓ Word processing-document creation
✓ Spreadsheet-electronic calculation
✓ Data base system
✓ Email/communicating-email sending and reading
Example of Application Software includes:- MS word, Photoshop, Peachtree, Dictionaries, games

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Chapter Three
Data Representation in Computer System

3.1 Data Representation in Computer

Computer stores those data’s in a binary number system.
 Do you think computer understand words as it is?
Every computer stores numbers, letters, & other special characters in a coded form not as it is.
→ Reason to use binary
 The 1st reason is that the electronic & electrical components, by their very nature, operate in a binary
mode. Information is handled in the computer by electronic/electrical components such as
transistors, semiconductors, wires, etc all of which can only indicate 2 states or conditions – on(1)
or off(0). Transistors are either conducting (1) or no conducting (0); a voltage is present (1) or absent
(0) in wire. The binary number system, which has only two digits (0&1), is most suitable for
expressing the two possible states.
 The second reason is that the computer circuits only have to handle two binary digits rather than ten
decimal digits. This greatly simplifies the internal circuit design of computers, resulting in less
expensive & more reliable circuits.
 Finally, the binary system is used because everything that can be done in decimal number system
(addition, subtraction, division & multiplication) can also be done in binary number system.
3.2 Numbering System
➢ There are various numbering systems
a) The Decimal Number System
→ Uses number 10 as its base or radix.
→ It is the most popular form of numbering system which is used by human being.
→ It is also called base-ten system or natural number system.
→ It includes the numbers or digits from 0-9.
 Base is defined as the total number of digits available in the number system

For example, the decimal number 4 8 5 6 is equal to:

Ones
Tens
Hundreds
Thousands
(4 * 10 ) + (8*10 ) + (5 * 101) + (6 * 100)
3 2

The weight of the nth digit of the number from the left of the decimal point is equal to:
o nth digit * 10n-1
The weight of the nth digit of the number from the right of the decimal point is equal to:

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o nth digit * 10-n

Example: 6543.286 = (6 * 104-1) + (5*103-1) + (4*102-1) + (3*101-1) + (2*10-1) + (8*10-2) +
(6*10-3)
= (6 * 103) + (5*102) + (4*101) + (3*100) + (2*10-1) + (8*10-2) +
(6*10-3)
= 6000 + 500 + 40 + 3 + 0.2 + 0.08 + 0.006
= 6543.286
b) Binary number System
→ The most popular form which is understood by the computer.
→ Its radix is 2.
→ It uses two digits i.e. 0 & 1.
→ Sometimes it is also called base-two system.
Example: (101)2, (011100)2, but not (1002)2
c) Octal Number System
→ The base is 8
→ There are only 8 digits: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
→ It was once a popular number base, especially in the digital equipment like old computer systems.
→ It is rarely used today.
Example: (2341)8, (67701)8, but not (1289)8
d) Hexadecimal Number System
→ The base is 16
→ Has 16 single-character digits: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F
Example: (1A)16, (B5CD)16, (0EF)16

❖ A relationship among Binary & other number system

Decimal Hexadecimal Octal Binary

0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 10
3 3 3 11
4 4 4 100
5 5 5 101
6 6 6 110
7 7 7 111
8 8 10 1000
9 9 11 1001
10 A 12 1010
11 B 13 1011
12 C 14 1100
13 D 15 1101
14 E 16 1110
15 F 17 1111
16 10 20 0001 0000

 Group discussion:

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Why do we go for binary numbers instead of decimal numbers?

3.3 Converting from One Number System to Another

1. Converting from another Base to Decimal (base 10)
→ Steps
Step 1:- Determine the positional value of each digit & multiply the obtained positional values by the
digits in the corresponding position.
Step 2:- Sum the products calculated in step 1. The total is the equivalent value in decimal
Example1: Convert (1001001)2 to decimal
Solution: (1001001)2 =1x26+0x25+0x24+1x23+0x22+0x21+1x20
Ans. = 73
Example2: convert (101.1)2 to decimal
Solution: (101.1)2 = 1x22 + 0x21 +1x20+1x2-1
= 1x4 + 0x2 + 1x1 + 1x ½
= 4 + 0 + 1 + 0.5
= 5.5
Example3: Convert (11001.0101)2 to decimal
Solution: 11001 = 1x24 + 1x23 +0x22+0x21+1x20=
16+8+1= 25 (integer part)
0101=0x2-1+1x2-2+0x2-3+1x2-4=
0+¼+0+1/16 = 0.3125 (fraction part)
11001.0101 = (25.3125)10
Ans. (25.3125)10
Example4: Convert (234)8 to decimal
Ans. = (156)10
Example5: Convert (A1B) 16 to decimal
Ans. = (2587)10
2. Converting from Decimal to another Base (Division Remainder Technique)
→ Steps
 Step 1: Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new base.
 Step 2: Record the remainder from step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant digit) of the new
base number.
 Step 3: Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.
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 Step 4: Record the remainder from step 3 as the next digit (to the left)
 Repeat step 3 & 4, recording remainder from right to left until the quotient become zero in step 3.
Note that the last remainder thus obtained will be the most significant digit of the new base number

Example 1: Convert 3010 to base 16 (hex-decimal)

Ans. 3010=(1E)16

Example 2: (35)10= (?)2

Ans. (1000011)2

3. Converting a Decimal Fraction to a fractional in base B

→ Steps
 Step 1: Multiply the given decimal fraction by the base B.
 Step 2: Repeat step 1 using the multiplicand at each step the remaining fraction part is identically
zero, or until as many digit as desired have been generated. The successive integral parts are the
successive digits of the number in base B starting from the most significant end.

Example: convert (4.75)10 in to binary, octal, and hexadecimal.

Solutions:-the integer part is 4 and its binary equivalent is 100. And the fractional part is 0.75 and it can
be converted as:
Process Product Fractional part of the product Integer part of the product
0.75*2 1.5 .5 1 MSD
Write digits

0.5*2 1.0 .0 (proceed b/s of 0) 1 LSD

So, (4.75)10 = (100.11)2
4. Conversion of non-decimal base to another non-decimal base
→ Steps
 Step 1: Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10)
 Step 2: Convert the decimal number to the new base number.

Example: convert (111010)2 to octal.

Solution: Step 1: Convert from base 2 to base 10: (111010)2 = (58)10
Step 2: Convert (58)10 to base 8: (58)10 = (72)8
Thus, (111010)2 = (72)8
NB: direct or 3 bits grouping system is also used to convert the number. (See the table below)

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A brief summary on conversion from one base to another base

[Link] From base To base Method
1 2 10 Expand binary number in powers of 2s
2 10 2 Divide the decimal number by 2 until the reminder becomes zero or impossible
to be divided by 2.
3 2 8 Group 3 binary digits together (preferable) from right to left but you can go from
2→10→8
4 8 2 Each Octal digit is converted to 3 binary digits (preferable and simplest method,
add zeros to the left to complete the triplets) but you can go from 8→10→2
5 2 16 Group 4 binary digits together (preferable and simplest method) but you can go
from 2→10→16
6 16 2 Each hexadecimal digit is converted to 4 binary digits(preferable and simplest
method) but you can go from 16→10→2
7 8 10 Go from 8→2→10 or Expand the octal number in power of 8.
8 10 8 Go from 10→2→8 or divide the decimal number by 8 until the quotient becomes
zero.
9 16 10 Go from 16→2→10 or Expand the hex-decimal number in power of 16.
10 10 16 Go from 10→2→16 or divide the decimal number by 16 until the quotient
becomes zero.
11 8 16 Go from 8→2→16 (preferable and simplest method) but you can go from
8→10→16
12 16 8 Go from 16→2→8 (preferable and simplest method) but you can go from
16→10→8

 Exercises: 1
1. Convert the following numbers to the decimal form.
a. (1001)2 b. (1101.11)2 c. (4603)3 d. (1A81)6
 Solutions
1. a. (1101)2 = 1*23 + 1*22 + 0*21 + 1*21
=8+4+0+1
= 13
b. (1001.11)2 = 1*23 + 0*22 + 0*21 + 1*21 + 1*2-1 + 1*2-2
1 1
=8+0+0+1+ +
2 4
= 9.75
c. (4603)3 = 4*83 + 6*82 + 0*81 + 3*80
= 2048 + 384 + 0 + 3
= 2435
d. (1A8)6 = 1*162 + A*161 + 8*160
= 424

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1 Find the value of y if (123y)16= (11074)8

Solution
1x163 + 2x162 + 3x161 +yx160 = 1x84 + 1x83 +0x82 +7x81 +4x80
 1x4096 + 2x256 + 3x16 + yx1 = 4668
 4096 + 512 + 48 +y = 4668
 4656 + y = 4668
 y = 4668 – 4656
 y =12
 y=C
2 Find the value of y if (1110)3=(124)y
Solution 1x33 + 1x32 + 1x31 + 0x30 = 1xy2 + 2xy1 + 4xy0
 1x27 + 1x9 +1x3 + 0x1 = y2 + 2y + 4

 27 + 9 + 3 + 0 = y2 + 2y + 4

 y2 + 2y + 4-39 = 0

 y2 + 2y - 35 = 0

 (y – 5) (y + 7) = 0

 y = 5 or y = -7

Therefore, since the base cannot be negative, the answer is y = 5

 Exercise: 2
1. For the following exercises, convert from the given base to the required base.

No. Question Answer

1. 192 to base 2
2. 192 to base 8
3. 192 to base 16
4. (1110.11)2 to decimal
5. (100010101110.11011101)2 to octal
6. (100010101110.11011101)2 to hexadecimal
7. (ABEBE)16 to decimal
8. (ABEBE)16 to binary
9. (ABEBE)16 to octal
10. ( 256)2 to octal
11. (256.75)10 to binary
12. (256.75)10 to hexadecimal
13. (29y)16 = 672

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Chapter - Four

Data Communication and Computer Network

4.1 Data communication Basics

Definition: Data communication is a process of sharing ideas, information and messages with others in
particular time and space. Communication includes writing, talking and non-verbal communication (like
facial expressions, visual communications), electronic communications, etc.
It is also the transfer of information from one place to another. It may be manual – one person talks to
another. Or it may be mechanical or electronic gadget or device. Whatever the case, the process of
communication involves the following.
Basic components of communication
→ Source- Generates data to be transmitted
→ Message -Information/data to be transmitted
→ Transmitter- Converts data into transmittable signals
→ Transmission System- A communication Equipment (intermediate device) that carries data
→ Receiver-Converts received signal into data
→ Destination-Takes incoming data
→ Protocol-Rules and standards that govern data communication

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4.2 Data Transmission Channels

A channel is a medium that carries a signal from the transmitter to the receiver. The range of frequencies
that can be transmitted over a transmission medium is called bandwidth of a channel. The rate of data
transmission is directly proportional to the bandwidth.

There are three types of data transmission channels:-

→ Narrow-band: - It is the smaller band and has slow data transmission rate.
Example: Telegraph line
→ Voice- -band: - It is the wider band and has better data transmission rate than the narrow band.
Example, Telephone lines are used for voice-band channel.
→ Broad-band: - It is the widest band has used to transmit large volume of data with high speed.
Example: (Oxide cable such as TV aerial lead), circuits, satellite communication and optical
fibers are used for broad band channels.

4.3 Modes of data transmission

Data transmission process can take three possible modes depending on the direction in which signals flows
between sender and receiver.

Simplex transmission: - In this transmission, signals are transmitted in only one direction: One station is
transmitter and the other is receiver. Simplex channels are not often used because it is not possible to send
back error(s) or control signals to transmitter end. Computers rarely use this mode transmission as a receiver
cannot send an acknowledgement signals. Eg. TV, Radio transmission, doorbell etc

Simplex

Half-duplex transmission: - Transmission is possible in both directions but only one way at a time i.e. both
stations may transmit, but only one at a time. It is possible to perform error detection and request the sender
to retransmit information that arrived corrupted. Eg. Police radio (wacky talky) or talk back radio, Internet
surfing is an example of half-duplex communication. The user issues a request for a web page. The web
page is downloaded and displayed before the user issues another request.

Half Duplex

Full-duplex transmission: - In this transmission, signals transmitted in both direction, both stations may
transmit simultaneously. The medium carries signals in both directions at the same time.
Eg. Telephone

Full Duplex

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4.4 Computer Network

Computers are now found in every walk of life; in home, in the office, in banks, in supermarkets etc. In
earlier days, computers carryout their intended functions in a stand-alone mode. But, today, it becomes
necessary to exchange information with other computers. A standalone is workstation computer that
cannot share information with other computers.

A computer network is a group of computers and associated peripheral devices connected by a

communication channel; capable of sharing files and other resources among several users.
Why Network needs?
• The larger the company, the greater need to share information between offices over a greater
Distance.
• Standalone PC’s are not enough to give all the utilities the user demands.
Because: Standalone PC has only
• Uses a single printer for each PC.
• Use floppies/flash disk to share documents (that is boring & easy to be corrupted)
• No internet connection, etc.
If the computer shown above was to be connected to other computers, then, it could share data with the
other computers or send documents to a printer. This connecting together of computers and other devices is
called a network, and the concept of connected computers sharing resources is called networking. See the
following diagram.

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4.4.1 Benefit of a Computer Network

 Sharing of peripheral devices: Printers, Hard disk drives and Scanners are examples of peripheral
devices. All these devices cannot be connected to each and every computer as they are very expensive.
Hence, these devices can be shared by many users through a network.
 Sharing information/data: Message, Assignment, documents, audio/video, photos using e-mail and
Facebook
 Sharing of Programs: In many organizations, people use almost the same software and access the same
data E.g. word-processors, spreadsheets
 Better Communication: In the digital world, information can be transferred within fraction of a second
over long distances. And one of the greatest features of networks is Electronic Mail (E-Mail) system.
Thus, a company can eliminate the delays encountered with standard postal services or with telephone
tag, by using E-Mail services.
 Centralizing administration/support: Easier to maintain computers if they are all set up in a uniform
manner with the same operating system, etc.
 Security of information: Before networks became a common place, an individual employee was storing
information in his or her desktop computer which was not secured. But today, such data or information
could be backed-up or duplicated on a network storage device, shared by others.

4.4.2 Types of computer Networks

Based on their geographic area coverage they may span, networks could broadly be classified in to
• Local area network (LAN)
• Wide area network (WAN)
• Metropolitan area network (MAN)
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LAN
LAN is a computer network that spans a relatively small area. Most LANs are confined to a single building
or group of buildings. However, one LAN can be connected to other LANs over any distance via telephone
lines and radio waves. A system of LANs connected in this way is called a wide-area network (WAN)
Basic LAN features:
✓ Confined to building group of buildings
✓ It is confined to limited geographical area (< 2km) like with in a building, in lab, in school, etc.
✓ It allows easy access to other computers or peripherals (because there is only short distance between
computers).
✓ It uses higher bandwidth (1 mbps) & cheap cable media like UTP & coaxial.
✓ Ranges from two computers up to 1000 computers with a limited distance

MAN
Metropolitan area network (MAN) covers a much larger area than a LAN and is a public or a private network
used to connect various locations, including the sub urban. Campus networks are the example of a MAN
Basic features:
✓ It covers large geographical areas than LAN such as cities, districts, Regions etc
✓ It is an interconnection of several LANs e.g.: if your organization has several branches in
different cities.
✓ It uses expensive cables (media) – fiber optic.

E.g.: Commercial Bank of Ethiopia from Addis Ababa to other branches in different cities (Adama and
Hawasa branches)

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WAN
A WAN is a computer network that spans a relatively large geographical area. Typically, a WAN consists
millions or more local area networks (LANS) which can communicate to each other and access internet
(global networks)
Computers connected to a wide area network are often connected through public networks, such as the
telephone system. They can also be connected through leased lines or satellites. The largest WAN in
existence is the internet.
Basic features:
✓ The idea of connecting computers within a target Geographical area like between
o Countries & b/n Continents
✓ Uses fiber optic cables, microwaves, & satellite (wireless Technology), Telephone line, modem etc.
o E.g. Global Area network (GAN) Internet
✓ E-mail services and chatting

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✓ Example: Wide area network architecture- global internetworking

4.4.3 Computer Network Configuration

Based on how the computers in a network are configured and how they access information, networks are
classified into two types: peer-to-peer and client-server

Peer-to-Peer Networks
In a peer-to-peer network, there are no dedicated servers, and there is no hierarchy among the computers.
All the computers are equal and therefore are known as peers. Each computer functions as both a client and
a server, and there is no administrator responsible for the entire network. The user at each computer
determines what data on that computer is shared on the network.
Basic features:
• There is no dedicate sever
• All PCs are peers (equal) - No hierarchy
• They all work both as a client & as a server.
• There is no admin & no central storage
• There is no need of Additional Software
• Users at each PC determine their own security and acts as an administrator
• 10 or fewer PCs are connected in this network
The following Figure shows a peer-to-peer network in which each computer functions as both a client and
a server. ( Peer-to-peer network computers act as both clients and servers)

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Advantages of peer to peer network

• Less expensive since it uses visible & cheap cable system (UTP)
• easy to install
• users act as their own Admin, plan their own security

Server-Based Networks: client/server networks

Fundamentally, at any given moment, the computer is either acting as a client or as a server.
A server is a computer that shares its resources across the network, and
A client is a computer that access shared resources.
As a network grows, a peer-to-peer network will probably no longer be able to meet the increased demand
on shared resources. To accommodate the increased demand and provide additional functionality, most
networks have dedicated servers. A dedicated server functions as a server only, not as a client. The
configuration of these servers is optimized to process requests from network clients.
Basic features of server based network
• It is the standard network model
• Optimized to process requests from network clients
• There is dedicated server (workload of individual PCs reduced)
• It has central storage and Admin support
• There is a need of additional software-NOS ( Network operating system), and Server software
Advantage
• security is the main importance
• easy to backup
• Redundancy is available (duplicating the important data into other workstations)
• Supports thousands of users (more 100)

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4.4.4 Network Topologies

A network topology is the arrangement of computers, cables, and other components on a network. It is a
map of the physical network. The most common types of standard physical topologies are Bus, Star, Ring,
Mesh and Hybrid.

1. Bus Topology
In a bus topology, all of the computers in a network are attached to a continuous cable, or segment, that
connects them in a straight line (See Figure below). In this straight-line topology, a packet is transmitted
to all network adapters on that segment.
Advantages of the bus topology are
• Use of cable is economical
• Media is inexpensive and easy to work with
• System is simple and reliable and is easy to extend.
Because of the way electrical signals are transmitted over this cable, the ends of the cable must be terminated
by hardware devices called terminators.
If there is a break anywhere in the cable or if an end is not terminated, the signal will travel back and forth
across the network and all communication will stop.
An increase in the number of computers results in an increase in noise and a corresponding decrease in
network efficiency.

Bus topology

Star Topology
In a star topology, cable segments from each computer on the network are connected to a central component,
or hub (See Figure below). A hub is a device that connects several computers together to form star topology.
In a star topology, signals are transmitted from the computer, through the hub, to all computers on the
network. On a larger scale, multiple LANs can be connected to each other in a star topology.
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An advantage of the star topology is that if one computer on the star topology fails, only the failed
computer is unable to send or receive data. The remainder of the network functions normally.
The disadvantage of using this topology is that because each computer is connected to a hub, if the hub
fails, the entire network fails.

Star topology

Ring Topology
In a ring topology, computers are connected on a single circle of cable (See Figure below).. The signals
travel around the loop in one direction and pass through each computer, which acts as a repeater to boost
the signal and send it to the next computer.

The advantage of a ring topology is that each computer acts as a repeater, regenerating the signal and
sending it on to the next computer, thereby preserving signal strength.

Ring topology

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The method of transmitting data around the ring is called token passing. A token is a special series of bits
that contains control information. Possession of the token allows a network device to transmit data to the
network. Each network has only one token.
The disadvantage of a ring topology is that only one computer at a time can send data on a single token
ring.

Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, each computer is connected to every other computer by a separate cable as shown in
the figure below. This arrangement provides redundant paths through the network so that if one cable
fails, another carries the traffic and the network continues to function.

Mesh topology

Hybrid Topologies
In a hybrid topology, two or more topologies are combined to form a complete network design. Networks
are rarely designed using only one type of topology. For example, you may want to combine a star with a
bus topology to benefit from the advantages of each.
Two types of hybrid topologies are commonly in use: star-bus topology and star-ring topology.

4.4.5 Network Protocols

Like network needs hardware, it also needs software. Because each task in network is governed by a set of
rules called protocols. If the sender and receiver in NW should communicate, they must speak the same
language called protocols (the language).
E.g.: HTTP:-is hypertext transfer protocol which helps to communicate two computers application.
TCP/IP:- Transport control protocol (internet protocol) is the main protocol that helps internet
transmission. Without TCP/ IP, there is NO internet access.

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4.5 Internet and Its Application

The Internet
Internetworking is the term used to define connecting networks. As we need to connect computers to
build a network for resource sharing purposes between computers, we may also need to connect our
networks for the same reason – sharing resources between networks.
Imagine a university where there are small networks in every department that are not connected to each
other. Each department will have its own data about students and applications about their mgt etc. There
is no way data is shared between departments even though there are common stuff between departments
such as student mg’t applications, common courses, finance and administration issues, mail systems,
library applications, university rules and regulations etc.
Internetworking refers to communication between LANs over a LAN and a WAN (between LAN and
LAN, between LAN and WAN) over the internet.

The requirement to share resources is sometimes global. People need to exchange mail, to discuss about
issues, to read news, to advertise, to sell and buy, to exchange information etc. The network of networks
that connects hundreds of thousands of networks, and millions of computers around the world is called the
internet
The Internet is a network of networks that is extended all around the world. It is not owned by anyone
or any institution, but controlled and managed by the internet service provider (ISP), in our case Ethiopian
Telecom.
The Internet is a term used to describe thousands of computers connected with each other spanning over
the world. It is the largest network in existence. It is a network of networks acting as one. It is a
worldwide communication to businesses, homes, schools and governments.
Internet is also acts as a cyberspace (a virtual place that you can do a lot of things like visiting places,
chatting with friends, buying and selling products, advertise products, reading researches, etc).
With internet:
• You can communicate with friends or colleagues.
• You can communicate with one person at a time or thousands.
• You can send & receive files or information over a greater distance.

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Chapter – Five
Computer Safety and Security

5.1 Computer security

Computer security is a branch of computer technology known as information security as applied to
computers and networks. Etc. It is the concept of attaining a secure computing environment (i.e., an ideal
state free from risk or danger) by detecting the vulnerabilities associated with computer use. It is a general
term relating to measures designed to protect computer assets in all configurations. The protection of
information assets can be handled using technology, processes and training.
Computer Security is technique developed to safeguard information and information systems stored on
computers. Potential threats include the destruction of computer hardware and software and the loss,
modification, theft, unauthorized use, observation, or disclosure of computer data.

5.2 Threats of computer Systems

Threat is a source of probable trouble or attack to a system that could cause losses. One of the threats in
computer system is Virus.
Computer Viruses
Computer viruses are software programs that are able to reproduce themselves. It is the intellectual creation
of a human computer programmer. If a program is not able to replicate, then it is not a virus. Most computer
viruses are damaging. Computer virus is a program that is intentionally done to harm users’ program
without permission.

5.3 Techniques to Reduce Security problems

1. Antivirus software is a computer program that detects, prevents, and takes action to disarm or
remove malicious software programs, such as viruses and worms. You can help protect your computer
against viruses by using antivirus software, such as Microsoft Security Essentials.
2. Backup:-In information technology, a backup or the process of backing up refers to making copies
of data so that these additional copies may be used to restore the original after a data loss event. These
additional copies are typically called "backups."
Storing backup copies of software and data and having backup computer and communication capabilities
are important basic safeguards because the data can then be restored if it was altered or destroyed by a
computer crime or accident. Computer data should be backed up frequently and should be stored nearby in
secure locations in case of damage at the primary site. Transporting sensitive data to storage locations
should also be done securely.
Backups are useful primarily for two purposes. The first is to restore a state following a disaster (called
disaster recovery). The second is to restore small numbers of files after they have been accidentally deleted
or corrupted. Data loss is also very common. 66% of internet users have suffered from serious data loss.
3. Data encryption and decryption:-Another technique to protect confidential information is
encryption (Encryption, process of converting messages or data into a form that cannot be read without

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decrypting or deciphering it. The root of the word encryption—crypt—comes from the Greek word
kryptos, meaning “hidden” or “secret.”)
Data encryption is a process in which plaintext data is converted into cipher (SECRET) text so that it cannot
be read. More generally known as “encryption”.
In this process, a perfectly ordinary piece of plaintext which can be read by anyone is converted so that it
can only be read by someone with a key. One of the simplest forms of data encryption is a simple alphabetic
substitution, in which the letters of the alphabet are scrambled to create a key. One could decide, for
example, to shift the letters of the alphabet by five places so that “E” stands for “A,” “F” for “B” and so
forth for a simple key, or the letters could be assigned at random to make a piece of text more difficult to
decipher without the key.
Decryption is the process of extracting the original information from the encrypted data.
4. Passwords: Passwords are confidential sequences of characters that allow approved persons to make
use of specified computers, software, or information.
5.4 Rules for safe computing
These simple rules will protect /secure/ your system from computer virus infection
1. Never load unknown disks into system unless the disks are virus free
2. Do not use infected software (executable files) unless they are free of virus infection
3. Backup your data regularly to protect the data loss from any cause
4. Prevent unauthorized access
5. Lock your computer when not in use
6. Install antivirus program on to your computer and update regularly/configure to update itself
automatically if there is internet connection
Environmental factors
Temperature: integrated circuits and other devices in the computer systems are sensitive to temperature.
During normal operation, the computer generates heat, which is tolerable to the circuitry.
Measures:
• Reset the system if intermittent failure occurs;
• Keep the cooling ventilator cleans
• Keep the system disk in cool and dry place
• If possible install air conditioner in the room
Dust: The static electrical charge that builds up in the computer systems and the monitor attracts dust.
Dust is a major contributor for integrated circuits failure in the system. Electro mechanical devices such as
printers and disk drives have a number of moving parts that get dirty causing overheating and early
failures
Measures:

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• Clean computer systems and its peripherals periodically

• Use dust covers
• Keep computer room windows closed
• No smoking near the system
• Do not touch the surface of disk drives and other internal components
• Clean the inside portion as well as the area with a vacuum cleaner
• Blow the dust in the screen with a pressurized anti-static spray
• Use soft brush to clean the screen and clean the cabinets with mild soap and then dry them with a
piece of soft cloth.

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